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CLIMATE CHANGE, SEA–LEVEL RISE AND COASTAL
BIODIVERSITY OF GHIZO ISLAND (WESTERN
SOLOMON ISLANDS).
by
Mary Margarita Tahu
A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of Masters of Arts in Climate Change
Copyright© 2011 by Mary Margarita Tahu
School of Oceans and Islands
Faculty of Science Technology and Environment
The University of the South Pacific
November, 2011
i
Acknowledgments
My time at USP has been the most inspiring and enjoyable experience. I have many
people, organisations and communities to acknowledge especially for their guidance and
assistance to acquire insights, information, and experiences, which have broadened my
view on the subject as well as overcome the many hurdles that I have encountered
during the course of this thesis writing. I also wish to express my gratitude to God for
his invisible love, provision, strength, and direction that sustained me to complete the
thesis.
My sincere gratitude goes to the University of the South Pacific, particularly the
University Research Committee for the financial support that enabled me to carry out the
research work at Ghizo Island in the Solomon Islands. Besides, the Pacific Centre for
Environment and Sustainable Development for giving me the opportunity to inspire me
with knowledge and skills that contributed largely to this thesis writing.
My sincere gratitude goes to my principal supervisor Professor Randy Thaman, who,
besides his busy schedules, sacrifices his valuable time to go over my thesis. His style,
clarity, honesty, commitment, and criticism have put this thesis writing in a right
perspective and direction. I have learnt a lot from his supervision. Many thanks to the
following people; Dr Cliff Bird, Dr Morgan Wairiu, Dr Helen Des Combe and Dr
Eberhard Weber for making their time available to read the drafts of the chapters. Their
comments and suggestions are valuable contributions to the writing of this thesis. I
would also like to thank my two research assistants, Madelyn Sale and Late Morris Tora
for their extensive assistance during my fieldwork in Ghizo.
I am also indebted to the WWF for the financial support that made it possible for me to
travel to Fiji to finalise my drafts with my principal supervisor. The Ministry of
Environment, Conservation and Meteorology, the Ministry of Lands department, the
SOPAC in Fiji, World Fish Centre, and Red Cross deserve my gratitude for providing
me with relevant information, data, and maps during the fieldwork.
ii
I also wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to people in various communities in Ghizo
whose local knowledge on coastal biodiversity has contributed to the data collection (see
appendix 2) with a special mention of Shannon Seeto who made his time available to
construct maps and make additional comments to the drafts of the thesis and Barbara
Hau’ofa for editing the thesis.
Last but not the least, I wish to register my hearty thanks to my family members, Ataban
Tahu, Mareta Tahu, Atenia Tahu, Mereta Tahu, and Bezel Tahu for their support,
prayers, advice, and encouragement. To those whom I may not have mentioned though
they have contributed one way or the other towards the completion of this thesis, I
would like to say Big Tagio Tumas.
iii
Abstract
Climate change is a global challenge of this century. It poses serious threats to natural
ecosystems and biodiversity. The Pacific is the most vulnerable region because of their
small land masses, location in the routes of natural disasters, extensive coastlines, and
dependency on marine resources. Ghizo Island, which encompasses the study sites of
this research, is located in the Western Solomons. It has a tropical climate and is rich in
biodiversity. The economy, which revolves around services, tourism, and sales of local
products, exacerbates the impacts of climate change.
This research work is to test the general hypothesis that the protection and management
of coastal areas and biodiversity offer the great potential for communities to adapt to
climate change and sea–level rise as well as specific hypotheses of 1) that climate
change and associated environmental changes are happening and have been experienced,
and the most highly affected areas are coastal ecosystems and settlements; 2) that human
activities and human–induced environmental change exacerbate the impacts of climate
and environmental change; and 3) that protection and management of coastal areas and
coastal biodiversity offer great potential for adapting to and mitigating (reducing
impacts) climate and environmental change on Ghizo Island.
For purposes of testing these hypotheses, research methods used were literature review,
questionnaire survey, in-depth interview, field observation, photography and mapping.
The research finding indicates that the combination of the impact of climate change and
human activities has already resulted in the damage, decline, and depletion of coastal
vegetation; this has paved way for salt-water intrusion and inland flooding affecting
inshore marine species and habitats.
Coastal ecosystems and biodiversity are important in addressing climate and
environmental change because they protect coastlines from coastal erosion, salt-water
intrusion, and maintain resilience of coastal ecosystems and communities. However,
only adaptive measures such as replanting and rehabilitation of coastal and marine
ecosystems and species are effective to certain extent in Ghizo Island.
iv
For future research, there should be more quantitative studies on coastal biodiversity,
ecology, traditional knowledge, and adequate funds for long term monitoring and
collecting of data and information.
v
List of abbreviations
ADB–Asian Development Bank
ATME–Antarctic Treaty Meeting of Experts
BLI–Birdlife International
CBD–Convention on Biological Diversity
COTS–Crown-of-Thorns
ENSO–El Niño Southern Oscillation
FAO–Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
GHG–Greenhouse Gases
GMCA–Ghizo Marine Conservation Area
ICZM–Integrated Coastal Zone Management
IPCC–Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IUCN–World Conservation Union
LMMAs–Locally Managed Marine Areas
MPAs–Marine Protected Areas
MSL–Mean Sea Level
NGOs–Non-governmental organizations
NTA–No-Take Areas
PICs–Pacific Island Countries
PIDCs–Pacific Island Developing countries
SIDS–Small Island Developing States
SLR–Sea–Level rise
UNFCCC–United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
WB–World Bank
WMO–World Meteorological Organization
WWF–World Wildlife Fund
vi
Table of Contents�Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... i�Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iii�List of abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... v�List of figures ................................................................................................................................ xi List of tables ................................................................................................................................. xv
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1�1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1�
1.2 Background of research problem .......................................................................................... 1�
1.2.1 Global climate change: A threat to coastal biodiversity ................................................. 1�
1.2.2 Climate change in the Pacific Islands ............................................................................. 3�
1.2.3 Climate change in Solomon Islands ............................................................................... 5�
1.3 Research area ......................................................................................................................... 5�
1.3.1 Brief overview of the geography of Solomon Island ...................................................... 6�
1.3.2 Ghizo Island: Selection of study sites ............................................................................. 7�
1.4 Aims and objectives .............................................................................................................. 8�
1.5 Rationale of the research ....................................................................................................... 9�
1.6 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 10�
1.7 Thesis structure and organization ........................................................................................ 11�
CHAPTER 2 STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY ......................................................... 12�2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 12�
2.2 Location of Ghizo Island ..................................................................................................... 12�
2.3 Topography and geology ..................................................................................................... 13�
2.4 Climate ................................................................................................................................ 15�
2.5 Flora ..................................................................................................................................... 16�
2.5.1 Littoral vegetation ......................................................................................................... 16�
2.6 Fauna ................................................................................................................................... 17�
2.7 Marine environment and species ......................................................................................... 17�
2.7.1 Seagrasses ..................................................................................................................... 18�
2.7.2 Coral and reefs .............................................................................................................. 18�
2.7.3 Fisheries ........................................................................................................................ 20�
2. 8 Socio-economic context of Ghizo Island ........................................................................... 20�
vii
2.8.1 Population ..................................................................................................................... 20�
2.8.2 Land and marine tenure ................................................................................................ 21�
2.8.3 Local economy .............................................................................................................. 21�
2.9 Geography of study sites ..................................................................................................... 22�
2.9.1 Site 1 (Fishing village) .................................................................................................. 22�
2.9.2 Site 2 (Saeraghe village) ............................................................................................... 23�
2.9.3 Site 3 (Kogulavata village) ........................................................................................... 23�
2.9.4 Site 4 (Paelongge village) ............................................................................................. 23�
2.9.5. Site 5 (Malakerava Villages) ....................................................................................... 23�
2.10. Research approach and methodology ............................................................................... 24�
2.10.1 Literature review ......................................................................................................... 25�
2.10.2 Questionnaire survey .................................................................................................. 26�
2.10.3 In-depth interviews ..................................................................................................... 28�
2.10.4 Field observation......................................................................................................... 28�
2.10.5 Photographing and mapping ....................................................................................... 29�
2.11 Data analysis ...................................................................................................................... 30�
2.12 Strength and weaknesses of research method ................................................................... 30�
2.13 Personal advantages and disadvantages ............................................................................ 31�
CHAPTER 3 COASTAL BIODIVERSITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE: A REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE ............................................................................. 32�
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 32�
3.2 Climate change .................................................................................................................... 32�
3.2.1 Mean surface temperature ............................................................................................. 34�
3.2.2 Sea–level rise ................................................................................................................ 37�
3.2.3 Cyclone frequency ........................................................................................................ 39�
3.2.4 El Niño .......................................................................................................................... 41�
3.3 Climate change and coastal zone ......................................................................................... 43�
3.3.1 Flooding and salt-water intrusion ................................................................................. 43�
3.3.2 Coastal erosion and retreat ............................................................................................ 44�
3.3.3 Runoff and sedimentation ............................................................................................. 45�
3.4 Coastal biodiversity; Climate change effects ...................................................................... 46�
viii
3.4.1 Coral mortality .............................................................................................................. 46�
3.4.2 Loss of mangroves ........................................................................................................ 48�
3.4.3 Loss of seagrass beds .................................................................................................... 49�
3.4.4 Changing distribution of fish ........................................................................................ 50�
3.4.5 Agriculture .................................................................................................................... 50�
3.5 Coastal biodiversity; Human effects ................................................................................... 51�
3.5.1 Habitat change .............................................................................................................. 52�
3.5.2 Over-exploitation .......................................................................................................... 54�
3.5.3 Pollution ........................................................................................................................ 55�
3.6 Coastal Biodiversity; Pacific Islands ................................................................................... 56�
3.6.1 Characteristics of Pacific Islands .................................................................................. 56�
3.6.2 Coastal biodiversity ...................................................................................................... 57�
3.7 Mitigation and Adaptation ................................................................................................... 59�
3.7.1 Adaptation ..................................................................................................................... 59�
3.7.2 Conservation management strategies............................................................................ 62�
3.8 Previous work in Ghizo Island ............................................................................................ 64�
3.8.1 Effects of climate change .............................................................................................. 64�
3.8.2 Effects of human threats ............................................................................................... 64�
3.8.3 Effects on coastal biodiversity ...................................................................................... 66�
3.9 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 67�
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION ........................................................................ 69�4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 69�
4.2 Changing climate and weather patterns ............................................................................... 69�
4.3 Coastal impacts .................................................................................................................... 70�
4.3.1 Salt water intrusion ....................................................................................................... 73�
4.3.2 Damage to coastal plants .............................................................................................. 75�
4.3.3 Inland flooding .............................................................................................................. 90�
4.3.4 Damage to coastal crops ............................................................................................... 94�
4.4 Inshore marine impacts ....................................................................................................... 95�
4.4.1 Damage and death of coral ........................................................................................... 96
4.4.2 Decline of reef finfishes .............................................................................................. 101
ix
4.4.3 Damage to seagrass and seaweeds .............................................................................. 105�
4.4.4 Depletion of coastal and marine invertebrates and animals ....................................... 108�
4.4.5 Disruption to marine food web ................................................................................... 120�
4.5 Human threats to coastal ecosystems ................................................................................ 124�
4.5.1 Settlement development .............................................................................................. 124�
4.5.2 Sand and gravel mining .............................................................................................. 129�
4.5.3 Infrastructure development ......................................................................................... 131�
4.5.4 Overharvesting of coastal trees ................................................................................... 133�
4.6 Human threats to inshore marine ecosystems ................................................................... 136�
4.6.1 Overfishing ................................................................................................................. 137�
4.6.2 Overharvesting of inshore marine resources .............................................................. 139�
4.6.3 Pollution ...................................................................................................................... 143�
4.6.4 Destructive fishing methods ....................................................................................... 144�
4.6.5 Tourism ....................................................................................................................... 145�
4.7. Coastal biodiversity: Local perspectives and strategies for adapting to climate and environmental changes. ........................................................................................................... 146�
4.7.1 Coastal trees ................................................................................................................ 147�
4.7.2 Mangroves .................................................................................................................. 148�
4.7.3 Seagrass and weeds ..................................................................................................... 148�
4.7.4 Corals .......................................................................................................................... 148�
4.7.5 Importance of large rocks for coastal protection and habitat...................................... 149�
4.8. Local perceptions of adaptation to climate and environmental change. .......................... 150�
4.8.1 Coastal tree and mangrove replanting and conservation ............................................ 150�
4.8.2 Land based projects .................................................................................................... 154�
4.8.3 Legislation .................................................................................................................. 154�
4.8.4 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)................................................................................. 154�
4.8.5 Public awareness to people and communities............................................................. 160�
4.8.6 Coral replanting .......................................................................................................... 161�
4.8.7 Extend monitoring efforts ........................................................................................... 162�
4.8.8 Seagrass and seaweed replanting ................................................................................ 163�
4.8.9 Land-use planning....................................................................................................... 164�
x
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................ 165�5.1 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 165�
5.2 Recommendations for future studies ................................................................................. 166�
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................... 170�APPENDIX 1. Questionnaire ................................................................................................... 188�APPENDIX 2. Respondents to the questionnaires and interviews ....................................... 203�
�
xi
List of figure
Figure 1.1. Map of the Pacific Islands and territories. (Adapted from United Nations Environment Programme, 2000 in Russell, 2009.) ......................................................................... 4�
Figure 1.2. Map of the Solomon Islands showing the location of Ghizo Island. (Adapted from the Ministry of Lands Department.) ....................................................................................... 7�
Figure 2.1. Location of Ghizo Island in the Solomon Islands. (Adapted from Hviding, 2005.) ............................................................................................................................................ 13�
Figure 2.2. Showing the geology of Ghizo Island. (Adapted from Abraham et al., 1987 in Tawake, 2008.) .......................................................................................................................... 15�
Figure 2.3. The island of Ghizo and its surrounding major ecosystems (Source: Shannon Seeto, WWF, Gizo.) ...................................................................................................................... 19�
Figure 2.4. Location of the five main villages on Ghizo Island where questionnaires and coastal observation were carried out. ............................................................................................ 24�
Figure 3.1. Showing the changes in A) global average temperature B) sea–level rise and C) melting snow and ice. (Adapted from the IPCC, 2007.) .......................................................... 35�
Figure 3.2. Showing increase in temperature over a 44–year period taken at Auki, Malaita Province. (Adapted from Baragamu, 2008.) .................................................................... 37�
Figure 3.3. Map showing sea–level trends in the Melanesia region including Solomon Islands compared to the global sea–level trend. (Adapted from NOAA website: (http://ibis.grdl.noaa.gov/SAT/slr/slr/map_txj1_sst.png in Leisz, Burnett and Allison, n.d.) ............................................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 3.4. Annual rainfall in Honiara influenced by El Ni�o and La Niña (Adapted from Hiriasia and Tahani, 2011) ................................................................................................... 42�
xii
Figure 4.1a-d Salt water intrusion in the study villages .............................................................. 74
Figure 4.2a-d Affected coastal trees in Ghizo in the study villages ............................................ 78�
Figure 4.3. Aerial maps showing changes of the coastlines over the years in Gizo town ........... 79�
Figure 4.4a-d.Several affected coastal trees in the study villages ............................................... 79�
Figure 4.5. Exposure of Paelongge village to wave and wind ..................................................... 86�
Figure 4.6. Affected coastal non-trees in the study villages ........................................................ 87�
Figure 4.7. Several affected coastal non-trees in the study villages ............................................ 88�
Figure 4.8. Reclaimed area and gap that enabled tsunami waves to travel further inland at Fishing village. .......................................................................................................................... 89�
Figure 4.9a-b Affected areas in Kogulavata from flooding and sedimentation ........................... 92�
Figure 4.10a-d Several affected crops in the study villages ........................................................ 94�
Figure 4.11a-b Prolonged lower tides, which can last over days in the study villages ............... 98�
Figure 4.12. Dead corals and boulders along the inshore marine waters of Malakerava area as a result of sedimentation over the years during lower tides. ............................................. 98�
Figure 4.13a-d Affected corals by tsunami and associated earthquakes (Source: Tingo Leve, WWF, Gizo). ..................................................................................................................... 100�
Figure 4.14a-d Affected Acropora corals in the study villages ................................................. 100�
Figure 4.15. Moving in of sea water at Paelongge village ......................................................... 106�
xiii
Figure 4.16 Diminished distribution of tape seagrass at Saeraghe village................................. 107�
Figure 4.17 Diminished distribution of spoon seagrass at Saeraghe village .............................. 107�
Figure 4.18 Coastal areas along Paelongge village towards Suvania village where evidence of lower tides and increased temperature is observed ................................................. 108�
Figure 4.19. Several affected shellfish in the study villages ...................................................... 116�
Figure 4.20. Several affected sea turtles (Source: Shannon Seeto, WWF, Gizo) ...................... 121�
Figure 4.21. Increased in human population and settlement over the years in Gizo town ........ 126�
Figure 4.22. Large cleared area and trees in the study villages ................................................. 127�
Figure 4.23. The size of mangrove forests indicated by lighter green in Ghizo Island towards Fishing village ............................................................................................................... 128�
Figure 4. 24a-b Affected crab and shellfish ............................................................................... 129�
Figure 4.25a-d Sand and gravel mining in the study villages .................................................... 130�
Figure 4.26. The unsealed road constructed along the coastal area of Malakerava village in Gizo town, which contributes to damaging of important coastal trees through erosion and mass sedimentation............................................................................................................... 132�
Figure 4.27a-c Harvesting of trees for fuel in the five study villages ........................................ 134�
Figure 4.28a-b Harvesting of trees for commercial purposes in the study villages................... 135�
xiv
Figure 4.29a-d Several affected finfish and selling of finfish at Ghizo market as daily activities by villagers for income ................................................................................................ 139�
Figure 4.30. Harvesting of shells for home decoration at Saeraghe village ............................... 141�
Figure 4.31. Sea grapes sold at Ghizo main market as the main source of income for some of the villagers (Source:Zelda Hilly, World Fish Centre, Nusatupe, Gizo) ...................... 142�
Figure 4.32. Overharvestingof corals in the Solomon Islands and at Saeraghe village and Kogulavata area .................................................................................................................... 143�
Figure 4.33. Land based pollution in Gizo town ........................................................................ 144�
Figure 4.34. Large rocks and boulders constructed as sea wall for coastal protection at Malakerava area in Gizo town .................................................................................................... 149�
Figure 4.35a-d Replanting of several coastal trees in the study villages ................................... 151�
Figure 4.36a-b Replanting of mangroves at Fishing village and kogulavata area ..................... 153�
Figure 4.37. Location of four areas targeted for protection as MPAs in Ghizo Island (Adapted from Foale and Manele, 2004.) ................................................................................... 157�
Figure 4.38. Marine conservation area in Ghizo Island (Adapted from Manele and Wein, 2006). ................................................................................................................................ 158�
Figure 4.39. Conserved area identified by the white floater at Kogulavata. .............................. 159�
Figure 4.40. Coral replanting at Saeraghe village. ..................................................................... 162�
xv
List of tables
Table 2.1. The sample number of people interviewed within five villages on Ghizo Island in July to August 2010. ...................................................................................................... 27�
Table 3.1. Assessment of trends over past century and impacts of proximate drivers on coastal zone biodiversity (Adapted from Pallewatta, 2010) ......................................................... 52�
Table 4.1. Specific changes in weather pattern mentioned by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey in 5 villages on Ghizo Island ...................................................................... 71�
Table 4.2. Specific impacts of climate change, sea–level rise and other environmental changes to coastal ecosystem mentioned by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey on Ghizo Island .................................................................................................................................. 72�
Table 4.3. Coastal trees reported to have been negatively affected by climate change, sea–level rise, and other environmental changes by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey in 5 villages on Ghizo Island. ............................................................................................ 76�
Table 4.4 Shrubs, herbs, vines, grasses and sedges reported to have been negatively affected by climate change, sea–level rise and other environmental changes by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey in 5 villages on Ghizo Island .............................................. 84�
Table 4.5. Seabirds reported to have been negatively affected by environmental changes, Ghizo Islands. ................................................................................................................. 93�
Table 4.6 Specific impacts of climate change, sea–level rise and other environmental changes to the inshore marine ecosystem by 40 respondent to questionnaire survey in villages on Ghizo Island ................................................................................................................ 96�
Table 4.7. Corals reported to have been negatively affected by climate change, sea–level rise and other environmental changes by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey in 5 villages on Ghizo Island. ............................................................................................................... 97�
xvi
Table 4.8. Seagrass/seaweeds and other marine plants reported to have been negatively affected by climate change, sea–level rise and other environmental changes by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey in 5 villages on Ghizo Island .............................................. 97�
Table 4.9. Finfish reported to have been negatively affected by climate change, sea–level rise and other environmental changes by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey in 5 villages on Ghizo Island. .......................................................................................................... 103�
Table 4.10. Crabs/lobsters and prawns reported to have been negatively affected by climate change, sea–level rise and other environmental changes by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey in 5 villages on Ghizo Island .................................................................... 109�
Table 4.11. Bêche-de-mer/Holothurians reported to have been negatively affected by the climate change, sea–level rise and other environmental changes by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey in 5 villages on Ghizo Island. ................................................................... 111�
Table 4.12. Shellfish reported to have been negatively affected by climate change, sea–level rise and other environmental changes by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey in 5 villages on Ghizo Island ........................................................................................................... 114�
Table 4.13. Squids and octopuses reported to have been negatively affected by climate change, sea–level rise and other environmental changes by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey in 5 villages on Ghizo Island .................................................................... 119�
Table 4.14. Other marine animals reported to have been negatively affected by climate change, sea–level rise and other environmental changes by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey in 5 villages on Ghizo Island .................................................................... 122�
Table 4.15. Turtles reported to have been negatively affected by climate change, sea–level rise and other environmental changes by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey in 5 villages on Ghizo Island. .......................................................................................................... 122�
Table 4.16. Specific threats from human activities to coastal biodiversity mentioned by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey in 5 villages on Ghizo Island ....................................... 125�
Table 4.17. Specific threats to marine biodiversity mentioned by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey in 5 villages on Ghizo Island .................................................................... 136�
xvii
Table 4.18. Local perceptions on roles that habitat and ecosystems play in protection against climate and weather changes and environmental changes.............................................. 147�
Table 4.19. Local perceptions on environmental conservation, management of coastal and inshore marine biodiversity. ................................................................................................. 152�
Table 4.20. Specific strategies carried out that promote the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of coastal and inshore marine biodiversity mentioned by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey in 5 villages on Ghizo Island ................................................................ 156�
1
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
This chapter introduces the research problem of climate change and its impacts on
coastal biodiversity from global, regional and Solomon Islands perspectives, the latter
being the specific geographical focus of this study. The chapter also introduces the
hypotheses upon which the approaches and methodology used to collect data were
based. The last part of the chapter describes the structure and the organization of the
thesis.
1.2 Background of research problem
1.2.1 Global climate change: A threat to coastal biodiversity
Climate change is perceived by many as one of the most serious environmental
challenges faced by natural ecosystems, biodiversity and people: an issue of urgency
requiring prompt attention (BLI, 2008). Over geological timescales climate has changed
greatly but the immediate concern now is that climate has shown an almost
unprecedented rapid global warming trend in the last few decades (Pittock, 2009).
Since the industrial revolution, (which had occurred and is still occurring at different
times in different places, particularly in major industrial areas in England such as the
city of Manchester and Glasgow and parts of Europe like Belgium, West-Central
Germany, and later in France and North America), the mean surface temperature of the
earth has increased at an annual average of 20 C due to the accumulation of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere. However, most of this change has occurred in the past 30 to 40
years and the rate of increase is still accelerating as the accumulation of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere is increasing. This rising of temperatures will have significant
global, local and regional impacts (WB, 2009).
The recent fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC, 2007) reported that an increase in global average temperature exceeding 1.5 to
2
2.5°C is likely to cause major changes in ecosystem structure and functions, including
shifts in species geographical ranges and species ecological interactions. It was reported
that globally, about 20 to 30% of plant and animal species are likely to be at increasingly
high risk of extinction as global mean temperatures exceed a warming of 2 to 30 C above
pre-industrial levels (Fischlin et al., 2007).
Particularly vulnerable are plant and animal communities in coastal regions that are
specifically governed by their tolerance to factors such as light availability, temperature,
moisture, water depth, salinity and nutrient availability, all of which will be affected as
climate changes (Burkett et al., 2008). The coastal zone is defined as the interface where
land meets the sea, along with adjacent interacting low-lying areas and shallow coastal
waters, including human components (MEA, 2005 in Pallewatta, 2010).
Pallewatta (2010) explains that coastlines are usually determined by morphological
changes governed by climatic and geological processes thus they are a crucial
battleground in the current fight against climate change. The same author states that the
coastal zone is made up of a number of important major habitats, which include:
• coral reefs
• seagrass beds and meadows
• coastal or barrier islands
• rocky coasts and cliffs
• inter-tidal rocky, mud or salt flats
• rock pools, sandy or pebble or rocky beaches
• dune systems, saline, brackish and freshwater lagoons
• estuaries and coastal river floodplains
• salt marshes and mangrove forests.
Furthermore, accelerating human modifications to these biotic systems will further
increase negative impacts through the negative synergistic effects of habitat destruction,
overfishing, introduced species, warming, acidification and toxic and massive runoff, all
3
of which are transforming ecosystems and reducing their resilience to climate and
environmental change (Mooney et al., 2009).
Notably, the changing composition of species and loss of ecosystem services will
severely reduce productive functions, diminish ecosystem resilience, and change
physiology and reproduction of species, thus affecting humans that depend on them
(Pallewatta, 2010).
Climate change will also affect conservation practices, which need to be altered to face
the challenge (Brooke, 2008). Most notably the uncertainty concerning the extent of
change poses significant challenges for restoration and ecosystem management (Harris
et al., 2006). Besides, current conservation practices are poorly prepared to adapt to this
level of change, and effective adaptation responses are likely to be costly to implement
(Fischlin et al., 2007). Consequently, it is argued that ecosystem-based approaches to
mitigation and adaptation can be cost effective if effective adaptation responses are
likely to be costly to implement because ecosystem – based approaches maintain
ecosystem resilience and reduce vulnerability of people and their livelihood in the face
of climate change (CBD, 2009).
1.2.2 Climate change in the Pacific Islands
The small islands of the Pacific Ocean (Fig.1.1) are considered to be among the most
vulnerable regions of the world to climate change effects due to their unique
geophysical, socioeconomic and cultural features, and the predicted increase in the
frequency and intensity of natural hazards or extreme events (FAO, 2008).
A number of Pacific islands are already faced with disruptive changes that may be partly
due to human induced climate change. These include increased frequency and severity
of coastal erosion, coral bleaching, prolonged droughts, storm surges, ground water
degradation, saline intrusion and extremely high sea levels. Affected areas include
Tuvalu, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Tonga, Solomon Islands, Samoa, Cook Islands,
Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea and Fiji, all of which have experienced these frequent and
4
severe extreme events, which have impacted their natural and cultural environments and
biodiversity (ADB, 2009).
Figure 1.1. Map of the Pacific Islands and territories. (Adapted from United Nations Environment Programme, 2000 in Russell, 2009.)
Thus, ensuring conservation and the protection of these natural habitats, ecosystems and
species in the Pacific Islands are important in addressing the effects of climate change.
This is because most of these plants and animals provide the Pacific Island peoples with
most of their livelihood (Pittock, 2005). Thaman (1994) stated that:
Biodiversity is not income that should be spent or destroyed. It is
“capital” needed for development and maintenance of Pacific societies
and upon which “subsistence affluence” and almost all “income” (both
cash and non-cash) is derived. It is the foundation of their culture.
5
1.2.3 Climate change in Solomon Islands
In Solomon Islands, increased stress from population growth and urbanization will be
further exacerbated by future climate change and associated sea–level rise. The effects
of climate change such as prolonged droughts associated with El Niño, coastal flooding,
storm surges, saltwater intrusion and increasing temperature are being experienced, the
most affected areas being in the more vulnerable atolls, low-lying coastal areas and
urban areas (Talo, 2008).
Climate change has become an increasingly serious problem in Solomon Islands, as
people are particularly vulnerable as the majority of settlements are located in coastal
areas and there is a high dependence on fishing activities for subsistence. This
underlines the critical challenges in relation to sustainability and the need for
conservation management strategies (Talo, 2008).
Consequently, the need to incorporate important management strategies based on
protecting and conserving coastal ecosystems and species is crucial to successful future
adaptation to climate change, sea–level rise, and other environmental changes in
Solomon Islands.
It is these vulnerable coastal ecosystems, the nature of the perceived impacts of climate
and associated environmental changes on these ecosystems and strategies that could be
used to address them within the five study sites in Ghizo Island, Western Solomon
Islands that are the focus of this thesis.
1.3 Research area
The main focus of this thesis include the important role of coastal ecosystems in helping
local communities adapt to and mitigate impacts of climate change, sea–level rise and
other environmental changes to coastal ecosystem and biodiversity. The field research
focuses on Solomon Islands, the specific study area being Ghizo Island, part of the New
Georgia group in the Western Province (Fig. 1.2).
6
1.3.1 Brief overview of the geography of Solomon Island
Solomon Islands is situated in the southwest Pacific between 5° S and 12°S latitude and
152° E and 163° E longitude. The country is part of the Melanesia region and is
composed of a 1,450 kilometre (900 mi.) chain of islands lying east of Papua New
Guinea, Northeast of Australia, and across the Coral Sea to the west of Vanuatu (Pacific
Horizon Consultancy Group, 2008). They encompass a total land area of 28,785 km2 and
have an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 1.34 million km2 (Talo, 2008).
Solomon Island is composed of six large main islands, Choiseul, New Georgia, Santa
Isabel, Guadalcanal, Malaita and Makira, and numerous small islands and atolls (Pacific
Horizon Consultancy Group, 2008). Most of the islands are covered by dense forests
with terrain that ranges from the ruggedly mountainous with diverse flora and fauna on
the mountainous islands to very low-lying coral atolls that are outliers of the country’s
territorial waters bounded by sandy shores and fringing reefs (Baragamu, 2008).
The Solomon Islands oceanic-equatorial climate is mainly warm and humid with a
maximum temperature of about 30°C, and minimum of 23°C. The average annual
rainfall ranges from 3000 to 5000mm. From December to March, there is normally a
period of west to northwesterly monsoonal winds accompanied by abundant rainfall.
This is also the time when tropical cyclones occur. From May to October, the southeast
trade winds usually blow and higher rainfall occurs on the windward side of the Islands
(Solomon Islands Initial National Communications, 2001).
7
Figure 1.2. Map of the Solomon Islands showing the location of Ghizo Island. (Adapted from the Ministry of Lands Department.)
1.3.2 Ghizo Island: Selection of study sites
The research is focused on five of the villages on Ghizo Island in the Western Solomon
Islands, one of the areas more vulnerable to changes in climate and weather patterns.
This is because Ghizo is within the influence of El-Nino southern oscillation. Also,
historically Ghizo is prone to natural hazards because it is located in the route of
southeast tradewinds that can reach up to 30 Km/hr or more and often associated with
heavy rainfalls. It is also an area rich in ecosystems and biodiversity (see chapter 2 on
background to the study site).
8
The following factors were considered in the selection of the five study sites on Ghizo
Island: 1) reported continuous and rapid coastal erosion, 2) changes in wind and rainfall
patterns, 3) tsunami waves and 4) increasing dependence on coastal fishing activities.
In particular, the village of Malakerava in Gizo town had reported existing threats from
coastal erosion and increased sedimentation (Forest interviewed 2010). This is due to
sea–level rise, changing wave patterns and precipitation as well as coastal construction
such as sea walls and roads.
Saeraghe and Paelongge villages had reported changes in wind and rainfall patterns,
disappearing coastlines, and islets being washed away and damage to staple crops and
the eroding of coastal trees such as the casuarinas (WWF, 2004). In addition, the adverse
effects of tsunami waves had also contributed to massive damage to branching corals
(Acropora sp.).
Fishing village and Kogulavata were particularly known for the high dependence on
activities such as fishing as well as reclamation and harvesting of mangroves. The
evidence that important trees were also affected by tsunami waves was a factor in the
selection of the study villages.
1.4 Aims and objectives
The main aim of this research is to highlight the negative impacts of climate change,
sea–level rise, environmental change, and human threats on coastal biodiversity and the
importance of coastal biodiversity in relation to mitigation and adaption to such changes.
The specific objectives include
• identification of the impacts of climate change, sea–level rise and associated
environmental change on coastal and inshore-marine ecosystems.
• identification of human threats to coastal and marine ecosystems that exacerbate
these impacts.
9
• investigation of the role of coastal biodiversity in mitigating and adapting to the
impacts of climate change and sea–level rise.
• Recommend adaptive management strategies that promote the conservation,
restoration, and sustainable use of coastal biodiversity as a basis for mitigation
and adaptation to climate change and sea–level rise.
1.5 Rationale of the research
The rationale for this research is that coastal biodiversity, such as coastal vegetation,
mangroves, coral reefs and seagrass beds are threatened, which in turn undermines
mitigation and adaptation to climate and environmental change in the Pacific Islands.
Whilst the Pacific islands are known for their ecosystem diversity, particularly the larger
islands of Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Fiji and Solomon Islands, these ecosystems are
under threat from human exploitation, climate and environmental change and extreme
events. For this reason, the issues deserve attention.
In addition, the study, conscious of the need to protect, conserve and sustainably use
important coastal ecosystems in the Pacific islands, seeks to identify the best options for
adapting to and mitigating climate change and associated negative environmental
change. Climate change and biodiversity are inter-connected through the effects of
climate change on biodiversity and the role that intact biodiversity can play as an
adaptation to climate change and other changes beyond the control of local communities.
Understanding the negative impacts of climate change is, thus, vital to addressing the
effects of climate change and maintaining resilience of coastal ecosystems and
communities. The importance of coastal ecosystems and biodiversity to the livelihoods
of local communities is of particular importance to help them mitigate and adapt to
climate and environmental changes. This should be reflected in policy statements in all
10
sectors and relevant organisations to strengthen conservation and management of natural
ecosystems and biodiversity.
Moreover, the importance of understanding people’s traditional ecological knowledge of
coastal ecosystems and biodiversity is seen as an important basis for enabling
conservation and rehabilitation strategies. However, because much of this traditional
knowledge is being lost as the older people pass away, it is crucial to record this
knowledge before it disappears so that it can be applied in adaptation to climate change.
Moreover, the combination of up-to-date knowledge and traditional knowledge will
offer great promise for building resilience in the face of climate change.
1.6 Methodology
The data collected for the research paper are based on the research methodologies of
literature review where related publications, reports, and periodicals on climate change
and coastal biodiversity are consulted. The questionnaire surveys, which are focused on
peoples’ perceptions on the impacts of climate and environment changes and the
importance of coastal biodiversity, are given to informants including both genders and
elder people. The in–depth interview, which focused on the conservation and sustainable
development of coastal and marine species, are carried out with knowledgeable local
people, fishermen, and individuals working with NGOs who are responsible for
conservation of marine species. Field observation is carried out on coastal areas where
logbook is used to record affected species, events, and people contributed to this
observation. Photographing and mapping using GIS are used to show affected coastal
biodiversity and their location on Ghizo Island (refer to chapter 2, which discusses these
methodologies in detail).
By using questionnaire survey, in-depth interview, and field observation, informants are
asked if they are willing for their names to be included in the reference section of this
thesis. The names acknowledged in the bibliography section are exclusively those who
granted their consent.
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1.7 Thesis structure and organization
The thesis is divided into 5 chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the research problem of
climate change and impacts of climate and associated environmental change on coastal
biodiversity, the geography of Solomon Islands and Ghizo Island, the hypotheses, aims
and objectives and a brief overview of the methodology used for research and data
analysis.
Chapter 2 describes in more detail the background of Ghizo Islands and the five study
villages. The background of Ghizo Island covers the location, geology and topography,
climate, terrestrial flora and fauna, marine environment and species, land and marine
tenure and the demographic background of Ghizo. Also, the chapter describes in detail
the research approach and methods used and the limitations encountered during the
fieldwork.
Chapter 3 reviews relevant literature related to climate change and coastal biodiversity
from the global perspective, with particular focus on the Pacific, the Solomon Islands
and Ghizo Island.
Chapter 4 presents the results and discusses the findings of the study. It focuses on
perceived changes in weather pattern and their impacts on coastal and inshore marine
species, including human-induced threats to a variety of ecosystems and species. The
chapter takes into account the local perspectives on roles that major habitats and
ecosystems play in relation to adaptation to climate and weather changes and community
based strategies that promote conservation and sustainable use of coastal and inshore
biodiversity in the five study sites on Ghizo Island.
Chapter 5 concludes and summarizes the findings in relation to a more global
perspective and provides recommendations for future research and actions that could be
implemented. This includes policies on coastal management to counter the negative
effects of climate change and human-induced threats to the coastal environment that are
relevant in the Pacific in general and Solomon Islands in particular.
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CHAPTER 2 STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY
2.1 Introduction
This chapter consists of two main parts. First, it provides background information on
Ghizo Island and the five case study villages in Western Solomon Islands. This includes
information on the location of Ghizo Island, topography and geology, climate, terrestrial
flora and fauna, marine environment and species, land and marine tenure and the
demographical background. The second part looks at the natural characteristics of the
five study sites and describes in detail the research approach and methods used to collect
data. Limitations to the research are highlighted to inform future research on the same
topic in Solomon Islands.
2.2 Location of Ghizo Island
Ghizo Island, a small elongated volcanic island that lies in a northwest-southeast
direction, is located on the Southwest rim of Solomon Islands national border, situated
between latitudes 8°.0’and 8°.10’south and longitudes 156°.46’and 156°.58’ east
(Manele and Wein, 2006) in the Southwest Pacific (Fig 2.1). Generally, Ghizo Islands is
a collective term that refers to Ghizo Island itself and the surrounding islands and islets.
Ghizo Island is part of the New Georgia group of Islands located in the Western
Solomon Islands. The island is located 12 kilometres southwest of the dormant volcanic
island of Kolombangara and is a host to Gizo town, which is the capital and
administration centre (note the different spelling between the island and township) of the
Western Province. The Western Province includes the island groups of Rannonga, Vella
la Vella, Kolombangara, Simbo, Shortlands, and the lagoonal systems of Vonavona,
Roviana and Marovo (Sabetian, 2010).
13
Figure 2.1 Location of Ghizo Island in the Solomon Islands. (Adapted from Hviding, 2005.)
2.3 Topography and geology
Ghizo Island compared to neighbouring islands of Vella La Vella, Kolombangara, and
Rannonga is rather small, with a land area of just 35 kilometres square, about 11
kilometres long and 5 kilometres wide with a summit elevation of 180 metres.
According to Manele and Wein (2006), Ghizo Island’s topography is relatively low,
consisting of flat land only about 50 cm above sea level and covering a narrow strip that
averages at 25 metres from the low water mark to the edge of the foothills. The elevated
14
areas on Ghizo Island vary in location and wind directions. Inland ridges consist of
irregular intruding valleys and foothills but with gentle and rounded forms.
The southeastern side of Ghizo Island (windward shores) are more dominated by
isolated ridges with a much steeper and rugged cliffs, with several rising almost
vertically with a 90° slope at the coast. On the northern leeward side, ridges rise gently
inland. Catchments amongst foothills form a number of streams discharging at various
sites along the leeward and windward coastline. Swamps and watersheds are also
associated with northern sheltered river mouths (Manele and Wein, 2006).
The islands of New Georgia, including Ghizo Island, are of volcanic origin, most of their
volcanoes having emerged during the Pliocene (five to two million years ago) and
volcanic activity has been continuing until the very recent past (Maruia Society, 1990).
Ghizo Islands have micro-plate movements along the northwest to the eastern barrier
islands and reefs, where a network of suspected faults runs along the edge of the barrier
system and where faults lines occur along the west coast of Ghizo Island (Manele and
Wein, 2006).
This explains the types of soil composition found on the island, which is a mixture of
volcanic rocks such as olivine basalt breccia with lava in parts, polymictic breccia with
clasts of hornblende andesite and sedimentary rocks such as limestone, siltstone and
sandstones, which are calcareous in parts (Manele and Wein, 2006).
According to Tawake (2008), Ghizo is made up of two geological formations: the
sediments of the older Konggu formation, and the Ghizo volcanic formation. The
Konggu formation consists of both massive and interbedded sand and silt. This rock
disintegrates relatively easily when subjected to constant loading and continuous heavy
rain.
The three volcanic breccia units that belong to the Ghizo volcanic formation includes:
the olivine basalt breccia (which occurs along the main road between Saeraghe and
Paelongge village) more resistant to weathering, the polymict breccia (which occurs
more on the south and eastern part of the Island. The unit comprises relatively smaller
15
igneous rock fragments with a highly weathered sandy-clay matrix, showing an
extensive and intense weathering pattern particularly in the southeastern part of the
island and the andesite breccia (contain fine to medium grained pyroxene) (fig 2.2).
Figure 2.2. Showing the geology of Ghizo Island. (Adapted from Abraham et al., 1987 in Tawake, 2008.)
2.4 Climate
Ghizo Island has a tropical climate with a wet season from November to March and a
dry season between August and November, (Manele and Wein, 2006). The month of
July usually brings heavy rainfall from isolated thunderstorms. During the months of
April to October, Ghizo usually experiences southeast trade winds that can reach up to
30 km/hr or more.
Residents of Ghizo Islands (Forest intervewed 2010) suggested that wind patterns seem
to be changing over the years, with sudden shifts in wind direction and heavier rainfalls
extending into what is traditionally known as drier seasons. In 1998, the island
experienced the influence of the El-Niño southern oscillation.
16
A temperature average of 28°C is experienced, with the average maximum temperature
of 32°C occurring during October through March, the average minimum of 25 °C from
April through September (Manele and Wein, 2006).
2.5 Flora
The flora of Ghizo Island is varied. Manele and Wein (2006) describe the vegetation of
Ghizo Island into different communities, including:
• littoral vegetation
• wetland vegetation (freshwater swamp, mangroves)
• rainforests (lowland)
• disturbed vegetation (secondary forests, managed land and fern lands).
According to Manele and Wein (2006), very little old–growth forest remains because
logging operations in the 1960s, left only a fragmented patches of old–growth forest
totalling less than 1 km2 in size. On smaller surrounding islands, limited forests are
apparent as the islands are small and the continuous changing of geography caused
difficulties for forest growth. The research is based on coastal ecosystems and
biodiversity, thus it will focus more on littoral vegetation flora of Ghizo Island.
2.5.1 Littoral vegetation
The littoral vegetation of Ghizo islands includes those plants typical of disturbed areas
of tropical lowland rainforests. Common species include the strangler figs (Ficus spp.),
ngali nut (Canarium sp.), and the beach mahogany (Callophyllum inophyllum). The
beach mahogany sites including many garden areas, coconuts and introduced plantation
species for example, are found mostly on the windward side of the island particularly
along the coastal area of Saeraghe and Paelongge village.
17
Located on the eastern side of Gizo Township are grassland communities. The fresh
water swamp areas such as at Fishing village and Kogulavata area contain taro, while the
salt-water swamp forest habitat is host to mangrove communities and associated
epiphytes (Manele and Wein, 2006).
2.6 Fauna
The terrestrial fauna of Ghizo Islands shows a very low count due to relatively dense
human population and lack of primary forest. According to Manele and Wein (2006),
there are a few species of bats and rats but research conducted on these species has been
limited.
Ghizo Island supports the critically endangered endemic Ghizo white-eye bird
(Zosterops luteirostris) found within the GMCA. The population of the Ghizo white-eye
birds is estimated to be in the range of 2300 to 4700 birds (Manele and Wein, 2006
citing Read and Moseby, 2001). Other birds found in Ghizo Island include the Superb
Fruit Dove and Finch’s Pigmy Parrot.
Ghizo Island also harbours several species of waders and sea birds, including the
vulnerable Sanford’s fish–eagle and the near threatened beach thick-knee. Reptiles
include skinks, particularly the rare skink (Lipinia noctua) found on Kennedy Island,
geckos, snakes including frogs, and few mammals such as the Cuscus and fruit bats
(Manele and Wein, 2006).
2.7 Marine environment and species
According to Manele and Wein (2006), Ghizo Island consists of a number of important
ecosystems and habitats that are found in the Ghizo Islands marine environment, which
include; brackish swamp and mangrove forests, lagoons, long sheltered bays, verdant
islands, exposed rocky shores and sand banks, all of which help to harbor extensive
mangroves, seaweeds, seagrass meadows and algal beds.
18
2.7.1 Seagrasses
In Ghizo Island, survey in several key sites in Logha, Babanga, Pusinau and Nusatupe
including Fishing village shows 9 species of seagrasses within the GMCA. These
include the Cymodocea serrulata, Cymodocea rotundata, Enhalus acoroides, Thalassia
hemprichii, Halophila ovalis, Halodule pinifolia, Halodule uninervis, Halophila minor
and Syringodium isoetifolium (Manele and Wein, 2006).
Small patches of Cymodocea rotundata are present on the sheltered sides, for example at
Njari Island. The narrow (~15m) Enhalus acoroides on the other hand dominates the
northern shores of Ghizo Island. Other larger sub-tidal meadow dominated by seagrasss
such as Cymodocea rotundata, Cymodocea serrulata, Thalassia hemprichii, Halodule
uninervis with some Halophila ovalis and Enhalus acoroides are found mostly
surrounding islands of Babanga and Sepo (McKenzie, et al., 2006).
It was estimated that the total seagrass coverage within the GMCA is 8 ha with the
largest seagrass area within the GMCA occurring on Babanga northern reef flat covering
an area of 35,000 m2. The dominant species here, also occurring in each of the survey
sites, is the Thalassia hemprichii. Most of these seagrass areas do provide foraging areas
for dugongs and hawksbill turtles that often frequent these areas and do include sea
urchins and some species that are edible and used by the communities as a food source
(Manele and Wein, 2006).
2.7.2 Coral and reefs
Ghizo Island is mostly protected by barrier reefs, sand, coral shoals and surrounded by
smaller islands and cays with long sandy shores (McKenzie et al., 2006). Corals around
Ghizo Island are typically found mostly on fringing and barrier reefs (Hughes, 2005;
Manele and wein, 2006).
Ghizo Island is distinctive in relation to the various habitats found along the coast.
Located on the southwest part of the island are narrow fringing and barrier reefs and
19
white sandy beaches. The northeast side of the island consists of several embayments,
small offshore islands and extensive mangrove with discontinuous fringing reefs
(Rearic, 1991) (Fig 2.3).
The high occurrence of flushing of reef systems through daily incoming and outgoing
tides provides Ghizo reef the right condition for maximum growth (Hughes, 2005). A
monitoring survey carried out by the WWF within the GMCA concludes that Ghizo
reefs generally are known to be in good conditions with coral cover ranging from 37.7%
to 53.9% (Lovell, et al., 2004; Manele and Wein, 2006).
Hard coral cover is found at all locations around Ghizo. The Acropora sp. is the most
dominant along the shallows on the windward side of Ghizo Island particularly around
Paelongge and Titiana reef areas. Other life forms such as soft corals, sponges and
macro algae are also found in Ghizo Island but with only 10% cover (Hughes et al.,
2005).
Figure 2.3. The island of Ghizo and its surrounding major ecosystems of coral reefs indicated by the darker blue and mangrove communities by the lighter green along the coastal area. Copied and modified by the researcher. (Source: Shannon Seeto, WWF, Gizo.)
20
According to Hughes et al., (2005), there is a high trend of macro algae along the
exposed shores of Ghizo reefs both on the windward and on the leeward side of the
island. This was explained as being due to the exposed nature of the habitats, subjected
to heavy sea conditions during stormy weather. As such Ghizo Island is recognized as an
island with most biologically diverse reef systems in the world, after Indonesia’s Raja
Ampat, with Njari Island harbouring the highest abundance and diversity of finfish.
2.7.3 Fisheries
Baseline data of key commercial fish species conducted in 2004 and 2005 on Ghizo
Island on several key sites such as in Titiana, Babanga, Nusa Agana including
Paelongge, Saeraghe village shows that fish abundance differs from each site but with
Njari showing the highest diversity of fish (Manele and Wein, 2006).
Deficiency of the larger species such as the predators like the groupers and the wrasses
and parrotfish were reported (Hughes et al., 2005). Also a high number of surgeonfish
(Acanthurids) and low numbers of jacks and trevalley (Carangids) and the sweetlips
(Haemulidae) are found throughout the GMCA (Manele and Wein, 2006).
2. 8 Socio-economic context of Ghizo Island
2.8.1 Population
Ghizo Island is made up of an increasingly multi-ethnic population, with a population of
7,177 (Solomon Islands Population census, 2009). It is best described as the boat of
foreigners consisting of a majority of Melanesians, a significant minority of
Micronesians (descendents of I-Kiribati), Europeans, and ethnic Chinese. The
Melanesians include, settlers from the nearby islands of Vella la Vella, Simbo, and
Marovo, and from Malaita to the northeast of the main island of Guadalcanal, with the
majority of the Malaitians settled at Fishing village. Today the inhabitants of Ghizo are a
mixture from nearly all ethnic groups from around the Solomon’s (Sabetian, 2010).
21
As well, Gizo town is not only the second biggest urban centre in the Solomons but also
an important trading centre for the growing population of nearly 8000 (Sabetian, 2010
citing Otter, 2002). With a land area of just 35 square kilometres and a population
density of approximately 190 people per square kilometres, it is the most densely
populated island in the Western Province (McKenzie et al., 2006).
The gradual increase of population in Ghizo islands stems from the rapid immigration of
people to find better jobs and employment as well as engagement in fishing activities to
earn income (Sabetian and Foale, 2006). Gizo town is the economic “hub” of the
Western Province.
2.8.2 Land and marine tenure
Land tenure on Ghizo Island is mostly dominated by customary ownership. According to
Sabetian and Foale (2006), 85% of land is held under various forms of customary
ownership by families or tribe which is legitimated by the state. The other 15% of land is
referred to as alienated land.1
Reef tenure, on the other hand, is somewhat ambiguous. This is due to the fact that most
reefs around Ghizo Island that are targeted by artisanal fishers are adjacent to alienated
land. This means that access to reefs around Ghizo Island is open to all subsistence and
artisanal fishers (Sabetian and Foale, 2006). According to Sabetian, (2010) the lack of
customary marine tenure and the consequent development of open-access fisheries that
are adjacent to urbanized regions are being held responsible for inshore over-fishing.
2.8.3 Local economy
The local economy of Ghizo Island revolves around services, tourism, and selling
produce at the local food market, which attracts people from neighboring areas,
1 Land claimed by the colonial government at the time when these lands were not occupied under the Land alienation Law. This means that land was purchased from its former traditional custodians during the colonial era and it was converted to leasehold land presently held by the government (Sabetian and Foale, 2006.p.7).
22
including fishers and agriculture producers from other provinces such as Choiseul and
Santa Isabel. Furthermore, the wealth accumulated in urban centres such as Gizo
prompts people to travel long distances to sell their catches and produce (Sabetian and
Foale, 2006).
Gizo town is known as the biggest fish and food market in the western Solomon Islands.
Records show that areas around Ghizo have been engaged in artisanal and small-scale
commercial fishing since the turn of the 20th century. Thus, the centre provides an outlet
for the bigger populations who are customers for local fishers and farmers (Sabetian,
2010).
Moreover, the rich marine ecosystems and habitats in Ghizo are important in relation to
economic value, helping to support a strong traditional subsistence economy and
commercial harvesting (Manele and Wein, 2006). However, as the urban population
increases (around 4.5% per annum) the percentage of income generated from informal
economic activities such as fishing has been gradually increasing (Sabetian, 2010 citing
Otter, 2002).
2.9 Geography of study sites
This section will focus more on the five study sites, all of which are located on Ghizo
Island. Most of these sites, which include Fishing, Saeraghe, Koqulavata ,Paelongge and
Malakerava, villages are located along the coastal areas (refer to Fig 2.4).
2.9.1 Site 1 (Fishing village)
Fishing village is a village situated in a swampy coastal mangrove area on the northern
tip of Gizo town. It has a population of 144 people and is known for the high
23
dependence on fishing for their livelihood.2 Recent tsunami impacts in 2007 damaged
most coastal plants and mangroves, which has undermined the resilience.
2.9.2 Site 2 (Saeraghe village)
Saeraghe village is located on the western tip of Ghizo Island facing the nearby island of
Vella, with a total population of 114. It is mostly surrounded by coral reef and situated
within the Gizo Marine Conservation Area (GMCA) and is located near Njari Island, an
important aggregation site that has been under threat from over-fishing and divers and
boats.
2.9.3 Site 3 (Kogulavata village)
Kogulavata is located in a swampy area within the Kogulavata bay and is surrounded by
dense mangrove forests and located within the GMCA waters. In 1999, it had a
population of 97 people.
2.9.4 Site 4 (Paelongge village)
Paelongge village is located on the south coast of Ghizo Island, west of Gizo town. The
population is 76 people. The village is situated within the GMCA and is bounded by
barrier reef, which is dominated largely of coral species such as the massive head corals
(Porites sp) and algae (McAdoo et al., 2008). A recent survey shows massive damage to
coastal communities and inshore marine ecosystems such as the branching corals
(Acropora sp.) caused by the recent earthquake in 2007 (McAdoo et al., 2008).
2.9.5. Site 5 (Malakerava Villages)
The villages of Malakerava are located within the Gizo Township. The southern coastal
part of Malakerava point is narrow and has steep hills that rise from behind the villages 2 Population for Fishing, Saeraghe, kogulavata and Paelongge villages (excluding Malakerava villages) are taken from the 1999 census data in (McAdoo et al., 2008).
24
of Malakerava 1, 2, 3 (Rearic, 1991). Malakerava village has shown its vulnerability to
sea–level rise and erosion. This is evident through fallen trees, eroding of sea walls, and
loss of coastal vegetation (Rearic, 1991).
Figure 2.4. Location of the five main villages on Ghizo Island where questionnaires and coastal observation were carried out.
2.10. Research approach and methodology
Various research methods were used to test the research hypothesis that the protection
and restoration of coastal biodiversity is central to the ability of the communities in the
Western part of Solomon Islands in relation to playing roles in the global carbon cycle
and in adapting to climate change, sea–level rise and other environmental change.
25
The approach focused mainly on a literature review and the gathering of more
qualitative data from local communities on their perspectives on climate and
environmental change. The quantitative measurements of physical phenomena, such as
quantitative changes in sea level, surface temperature, erosion levels, percent coral cover
and cover abundance of trees were not used due to time constraint.
More specifically, a case study approach was taken, which involved people from the
study areas in Ghizo Island to gather in-depth first hand information based on their
perspectives on changes that have taken place in their areas. Similar studies had not
previously been conducted in the study areas. The emphasis was on local community
perceptions.3 This approach correlates with qualitative approaches (see Perry, 1998, and
Anderson and Poole, 2001) which involve verbal testimony rather than numerical
descriptions and data interpretation to answer important “how and why questions”.
The survey focused on the island of Ghizo in Western Solomon Islands, an area that had
experienced a serious tsunami in 2007 and where the protection, sustainable use, and
restoration of coastal and near shore marine biodiversity are critical as a basis for
adaptation to climate and environmental change. Within this context, the components of
the methodology included: 1) a review of relevant literature, 2) designation of sample
villages and informant identification, 3) questionnaire surveys and in-depth interviews,
4) participant observation and 5) field surveys including digital photography and habitat
mapping.
2.10.1 Literature review
The literature review focused on methods used in climate and environmental change
related research and on previous research on climate change and coastal biodiversity in
the Pacific Islands and Solomon Islands. The main sources of information were taken
from the main library at USP Laucala Campus, the Pacific Island Marine Resources
3 While climate change is mostly treated as a physical phenomenon that can be observed, quantified and measured, society are those that are confronted with the realities of climate change and that they are often an active agent in the reshaping of physical climates around the world. (Hulme, 2009. p. 392).
26
Information Service (PIMRIS), World Wide Web (WWW), the USP online databases,
Government statistics from Solomon Islands, and information held by various Non-
Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in Solomon Islands.
Data on conservation measures, adaptations, climate impacts, and policy in the Pacific
and Solomon Islands were collected from various NGOs and Government Ministries in
the Solomon Islands such as the Ministry of Environment Conservation and
Meteorology (MECM) and Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources (MFMR).
2.10.2 Questionnaire survey
Questionnaire surveys were conducted over a period of 37 days on Ghizo Island, in the
Western Province, where the five study sites were visited from 25 July to 23 August
2010. Forty informants were selected using random sampling and were questioned from
the five study sites (table 2.1). Eight questionnaires were administered in each village,
four to female and four to male informants. The eight informants were selected
randomly basing on longer years they reside in their locality and their availability.
This was intended to gain a more balanced view from both genders, based on the
assumption that women and men often have differential knowledge of different
resources and uses of biodiversity (e.g., such as uses of medicinal plants, woods used in
construction and target marine species).
The questionnaire survey, using more questions that are open-ended, was applied to 40
elder people out of whom 20 were females and 20 males. The questionnaires were
written in simple English and translated to the informants using simple pidjin.4 These
elder people was selected on the basis that they are more likely to have knowledge on
changes that have occurred over time and the impacts of climate change and other
environmental changes on biodiversity and the role it plays in adapting to such events.
4 Otherwise known as Solomons Pidjin. A common language that the Solomon Islanders from across the whole country speak.
27
Table 2.1. The sample number of people interviewed within five villages on Ghizo Island in July to August 2010.
The questionnaires were divided into four parts (Appendix 1). The first part identifies
the informant and focuses on general demographic information such as number of years
people have been living in the area, age, occupation, and more general questions. It also
engages people to recall how they might have seen changes to climate and weather
patterns while living in the village.
The second part focuses on informants’ perceptions of the major impacts of climate and
environmental changes’ and human-induced threats to coastal and inshore marine
ecosystems; and biodiversity and those coastal species that have been most affected.
The third part of the questionnaire tries to discover people’s perceptions of the
importance of these ecosystems, especially their role in adapting to changes along the
coastal zone and their conservation status. The fourth and final section asks informants
to identify strategies that have been implemented or that should be implemented to
enable conservation, restoration, and sustainability of coastal biodiversity.
28
2.10.3 In-depth interviews
Eight in-depth interviews were carried out with people considered to be particularly
knowledgeable about the environmental history of the Gizo Island areas. These included
local fishermen, a couple who work closely with the NGOs (WWF) in Gizo who have
observed changes along the coastal zone over a period of time, several individuals
working closely with NGOs, and staff of World Fish Centre at Nusatupe Island in Gizo.
Questions were mainly more in-depth questions derived from the previous questionnaire
surveys.
The interview with fishermen produced detailed information and knowledge on marine
species that are most vulnerable to over-fishing. They also identified the main habitats
where species are fished. This is necessary so that conservation and management
strategies of these areas can be recommended and implemented. Interviewing the couple
on coastal climate change helps to gain insights on changes that have been taking place
along the coastal zone—such as coral bleaching, dominant coral species, and coastal
trees—that are considered vital in relation to policy implementation and conservation
strategies.
Individuals working closely with NGOs and the World Fish Centre had firsthand
information on conservation and sustainable development strategies such as aquaculture
and mari-culture that have been carried out on the island.
2.10.4 Field observation
In-the-field observations were carried out particularly along the coastal areas of the five
study sites. This was to assess specific coastal and inshore marine habitats so as to
describe and quantify damage caused by sea–level rise, flooding, and storm surges.
Observations were recorded in a logbook to keep a record of important events and
names of people who have contributed their experiences on changes in coastal areas.
29
The various estimates mentioned by the interviewees based on the extent of inland sea–
level movement were also recorded. This was carried out with people that were present
during the time of observation to each of the study sites.
Observations were made on near–shore marine ecosystems and species that have been
affected or threatened by the changes, including the identification of affected coastal
crops and participating in fishing activities to identify affected finfish as well as
engaging with several informants to identify coastal trees and other plants that are most,
or least, affected.
Such insights and information are useful in relation to gaining a better understanding of
adaptation strategies that can be implemented to conserve and manage coastal
ecosystems and biodiversity.
2.10.5 Photographing and mapping
Digital photos were taken during the participatory observation and field visits in all five
study sites. Major subjects included affected coastal biodiversity, inshore resources, and
environmental changes that were reportedly due to climate change, sea–level rise,
environmental changes, and human activities. Photos of important commercial marine
species were also taken.
Relevant photos were also taken of human-induced threats to coastal and inshore marine
biodiversity and conservation areas to enhance discussion on strategies that would assist
the conservation and management of the coastal ecosystems and biodiversity.
Mapping of several of the most affected areas, coastal biodiversity and their location on
Ghizo Island using GIS was carried out to show the location and nature of the most
vulnerable areas and as a basis for future assessment of change over time.
30
2.11 Data analysis
Analysis of the questionnaire data was done using Excel spread sheets. These responses
were ranked from the highest to the lowest number of responses for each of the four
sections in the questionnaire and then converted into tables. The more in-depth
responses and explanations contained in the questionnaires were synthesized with
information obtained in the in-depth interview and field observations to generate
explanations and conclusions related to the numerical data presented in the tables.
2.12 Strength and weaknesses of research method
A certain number of weaknesses or limitations of the research method were encountered
during the fieldwork in Ghizo Island.
First, quite a number of sections in the questionnaires were returned blank or
unanswered. This is due to religious beliefs where the respondents were prohibited from
consuming or even talking about certain coastal and inshore marine species. Secondly,
the 2007 tsunami, which caused massive damage to the ecosystems and habitats along
the coastal zone, is still fresh in people’s memories. Therefore, responses to most of the
questionnaires related to climate change and sea–level rise were often confused with the
impacts of the 2007 tsunami.
The second limitation encountered is the lack of the available of data. Unlike the well-
researched biodiversity in many areas, there is limited existing in-depth data on the
biodiversity of Solomon Islands, and little or no data on the impacts of climate change
on coastal and inshore marine biodiversity. Also there is no historical data on climate
variability so it is difficult to determine the trend of climate change and its impacts on
coastal ecosystems and species.
Consequently, despite these limitations it is believed that this research work can provide
a stepping-stone towards applying scientific methods of research on the impacts of
31
climate change, sea–level rise, environment change, and human activities on ecosystem
and coastal diversity in Solomon Islands.
2.13 Personal advantages and disadvantages
Other problems included a language barrier. In Ghizo Island, most of the people living
in the villages are from different ethnic groups, mainly from Vella La Vella, Simbo,
Kiribati settlers, Roviana, and Marovo. Although, most men responded well to
questions, some were uncertain on local names of some coastal plants and trees.
Likewise, women responded well to most questions except on local names of particular
inshore marine species.
As a result, it was often difficult to correlate and understand the local vernacular names
of the coastal and marine species with common or scientific names to be able to identify
what species they were actually referring to. However, staff members working with the
NGOs like WWF at Gizo were able to provide relevant charts showing similar species
so some correlations were made. This problem was overcome through pictures
comparison and using environmental encyclopedia of Marovo vernacular (Hviding,
2005) of the western province who have been settling there in big numbers for quite a
while.
As well, several people who lived in some of these villages were only recent settlers5
and were able to provide only limited information in relation to changes and the local
names of various affected species. Additionally, it was necessary to postpone interviews
of several elder men and women due to political rallies gearing towards the general
election, which was held during the study period.
5 Most of these people are from Simbo and Vela la Vella and are based at Kogulavata and Paelongge villages.
32
CHAPTER 3 COASTAL BIODIVERSITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE: A REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE
3.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews literature on climate change and sea–level rise, two global
problems causing environmental concern. The theoretical bases of climate change and
sea–level rise will be examined with reference to the Pacific Islands in general and
Solomon Islands in particular, where Ghizo Island, the central focus of this research is
located. This chapter also looks at climate change and sea–level rise and the impacts
they have on coastal biodiversity in the Pacific region and Solomon Islands. Special
reference is given to the role of coastal biodiversity in relation to adaptation and risks to
societies. The literature on adaptation to climate change is taken into account. The last
section summarizes the previous work carried out in Ghizo Island.
3.2 Climate change
Climate change is a contemporary environmental issue. Pittock (2005) and Pallewatta,
(2010) state that global climate change is happening and is critical to the world as it will
inevitably pose a bigger challenge during the 21st century. Climate change impacts, such
as droughts, intense precipitation events, flooding, sea–level rise and other extreme
weather events, are already felt across the world, with the poorest people and most
vulnerable ecosystems being hit hardest (BLI, 2009). These changes are likely to be
sudden and unpredictable as to timing and intensity as global warming and climate
change persist (Harris et al., 2006).
Climate is the occurrence of variables such as temperature, rainfall, and wind in a given
time and place over a number of years (Pittock, 2005; 2009). These variables referred to
as weather when they happen within a shorter time period, on daily or yearly bases
(Wilkinson & Buddemeier, 1994). This means that changes in climate are a genuine
long-term trend that can only be identified over long periods of time or scales such as
33
decades, a century and even up to millions of years (Pittock, 2005). Therefore, the
connection between climate and weather requires adaptive and mitigation strategies.
Observation is normally based on a 30-year interval study, which is used to calculate and
produce data to describe climate averages and variability (Parry and Carter, 1998;
Pittock, 2005; Karl and Trenberth, 2005). While this is central to the generalization of
climate averages over the years, Pittock (2005) and Wilkinson &Buddemeier (1994)
specified that climate is not always stable but varies on a range of time scales and this
trend will continue in the future.
Karl and Trenberth (2003) further explain that understanding climate variations and
changes means taking into account climate’s sensitivity to a variety of factors both
human and natural. The definition of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) takes into accounts both natural processes and anthropogenic factors. However,
this definition stands in contrast to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) definition, which defines climate change as mainly caused
directly or indirectly by human activities that alter the composition of the global
atmosphere and which is added to natural climate variability observed over a period of
time (IPCC, 2007).
Climate change has become a controversial issue. Several critics on climate change
consider global warming as part of the natural cycle and assert that nothing can be done
about it. Some economists have also pointed out the importance and positivity of global
warming in some areas to the economy and productivity (Totten, 2007). Despite these
controversial perspectives, scientists, after long debate and analysis, eventually
concluded that the rapid warming in the last several decades was mostly from human
induced changes to the atmosphere superimposed on top of some natural variations
(Pittock, 2005; Cox and Moore, 2005).
According to Ackerly et al. (2010), the basic challenge in trying to understand climate
patterns revolves around a number of components such as temperature, precipitation,
winds and their spatial characteristics. Harris et al. (2006) mentioned that these climate
patterns can be sudden and unpredictable particularly in their timing and intensity. Even
34
though there are uncertainties in understanding the system of the world’s climate, there
is strong evidence that climate change is occurring (Pittock, 2005). Fig 3.1 shows that
climate change has been occurring by, increase of air temperature, sea–level rise, and the
melting of snow and ice over the last few decades.
3.2.1 Mean surface temperature
The past trend of climate change over the years seems to be consistent with an increase
of about 0.6 degree Celsius of global mean surface temperature over the last 100 years
(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). This measurement also falls into place with
the records of temperature measurements during 1860, which indicated an increase of
0.4 to 0.8 degree Celsius over the last 140 years (Hulme, 2005). Pittock (2009) stated
that the global average surface temperature since the beginning of the twentieth century
has risen by 0.74÷± 0.18ºC, which also verifies that the linear warming trend that
occurred over the last 50 years around 0.13+ ±0.3ºC per decade is nearly twice that for
the last 100 years.
Reports have shown the warming trend of the last three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and
2000s, which have indicated and confirmed that it is slightly warmer than the previous
decades, with, the 2000s the warmest (Arndt, Baringer and Johnson, 2010). A more
recent significant weather and climate events press release by the World Meteorological
organisation (WMO) confirmed that the year 2010 ranks as the warmest year on record
together with 2005 and 1998 (WMO, 2011). Reliable WMO records that declared 2005
and 1998 as the two warmest years on record since 1861 supported such predictions.
This was consistent with the record in that twelve of the last 13 years (1995–2007), with
the exception of 1996, were ranked as the twelve warmest years since 1850 (Pittock,
2009).
35
Figure 3.1. Showing the changes in A) global average temperature B) sea–level rise and C) melting snow and ice. (Adapted from the IPCC, 2007.)
36
The widely growing evidence of increased global warming indicates that it has been
around 0.7 degrees Celsius throughout the 21st century, which is consistent with the
prediction related to the emission of greenhouse gases due to human activities (Karpe et
al., 1990; Karl and Trenberth, 2005). Kellogg (1978) associated these changes with
growing urbanization, industrialization, massive use of fossil fuels, deforestation and
forest fires, all of which have accelerated over the last century, with carbon dioxide as
the major greenhouse gas according to the Birdlife International Report (2009).
Increased temperature and sea level are seen against various scenarios of greenhouse gas
and other human-related emissions (refer to the IPCC, 2001 report for examples). In a
more up-to-date report of the IPCC in 2007, under a “business as usual scenario
(BAU)”, it is predicted that an increase in greenhouse gases of 25 to 90 per cent by 2030
relative to 2000 will produce a warming by 30 C this century (UNFCCC, 2007).
Temperature records in the Pacific region show an increase in mean surface temperature
of 0.2 per cent per decade this century (Barnett, 2001). In the entire tropical western
Pacific region, trends showing rising surface temperatures are also evidenced by
observations of the near-surface temperature from Fiji that have shown higher than
normal temperatures in the years 2003–2006 (Rasmussen et al., 2009). In Port Moresby
warming trends of similar magnitude are evident in both annual and seasonal mean air
temperatures for period 1950-2009 (Inape and Virobo, 2011).
In Solomon Islands, analyses taken at four stations show an increase in the surface
temperatures recorded between 0.5 and 0.8 degree Celsius per century during 1901 to
2005, and an increase between 0.15 and 0.25 degree Celsius per decade since 1979
(Rasmussen et al., 2009). This is consistent with the trend of rising temperatures in Fiji.
While the report shows a steady increase in temperature for Solomon Islands, there are
still slight variations especially for the nine provinces. Reports show only Auki in the
Malaita Province having more reliable data over a 44–year period, which indicates an
increase of temperature by 1 degree Celsius between 1962 and 2006 (Baragamu, 2008)
(fig 3.2).
37
Figure 3.2. Showing increase in temperature over a 44–year period taken at Auki, Malaita Province. (Adapted from Baragamu, 2008.)
3.2.2 Sea–level rise
One of the inevitable aspects of climate changes is sea–level rise (Hansen 2007).
Generally, sea level refers to the mean sea level or the average level of tidal waters that
is usually measured over a 20-year period (Anderson et al., 2009).
Globally it is known as the average increase in the world’s ocean which takes in a
number of factors such as changes in the elevation of land due to either subsidence or
uplift (Gregory and Church, 2002; Anderson et al., 2009), and due to thermal expansion
and melting glaciers (Hansen, 2007; Anderson et al., 2009; Pallewatta, 2010). The
former is normally used when referring to local sea level, particularly in situations along
the coasts, usually referred to as relative sea level.
Globally, sea level has shown an increase at an average rate of 1.8 (1.3 to 2.3) mm per
year over a period from 1961 to 2003 (IPCC, 2007), but a faster rate of about 3.1 (2.4 to
3.8) mm per year from 1993 to 2003 (IPCC, 2007; McMullen and Jabbour, 2009). While
38
sea level vary in different geographical locations, model’s and scientists’ projection is
that the gradual warming and sea–level rise during this century and well beyond 2100 is
continuing as a result of greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC, 2001; Gregory and Church,
2002).
While the IPCC projection shows a sea–level rise of 0.6 metres or more by 2100,
accompanied by an increase in sea surface temperature of 3 degree Celsius, these may be
due to significant variation in regional impacts from coastal areas to sea–level rise
(Pallewatta, 2010).
In the Pacific islands, monitoring of sea–level over the years shows the rising of sea
level (Nunn, 1993; Hall, 2008). The data based on historical sea–level trends in the
Pacific, have shown that the mean sea levels in the Pacific region have been rising in the
order of approximately +1mm/year for over 60 years (Hall, 2008).
The scientific community has acknowledged that sea–level rise compared to the
historical trend, in the South Pacific has been rising at an accelerating rate since 1970.
For example, in 1950 to 2001 the average sea level (relative to land) from the 6 longest
tide-gauge records shows a rise of 1.4mm/yr. This after later correction for glacial
isostatic and adjustment for atmospheric pressure, shows the rate of rise to be 2.0mm/yr
and that long term tide gauge records in the equatorial Pacific indicate the variance of
monthly averaged sea level after 1970 is about twice that of before 1970 (Hall, 2008).
In the South-West Pacific, particularly the Melanesia region6, of which Solomon Islands
is part, the rate of sea–level height measured by satellites over a 10–year period has been
8–10mm/yr, a change approximately 3 times the global average (Talo, 2008) (Fig 3.3).
For example, measurement of short–term sea–level change through September 2006
recorded a +6.3 mm/yr (Baragamu, 2008), while more recent measurements of sea levels
from 1994 up to June 2008 indicate the net relative sea level increase at 7.6mm/yr,
which is twice the average trend up to June 2007 (Talo, 2008).
6 Melanesia Region includes Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonian.
39
Figure 3.3. Map showing sea–level trends in the Melanesia region including Solomon Islands compared to the global sea–level trend. (Adapted from NOAA website: (http://ibis.grdl.noaa.gov/SAT/slr/slr/map_txj1_sst.png in Leisz, Burnett and Allison, n.d.)
3.2.3 Cyclone frequency
Climate change is projected to affect climate variability, thus increasing the frequency
and severity of storms, tidal surges, tropical cyclones and droughts (Cox and Moore,
2005; Fischlin et al., 2007; Pallewatta, 2010). This was indeed reported that tropical
cyclones and typhoons have increased during the 20th century, but most of the increase
has been recorded since 1970 (USAID, 2009).
Reports of the recent occurrence of tropical cyclones over the years causing many
human tragedies is on record: Hurricane Katrina in the United States in August 2005;
cyclone Sidr in Bangladesh in November 2007 and cyclone Nargis in Myanmar in May
2008 all confirm the widespread calamities faced by different countries (USAID, 2009).
40
Similarly, reports show shifts in precipitation patterns, hydrological cycles, and sea–
level rise that are accompanied by severe extreme weather events such as storm and
storm surges (USAID, 2010). Lovejoy and Hannah (2005) also report changes in global
hydrological cycles causing some regions to become drier and other regions wetter. For
example, several tropical cyclones brought unusually wet and cloudy conditions to
western and northern Japan during 2009, setting a new record when the country
experienced the lowest monthly sunshine since 1941 (Osawa, et al., 2010 in the State of
the Climate, 2009).
For the low latitudes of the Pacific, the most common, threatening and extreme event
comes in the form of tropical cyclones and droughts (d'Aubert and Nunn, 2010). Mataki
et al. (2006) discovered previously those extreme events especially tropical cyclones,
are events that frequent the Pacific Islands, usually at a rate of about 1–2 per year. It was
reported that there was more than a doubling of severe tropical cyclones in the
Southwest Pacific between 1975 to 1989 and 1990 to 2004 (Webster et al., 2005). This
was consistent with the UNFCCC (2007) report describing that cyclones constitute 76%
of reported disasters between 1950 and 2004 in the Pacific Islands.
In general, countries including Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa and Cook
Islands, were reported to have experienced frequent tropical cyclones (d'Aubert and
Nunn, 2010). For instance, in Samoa, the occurrence of cyclones and storm surges was
reported between 1990 and 1991, and later affected the smaller states of Niue and Cook
Islands. These are the countries that were mostly hit by 5 cyclones in that period
(Maclellan, 2009). This shows that the extreme events such as tropical cyclones are
increasing.
With respect to Solomon Islands, Rasmussen et al. (2009) report that an average of 1.4
tropical cyclones per year over the November to April cyclone season was recorded
from 1969/70 to 2004/5. For example, Bellona experienced four major tropical cyclones
(Ngella in 1952, Kerry in 1978, Namu in 1986 and Nina in 1993); Tikopia experienced
major tropical cyclones Hina in 1991 and Zoë in 2002; and, Ontong Java, which hardly
41
experiences tropical cyclones due to its location, was hit by tropical cyclone Annie in
1967 (Rasmussen et al., 2009).
3.2.4 El Niño
As global warming increases, it is suggested that there will be an increase in the
frequency of the short-term climate oscillations such as that associated with the El Niño
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomena (Nunn, 1993) that are responsible for climatic
in the tropics and mid- to high latitudes (Halpert et al., 2010).
According to a NOAA report, every few years El Niño brings a swath of abnormally
warmer waters to the Pacific Ocean, whereas La Niña brings cooler waters, both of
which disturb the normal patterns and location of ocean currents, winds and weather
systems around the globe (Arndt, Baringer and Johnson, 2010). This in turn, causes
variance in rainfall and temperature (IPCC, 2001; Hulme, 2005).
El Niño events, for example cause droughts in southern Africa, Indonesia and eastern
Australia and flooding along the Pacific coast of northwestern South America, East
Africa and California (Hulme 2005 citing Glantz, 2000). Patterns of precipitation
associated with El Niño were also observed to be above average, particularly in the
Central equatorial and Southern eastern South America with below-average precipitation
in parts of Indonesia and the Amazon Basin (Halpert et al., 2010). In the Solomon
Islands the El Niño has a strong influence on rainfall. For instance El Niño tends to bring
drier conditions in the wet season, through a delayed onset of the WPM, often until
January or February (Hiriasia and Tahani, 2011) (fig 3.4).
In the Pacific Islands, changes in weather patterns such as droughts, higher temperatures,
wind patterns and reduction in rainfall have been coincident with the negative phase of
El- Niño events, all of which can present a bigger challenge during the 21st century
especially for the Pacific region (Nunn, 1993, 2009). For example, in parts of New
Caledonia and Vanuatu, annual rainfall exceeded the normal precipitation (120%) of
1979–95, whereas in some parts of the South West Pacific records show below-normal
42
precipitation (<80%) across places like the western Kiribati, Tuvalu, Tokelau and
eastern Kiribati (Peltier and Tahani, 2010).
Figure 3.4 Annual rainfall in Honiara influenced by El Niño and La Niña. (Adapted from Hiriasia and Tahani, 2011).
Climate change may also intensify droughts when associated with El Niño events. For
example, the incidence of drought has already increased in Solomon Islands, Papua New
Guinea and the Marshall Islands (USAID, 2010). Similarly, Vanuatu experienced
droughts in 1978 and 1983 and Samoa in 1971 and 1989. In Fiji, the occurrence of
droughts during 1987, 1992 and 1997 shows its worst drought incidence over the
century. In Solomon Islands, it was reported that the effects of ENSO during 1997/98
caused major drought leading to serious water shortages in Gizo town (Solomon Islands
Initial National Communications, 2001).
El Niño events can have a direct impact on the mean sea level. The 1997/8 El Niño
impacts on sea level were more felt along the “South Pacific Convergence Zone”
(SPCZ) due to changes in the strength and position of trade winds, which have direct
effects on sea level. For example, Tuvalu which located in the heart of the SPCZ,
43
usually experiences higher than normal average sea levels each year when the effects are
at its peak (Pacific Country Report, 2004).
3.3 Climate change and coastal zone
According to several studies, coastal zones are particularly vulnerable to climate change
and to a synergy of human activities (Miller, 1999; USAID, 2009; Wong, 2010). This is
because coastlines are recognized as the most populated regions. In the Caribbean and
Pacific Islands, more than 50% of the population lives within 1.5 km of the shore
(Mimura et al., 2007). These areas have been the centre of human settlement due to their
cultural and aesthetic value (Pallewatta, 2010).
The IPCC fourth report identifies 6 physical factors associated with climate change that
can negatively affect coastal regions: storms, waves, sea level, temperature rise, carbon-
dioxide concentration and runoff (Burkett et al., 2008). Several impacts of climate
change along coastal areas that will be discussed below are flooding and salt-water
intrusion, coastal erosion, retreat, and runoff and sedimentation.
3.3.1 Flooding and salt-water intrusion
Coastlines are vulnerable to storm surges and associated coastal flooding and salt-water
intrusion. Inter-tidal and sub-tidal habitats, for instance, rocky and sandy shores are
mostly vulnerable to impacts of waves and currents during storms and cyclones (Miller,
1999).
On the other hand, cyclones, which can cause increases rainfall and storm surges, are
likely to affect agriculture if they become frequent. More rainfall in the form of storms
and downfalls will increase flooding, thus reducing the ability of soil to absorb water,
giving crops less time to recover (Lezard, Fernando, McFadzien and Masianini, 2003).
In Solomon Islands, atolls and islands are more vulnerable to climate change impacts,
and salt-water intrusion, storm surges and flooding are already reported to threaten the
44
low-lying islands and atolls such as in Ontong Java, Reef Islands and Sikaiana (Mimura
et al. 2007).
3.3.2 Coastal erosion and retreat
Several studies identify sea–level rise being the underlying cause for most of the world’s
sandy shorelines retreat and land loss during the past century (Mimura, 1999; Nicholls et
al., 2007). Predictions show that even a rise of sea level of about 0.5 per cent would
reduce up to 32 per cent of turtle nesting beaches in the Caribbean (Fish et al., 2005).
Simeoni and Corbau (2009) estimated that every millimeter of sea rise would cause
coastal erosion of about 10 cm. While beaches worldwide clearly point towards sea–
level rise as the major contributor to increasing erosion, other factors may well be the
cause, such as changes in wind pattern and rainfall patterns (Nicholls, et al., 2007).
It should be recognized that changes in coastal erosion also depend on other factors as
well, such as geological settings (Pirzzoli, 1991; Mimura et al., 2007) including type of
coast, sediments and as well as even protective habitats such as mangroves and other
strands of vegetation (Mimura et al.,2007) including other extreme events.
The exacerbation of beach erosion because of sea–level rise is becoming a common
concern; many islands in the South Pacific are showing increasing shoreline retreat over
the past decades (Mimura, 1999). In terms of land loss, the low-lying atolls including the
Marshall Islands, Tuvalu, Nauru, Kiribati and Tokelau, are more vulnerable to even
small rise in sea level.7
For example, it is estimated that for Majuro atoll in the Marshall Islands and in Kiribati,
a 1-metre rise in sea level would cause much of the total land area to be vulnerable
(Mimura 1999; Burns, 2000). Similarly, in Tongatapu an increase of 0.3 metre and 1 7 There are also uncertainties particularly on the effects of the sea–level rise on low-lying atolls and islands. For example, focusing on the case of Tuvalu, Mortreux & Barnett warn against ‘unhelpful sensationalism’, stating that ‘there is nothing inevitable about climate-induced catastrophe in Tuvalu (Rubow, 2009. p. 93). Also, or as the director of the National Environment Service of the Cook Islands frames it: ‘it is not likely that all of the Cook Islands would disappear under the sea even with the highest projected rates of sea-level rise’ (Rubow, 2009. p. 93 in Tupa 2004). There are also implications pointed out by others that sea levels are not rising, and those that are convinced that sea–level rise induced by climate change is a distant concern (Farbotko, 2010).
45
metre in mean sea level would cause land loss of 3.1 km2 and 10.3 km2, respectively, or
1.1% and 3.9% of the total area (Mimura, 1999).
Although reports of accelerated rising sea levels have been projected to cause shoreline
retreat and land loss, latest findings through satellite images have shown that several
atoll islands, such as Tuvalu and Kiribati, are growing geologically, showing their
resilience and adapting to their changing environment as sea–level rises.8 This is through
coral debris sediment build up and in some cases land reclamation which has helped the
islands shift shape and in ways adapt (Webb and Kench, 2010).
In the Solomon Islands, a number of islands including Liuaniua and Pelau in Ontong
Java have experienced eroding and land retreat along the coastal areas over the years
(Pacific adaptation to climate change, Solomon Islands, n.d). This was confirmed by a
report based on the Liuaniua and Pelau islands in Ontong Java showing how the islands
have already decreased in size since 1970 (Fugui and Cook, 2010).
3.3.3 Runoff and sedimentation
Scientific evidence has predicted that climate change will cause certain changes in
precipitation patterns, runoff and sediment loads. For instance, areas where climate
change has caused increased river flow, this will lead to increased transportation of
sediments (accumulation) in wetlands or sands for littoral systems (Boesch, Field and
Scavia, 2000), thus changing the amount of sediments available, which is important for
sustainability of deltas and other sedimentary landforms (Burkett et al., 2007).
8 Recent study of the 27 Pacific islands featured in New Scientist reports including the vulnerable island of Tuvalu shown resilience instead. Report shows that the islands including Tuvalu have remained stable in size or even grow over the past six decades and even as sea, level rises.
46
3.4 Coastal biodiversity; Climate change effects
Climate change and related phenomena, will also constitute major threats to coastal
biodiversity and a wide range of habitats ranging from coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass
and others that are found within coastal zone (Miller, 1999; Burke et al., 2001;
Pallewatta, 2010).
Most of these habitats provide a wide range of goods and services (Burke et al., 2001)
and are threatened by human pressures (Mimura et al., 2007). Parmesan and Yohe
(2003) support the claim that rising evidence is already detected, on critical coastal
ecosystems in many Pacific islands, such as mangrove forests, seagrass beds and coral
reefs, most of which support valuable fishes, fish species, crustaceans and rare fauna
(Burns, 2000).
The next section will highlight issues of coral mortality, loss of mangroves and seagrass,
changes in fish distribution and loss of crop production.
3.4.1 Coral mortality
Studies by Gitay et al. (2002) and Mooney et al. (2009) showed the species with limited
ecological tolerance ranges, such as coral reefs, could be particularly vulnerable to
climate environment change. Globally a large–scale mass bleaching becomes the main
cause of coral mortality and reef deterioration, which is most often associated with
significant rise in sea surface temperature (Reaser et al., 2000; Salm and McLeod,
2008).
The increased sea surface temperatures, particularly El Niño events, have led to coral
bleaching and human-induced climate change will exacerbate the problem. For example,
records show 1998 as the most geographically extensive and severe of reported cases of
bleaching which was due to a steady rising of marine temperature associated with
regionally specific El Niño and La-Nina events (Reaser et al., 2000; Souter and Lindén,
2005).
47
In the Pacific Islands, the 1997-1998 El Niño caused considerable bleaching, more
severe than previous impacts to surrounding ecosystems (Maclellan, 2009). A report
based on the state of marine biodiversity in the Pacific Islands confirms coral bleaching
events, which have increased in size, frequency and magnitude since the late 1970s. An
increase of +1-3 degree Celsius in water temperature, was noted, which is more often
than not linked to ENSO (Kinch et al., 2010).
Today reports of bleached corals are becoming regular in the South Pacific waters, many
of them having occurred in the past decades, affecting reefs in Tahiti, Palau and parts of
Melanesia including islands of Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands, and the outer
remote reefs off the Cook Islands and Tonga.
Other stressors like sea–level rise, pollution and even lower salinity (Burns, 2000;
Hannah et al., 2005) can also cause mortality of corals. For example, sea–level rise is
said to affect corals by drowning and decreasing the amount of available light. On the
other hand, sedimentation due to erosion from sea–level rise can cause coral mortality
and as well increased precipitation can lower salinity leading to mass mortality on
nearby coral reefs (Buddemeier, Kleypas and Aronson, 2004).
The ability of reefs to recover from anomalous warming events, tropical storms and
other acute disturbances is profoundly affected by the level of chronic anthropogenic
disturbance (Edwards and Gomez, 2007).
Past reports of coral bleaching, especially in Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea,
show poor documentation when compared to the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, and the
Caribbean (Foale, 2008). While there is limited information on effects of climate change
and sea–level rise on coral reefs in Solomon Islands, reports showing lower sea level
associated with the recent El Niño event led to bleached corals in Western Province
(Iroi, et al., 2006).
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3.4.2 Loss of mangroves
Climate change impacts on mangrove ecosystems are being observed, although such
ecosystems are more vulnerable to threats from anthropogenic hazards and from sea–
level rise due to global warming than climate change itself (Kleypas et al., 2006).
Mangroves are said to have undergone the fastest degradation rates throughout the
world, with an estimated half of the world’s mangrove area having been lost since the
beginning of the 20th century, most of which has been due to human conversion
(McMullen and Jabbour, 2009).
Mangroves respond to climate change and sea–level rise either through accretion,
migration inland or through habitat loss (Pallewatta, 2010). Studies reveal that coastal
wetlands such as salt marshes and mangroves are particularly threatened when they are
sediment starved or constrained on the landward margin (Nicholls et al., 2007;
McMullen and Jabbour, 2009; Pallewatta, 2010). Mangroves tend to migrate landward
in response to sea–level rise. In cases where this is not possible due to human
interventions, this often results in the disappearance of mangroves by submergence of
their roots and pneumatophores (Gilman et al., 2006). This is referred to as ‘coastal
squeeze’ (Pallewatta, 2010).
In the Pacific, the estimated rise in sea level of about 2.0mm has reportedly resulted in
salt-water intrusion affecting freshwater ecosystems such as rivers, freshwater marshes
and lowland farmland (Miller, 1999; Gilman et al., 2006) and negative impacts on
marine habitats and terrestrial processes. For smaller island states, which are
characterized by micro-tidal sediments and poor environment, this will increase
vulnerability of mangroves over the next century (Burns, 2000).
For example, projected sea–level rise (SLR) over the next century will severely affect
mangrove distribution particularly in the Western region of Papua New Guinea (Burns,
2000). In American Samoa sea level is said to account for about 50% loss of mangroves,
and in another fifteen Pacific islands, reduction in mangroves is about 12% (Mimura et
al., 2007).
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Apart from sea–level rise, other factors such as storm surges, sea temperature rise, tidal
regime and precipitation also account for their effect to coastal systems particularly
those of the mangroves (Gilman et al., 2006). For example, increased precipitation,
cyclones and storm surges can cause damage to mangroves by changing the hydrological
regime of estuaries, thus causing widespread mangrove mortality (McAdoo et al., 2008).
3.4.3 Loss of seagrass beds
Growing evidence has shown that seagrass beds or meadows are also vulnerable to
climate change (Bjork et al., 2008; Marba and Duarte, 2010). According to Marba and
Duarte (2010), seagrass beds show global declines estimated at 2–5 %/yr.
Increase of sea temperature can alter seagrass distribution and abundance as well as their
growth rates; especially where temperatures reach the upper limit of tolerance it reduces
productivity and eventually leads to deaths (Bjork et al., 2008; Salm and McLeod,
2008). For example, in Australia, higher temperature has caused a large number of
deaths of Amphibolis antartica and Zostera spp. (Bjork, et al., 2008).
Storms, sea–level rise and flooding are also being reported to cause sediment movement,
which can cause uprooting or burying of plants, and with increased rainfall, this can
contribute to sediment loading, reduced light levels and the smothering of plants (Orth et
al., 2006; Bjork et al., 2008).
Excess nutrients and sediments are reported as the significant cause of seagrass decline
resulting in large areas of seagrass loss. Climatic extreme events (e.g., tropical cyclones
and tsunamis) can have large impacts on seagrass communities and sub-sequent effects
on ecosystem services provided by seagrass (Orth et al., 2006). For example, in the case
of Hervey Bay in Australia, which shows high turbidity after tropical storms. This has
led to a 1000 km2 loss of seagrass producing high mortality (Orth et al., 2006).
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3.4.4 Changing distribution of fish
The degradation and loss of corals, mangroves and seagrass that provide important
habitats will have adverse effects on fish stocks. For example, loss of mangroves will
tend to affect predatory fish, most notably those species of the families of the
Carangidae, Lethrinidae and Scaridae, most of which feed in seagrass meadows and are
also important in the trophic structuring of sea grass faunal assemblages (Unsworth and
Cullen, 2010).
Climate change may also affect the distribution of some fisheries resources. Climate
change can affect individuals, populations and communities of fish through changes in
temperature, winds, currents and precipitation (Graham and Harrod, 2009). For instance,
a rise of temperature is likely to impact important commercial fisheries through shifts in
distribution and abundance (Burkett et al., 2008). Although there is no consensus that El
Niño episode are likely to increase with climate change, it changes the movement of
skipjack tuna, who move towards warmer waters, reducing catch in some areas and
increasing catch in others (Lezard et al., 2003; Maclellan, 2009; Bell et al, 2011).
Climate change not only alters species distribution, but also disrupts food webs and
alters life cycles (IUCN, 2008). For example, many areas of the Indo-Pacific showed
that the loss of sea-grass resulted in a decline of invertebrates’ fisheries such as sea
cucumbers, particularly green fish, sandfish and lollyfish (Unsworth and Cullen, 2010).
Human influences such as pollution, land development and over-fishing are already
affecting these resources – and all of them will be exacerbated by climate change.
3.4.5 Agriculture
Studies have revealed that climate change can also affect agriculture and coastal food
crops (Ralston et al., 2004; Pittock, 2009; Hossain, 2010). In particular, the effects of
salt-water intrusion can reduce fertility of coastal soils resulting in the disruption of crop
production (Burns, 2000; Vassolo, 2007).
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In the South Pacific, where subsistence economy dominates, salt-water intrusion will
intensify their vulnerability, which can cause damage to agriculture but more severely
for low-lying small islands (Mimura, 1999). For example, in the northernmost islands of
Western Kiribati, babai plants (giant taro), (Cyrtosperma) are dying due to salt-water
intrusion and as a result, babai together with other taro (Colocasia) are being cultivated
in woven baskets to acquire fresh water (Mourits, 1996). Similarly in Tuvalu, the rising
sea level intruding into fresh water creates soil salinity, which affects giant swamp taro
or pulaka (Cyrtosperma chamissonis), the most important root crop staple. As a result
the giant taros are also grown in deep pits to tap the fresh water lens (Long and
Wormworth, 2007).
In the Solomon Islands, salt-water intrusion is reported in areas like Ontong Java and
Sikaiana Island, which has negatively affected crop production. It was reported that
gardens, along the coastal areas were affected by intrusion of seawater during high tides
that affected tubers of plants such as taro and giant swamp taro, in some cases killing
these plants and leaving behind only ferns (Fugui and Cook, 2010). Furthermore,
flooding from normal heavy rain and high swells is widely evident on West
Guadalcanal, causing damage to food crops, particularly commercial cocoa and coconut
plantations (Pacific Horizon Consultancy Group, 2009).
3.5 Coastal biodiversity; Human effects
Human-induced disturbance is one of the main pressures affecting coastal biodiversity
and thus is undermining people’s resilience to added effects of climate change
(Slingenberg et al., 2009). Based on the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment report, the
two main drivers causing change in an ecosystem are human and natural drivers
categorized as direct and indirect drivers (MEA, 2005).
Studies have shown that the five major direct drivers identified as the greatest threat to
coastal zone biodiversity and ecosystems are habitat change, overexploitation, pollution,
invasive species and climate change (Wilby and Perry, 2006; Slingenberg et al., 2009;
52
Pallewatta 2010). These drivers are summed up (table 3.1) and show global trends over
the past century of impacts on coastal biodiversity.
Pallewatta (2010) noted that climate change is a global driver that can exacerbate
impacts already caused either by environmental or human drivers. These drivers do not
always work separately but often form a synergistic complex (Hannah, Lovejoy and
Schneider. 2005; CBD, 2009). For that reason, ecosystems, which are already affected
by anthropogenic activities, may not be able to withstand the additional effects of
climate change as they are being pushed towards new thresholds, which they may not
have encountered before (MEA, 2005).
Table 3.1. Assessment of trends over past century and impacts of proximate drivers on coastal zone biodiversity.
Driver Degree of impact Trend
Habitat change Very high Increasing impact
Overexploitation High Increasing impact
Pollution (nutrient loading by nitrogen and phosphorus)
Very high Very rapidly increasing impact
Invasive species High Increasing impact
Climate change Moderate Very rapidly increasing impact
Source: Adapted from Pallewatta, 2010.
3.5.1 Habitat change
Humans for the past 50 years have rapidly and extensively changed the ecosystems in
order to cater for the rapid growing demands for food, freshwater, timber, fibre and fuel,
all of which have resulted in a large irreversible loss in diversity of life on earth (Chape,
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2006). Reports show that the major influential drivers for inland wetlands, including
coastal ecosystems, are the threats from habitat change and pollution (Slingenberg et al.,
2009).
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment report indicates that development-related
conversion of coastal habitats such as forests, wetlands and coral reefs is the greatest
threat to coastal ecosystems (MEA, 2005). For example, direct human impacts such as
coastal development can entirely remove entire reefs, changing nearby ecosystems and
component species and thus undermining the ability of reefs to cope with climate change
(Obura and Gabriel, 2009).
In many Pacific Island countries, mining of beach sand to make concrete for various
types of construction, projects including breakwaters and jetties, can be destructive,
affect movements, and alter sand deposition and erosion (Bleakely, 2004). Moreover,
development of resorts tends to lead to growing demand for second homes, which causes
further threats to coastal habitat, resulting in alteration of landscapes and harmful
impacts to fragile ecosystems (Burkett et al., 2008).
Most notably in the Pacific islands, the major direct threats to biodiversity include
upland and inland deforestation and forest degradation, coastal and mangrove
deforestation and degradation, destruction and degradation of marine ecosystems and
over-use of terrestrial plant and animal resources (Thaman, 2002). Mangroves in
particular are said to be under pressure from clearance, pollution, and reclamation and
have so far had only limited attention in conservation programmes (Bleakely, 2004).
Increasing deforestation and degradation are the major cause of increased flooding and
sedimentation of rivers and streams, which contributes to the degradation of nearshore
coral reefs and other coastal ecosystems and biodiversity (Thaman, 2002).
In Melanesia, including Solomon Islands, one of the most severe threats facing the
region is land-based sedimentation whereas in Polynesia the primary threats are from
coastal development and land reclamation, leading to the damage or destruction of
critical ecosystems (Centre for Ocean Solutions, 2009).
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3.5.2 Over-exploitation
Human activities such as over-fishing and harvesting of coastal resources have been
shown to contribute to the declining numbers of important ecosystems and species, all of
which can be exacerbated by climate change. For marine ecosystems, the most
significant driver comes from over-exploitation (Slingenberg et al., 2009). The issue of
over-exploitation considers species that are vulnerable or commercially valuable such as
bêche-de-mer, giant clams, trochus, pearl oyster, live groupers, coconut crabs, marine
turtles and sharks.
In the Pacific Islands, the primary cause of coral reef degradation is the human
population and its resource overexploitation, unsustainable fishing methods (often for
live fish trade) and direct physical damage (Bleakley, 2005). Melanesian countries,
including Solomon Islands and PNG, show that at least 20 species of sea cucumbers or
holothurians have been fished since the middle of the 19th century, during which time
some species have been overfished to the point where recovery is unlikely (Foale, 2008).
Likewise, shellfishes such as pearl oysters (Pinctada spp.) and the large green snail
(Turbo marmoratus) have also been overfished.
In Papua New Guinea, the third largest producer of bêche-de-mer supplying around 10%
of the global market through exportation, there has been a decline in catches since the
fishery started in the nineteenth century (Gillett, 2010). Similarly for Fiji, the overfishing
that ranges from moderate to the heavily fished reefs particularly in populated areas was
said to show a reduction of finfish and mobile invertebrates including important fisheries
like trochus and bêche-de-mer, stocks of which have been depleted (Lovell and Sykes,
2004).
Other important and growing fisheries in Melanesia including Solomon islands for live
reef food fish (particularly groupers and the Maori Wrasse), live ornamental fish and
live and dead corals for the ornamental trade are near collapse and poorly managed
(Foale, 2008). The over-fishing of all of these resources has a serious impact on the
ability of local communities to adapt to climate and environmental change.
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3.5.3 Pollution
Marine pollution includes a wide range of threats, which stem from land-based sources,
oil spills, untreated sewage, heavy siltation, euthrophication (nutrient enrichment),
invasive species, heavy metals tailings, acidification, radioactive substances, marine
litter and destruction of coastal and marine habitats (Nellemann et al., 2008).
In the Pacific islands, the common problem causing marine pollution lies in land-based
activities such as sewage disposal, sediment runoff and disposal of domestic and
industrial waste (Bleakley, 2005; Chape, 2006).
The amounts of sediment and nutrient that end up in the ocean, especially from rivers
associated with unsustainable land use, storms and sewage, can result in increased
turbidity and euthrophication of coastal ecosystems and thus affect growth of corals
(Nellemann et al., 2008). For example, evidence of nutrient pollution and
euthrophication were reported in Fiji whereby the proliferation of sargassum alga due to
sewage and other wastewater run-off has been observed at Matamanoa Island (Lovell
and Sykes, 2007).
Furthermore, pollution from ground water contamination that stems from inadequate
disposal systems has affected rivers and coastal lagoons. For example, in Fiji, the
Nausori town dumps that were situated on the banks of Nausori River until 2005, has
resulted in the pollution of the river through leachates and runoff, which were
susceptible to being carried away during floods (Chape, 2006).
Similarly, in Solomon Islands, domestic pollution from raw sewage, litter, household
rubbish including other solids is reported to be serious. For example, in Honiara the
main town alone shows that at least 75% of sewage that flows through the piped
collection system into the sea is not treated (Sabetian and Afzal, 2004).
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3.6 Coastal Biodiversity; Pacific Islands
For islands in the Pacific, climate change is not something that could happen in the
future but an issue that they encounter on a daily basis (Maclellan, 2009). Past reviews
on climate change and sea–level rise in the Pacific Island Countries (PICs) have showed
that while most nations will suffer harmful consequences, Small Island Developing
States (SIDs) including their coastal ecosystem may face the most and the most direct
consequences (Burns, 2000; Gilman et al., 2006; Mimura et al., 2007). The exposure of
Pacific islands to the damaging effects of climate change stems from their special
characteristics as ecosystems.
3.6.1 Characteristics of Pacific Islands
The characteristics of Pacific Islands expose them to climate change so increase their
sensitivity to change and capacity to adapt.
These characteristics include small landmasses surrounded by ocean, larger coastal
lengths and location in regions prone to natural disasters (Nunn, 2004), and greater
dependent on marine resources (Talo, 2008; Mimura et al., 2007). These are consistent
with the term vulnerability, which takes into consideration three main components,
namely ‘hazard’, ‘exposure’ and ‘adaptive capacity’ (Rasmussen et al. 2009 citing
McCarthy et al., 2001).
A major concern faced by the Pacific Islands is the rising of sea–level (Nunn and
Mimura, 2007). Because many of these islands lie just several metres above sea level
they are more vulnerable to slight changes to global climatic patterns (Gilman et al.,
2006; Maclellan, 2009; USAID, 2010). For example, Tuvalu Island which rises no more
than 3 meters (Ralston et al. 2004), and Marshall Islands and Kiribati with only a metre,
a rise of sea level could easily lead to land erosion and retreat (Mimura, 1999; Burns,
2000).
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Furthermore, atoll islands are more vulnerable than higher islands to exposure of plants
to salt spray, lower rainfall, and absence of surface water and more easily polluted
lagoons (http://www.spcforests.org). For example, the atoll states of Kiribati, the
Marshalls, Tokelau and Tuvalu are vulnerable due to limited fresh water reserves that
are more subjected to depletion in drought and contamination from salt water (Barnett,
2001).
Similarly, for higher islands, since most developments are located on coastal plains
(Gilman et al., 2006) these areas are exposed to effects of climate change and sea–level
rise. For example, Viti Levu in Fiji, a higher island, shows the vulnerability of its coastal
areas as more intensive urban development and increased exploitation of resources, all
of which expose large areas to erosion and inundation (Colbert, 2000).
3.6.2 Coastal biodiversity
For islands in the Pacific, ensuring survival of coastal ecosystems and species to address
climate and environmental change impacts is crucial. This is because these ecosystems,
plants, and animals provide Pacific Island peoples with most of their livelihood (Pittock,
2005). According to Thaman (2002), coastal and marine species are the key sources of
food for the Pacific Islanders.
Fishery resources in particular are important sources of food, employment, government
income generator, and the foundation for economic development for the islanders
(Bleakely, 2004; Barnett, 2007; Gillett, 2010). For example, domestic fishing activity
makes up 13% of GDP for Solomon Islands and 12% for Kiribati, whilst fish exports
provide 95% of exports from the Federated States of Micronesia, 73% from Palau and
61% from Samoa (Barnett, 2007).
Fisheries also provide income to coastal dwellers through harvesting of a wide range of
finfishes, shellfishes, shells, corals, crustaceans, marine plants and other marine
organisms (Barnett, 2007), much of which underpins the ‘Pacific Way of Life’ (Thaman,
2004; Bleakely, 2004). While evidence from catch rates, yield comparisons and even
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species composition indicates the sustainability of local protein and demand for the
immediate future, fish stocks mainly around urban centres are increasingly under stress
(Bleakley, 2005).
In Melanesian countries, threatened species such as the sea turtles (hawksbill, green and
leatherback) are important targets for conservation, particularly in terms of protecting
coastal nesting populations of the Western Pacific (WWF, 2003).
Maintaining and sustaining coastal ecosystem structure and function is critical in the
face of climate change (Lisa, Schipper and Burton, 2009). This is because of the various
and critical role that they play in adaptive strategies and the potential in mitigating
greenhouse effects through carbon balance.
Reports have shown that coastal trees are important in providing habitat, shelter, food,
shade and protection against salt spray, winds and sun and in protecting coastlines from
wind and waves (Thaman and Clarke 1993; Morrell and Scialabba, 2009). For example,
casuarinas (C. equisetifolia) and other coastal trees are noted for their special role in
cleaning the air of salt before it blows inland (Moffat et al., 2009), thus helping to
protect inner coastal vegetation that is particularly sensitive to salt spray and salinity.
In addition critical ecosystems such as the seagrass help to filter and trap sediments, thus
improving water quality and reducing euthrophication (Miller, 1999), whilst reefs in this
perspective are also important in protecting coasts from ocean waves (Nunn and
Mimura, 2007).
Coastal biodiversity also guarantees good carbon sinks. Many habitats like forests and
wetlands are important carbon sinks, which help to regulate climate. For example,
mangroves are important as they help to sequester carbon, most of which is stored in
huge amounts in the soil (Barua et al. 2010).Seagrasses are also known to be good
carbon-dioxide sinks and oxygen producers (McKenzie, et al., 2006).
The threats to ecosystems from climate and other environmental change may reverse if
these healthy ecosystems are sustained and restored (CBD, 2009). This is because
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healthy habitats can function naturally and recover after such setbacks and for that
reason they are often regarded as “natural infrastructure” (USAID, 2009); and the extent
to which carbon is sequestered depends entirely on the enhancement and resilience of
ecosystems (CBD, 2009).
The importance of coastal biodiversity through its ecosystem services in adapting to
climate change is critical for the Pacific Islands because their protection is cost effective
(Gilman et al., 2006), and can be locally managed and maintained (BLI, 2008).
However, while maintaining and conserving coastal ecosystems are critical in the face of
climate change, it is often problematic because when coastal developments are planned,
the services that these important ecosystems provide are rarely considered. In light of the
tangible returns that are possible through conservation this lack of concern is all the
greater, negligence (IUCN, 2007).
3.7 Mitigation and Adaptation
As concern about climate change and its dire impacts to coastal biodiversity intensifies,
the search for adaptive strategies as a means to mitigate and adapt to climate and
environmental change becomes more important. Lisa, Schipper and Burton (2009)
suggest that mitigation and adaptation are the two main categories of response to climate
change that can be achieved by maintaining ecosystems structure and function.
3.7.1 Adaptation
Adaptation is a process whereby strategies to help moderate, cope with and take
advantage of the consequences of climate events are enhanced, developed and
implemented (Levina and Tirpak, 2006; Nuorteva et al., 2010).
Adaptation comes in various forms. These include anticipatory adaptation, which is
taking measures before impacts are observed; reactive adaptation, an adaptation in
response to climate change impacts; private adaptation, initiated and implemented by
60
individuals for self-interest; public adaptations, initiated and implemented by
government; autonomous adaptations, which include response to ecological changes in
natural systems; and planned adaptation, which manages systems based on awareness of
changes in conditions such that action is required to meet management (Pittock, 2005;
Levina and Tirpak, 2006; Poh Poh Wong, 2010).
Mitigation, on the other hand, is seen as reducing human-induced climate change by
reducing greenhouse gas emission and other factors contributing to global warming
(Pittock, 2009). While adaptation is needed to cope with climate change and sea–level
rise, mitigation tends to limit the extent of future climate change (Pittock, 2005). For
most Pacific Islands, because the capacity to reduce the effects of climate change and
extreme events is beyond their control, adaptation is their only option (Mataki et al.,
2006).
Past studies with regard to adaptation options for smaller islands have been more
focused on adjustments to sea–level rise and storm surges associated with tropical
cyclones (Mimura et al., 2007). A report of the UNFCCC shows that there are a number
of technologies that are used for adaptation. They can include either hard technologies
such as building of sea walls (UNFCCC, 2007) and or soft measures such as replanting
of mangroves, coastal forests and corals.
Strategies based on integrated coastal zone management and ecosystem–based
adaptation have also been identified as a vehicle for implementing appropriate strategies,
such as coastal forests rehabilitation or beach dune conservation, which constitute a
more holistic, cost-effective and a resilient approach in adaptation (De Comarmond and
Payet,2010).
While sea wall construction has been used as a common adaptive strategy to counter
effects of coastal erosion and storm surges in many Pacific islands (Mataki et al., 2006),
Nunn (2004) suggests that these hard artificial structures are a short-lived solution,
which creates problems and is usually expensive to maintain. As a result, such strategies
that involve short lived solution are gradually being replaced by effective strategies such
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as mangrove planting to reduce coastal erosion, biodiversity conservation through
MPAs, aquaculture and mangrove rehabilitation, which are being carried out in many
Pacific Islands (USAID, 2010).
Reports show that while successful mangrove rehabilitation projects were reported in
Kiribati, Palau and Tonga (Mimura et al., 2007), there were unsuccessful efforts in
Papua New Guinea and American Samoa (Gilman et al., 2006). This was mainly due to
limitations in human capacity and financial resources (UNFCC, 2007) including lack of
proper evaluation of adaptation options (Mataki et al., 2006). While this limits potential
adaptations for smaller islands, natural solutions seem to be the answer and involve
activities such as protecting forests, planting mangroves and establishing Locally
Managed Marine Areas (LMMAs).
Nature based approaches such as replanting can increase resilience of coastlines to wave
action, but can only be successful with constant attention and ongoing maintenance (De
Comarmond and Payet, 2010). For example, coastal reforestation in Tonga– particularly
at Houma, southwest of Nuku’alofa, during the mid–1990s to protect coastlines from
coastal erosion and increased salination exacerbated by sea–level rise—was successful
because people played a positive role in preparing, planting and maintaining the project
(Wilkinson and Brodie, 2011; Thaman et al. 2011).
However, Nunn (2007) argued that while coastal trees such as mangroves are a
recommended part of future shoreline-protection strategies in the Pacific region, it is
uncertain how mangroves will respond to the projected climate change over the next few
decades. Also, differences between cultures can affect the valuation of biodiversity, thus
affect conservation strategies (Jeffries, 1997).
Regardless of the fact that adaptation is perceived as a new concept, its vigorous practice
is evident in parts of the world, which enables protection of species of interest and
samples of communities at risk of climate change from a wide geographical range
(ATME, 2010). This is to show that while adaptation cannot lessen climate change it can
reduce vulnerability to its impacts (Dawson and Spannagle, 2009). Successful adaptation
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will take place only by enhancing resilience of the systems and reducing their
susceptibility (Mimura, 1999).
In Solomon Islands, strategies used by local island communities based on traditional
knowledge to counter extreme events were reported. For example, fresh cut sticks were
used along the seashore for coastal protection during storm surges and to reduce beach
erosion on Ontong Java Atoll (Baragamu, 2008). The need to maximize resilience or
capacity of ecosystems as a means to understand and address climate change impacts is
important so that specific management strategies can be carried out and implemented
(Salm and McLeod 2008).
3.7.2 Conservation management strategies
The importance of managing ecosystem and species resilience is not only a general
strategy for conservation but also an important part of responding to the imminent threat,
and uncertainties of climate change (Salm and McLeod, 2008). Smith and Malthby
(2003) highlight the importance of maintaining resilience in managing land, water and
living resources that support conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way.
Barnett and Adger (2003) also suggest that achieving an appropriate degree of
sustainability should be the goal of adaptation to climate change.
With most marine resources under pressure, the mitigation and reversal of the negative
threat to these resources using appropriate measures is crucial (Lutchman, 2005).
According to Veitayaki et al. (2003), Marine Protected Areas (MPA)9 can counter these
problems of unsustainable exploitation. Lutchman (2005), similarly, describes how
many Pacific Islands show increasing ability to manage marine resources through the
establishment of systems of Local Managed Marine Areas (LMMAs) in Palau, Cook
Islands, and Fiji.
9 The definition of the term generally has been accepted since 1993 but the publication of IUCNs new guidelines for applying protected area management categories has replaced the old definition. The recent definition defines MPA as the geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means to achieve long–term conservation of nature with associated ecosystems service and cultural values (Govan, 2009. p. 25).
63
While MPAs are regarded as the most effective means to conserve reefs (Salm and
McLeod, 2008), for sustainable resource management (Lutchman, 2005), and to offer
resilience against climate change (ATME, 2010), the outcome often showed that
although large areas of reef have showed good recovery, many were often degraded by
the next extreme weather episode (Goreau and Hayes, 2008). Avoiding such failure in
future may require simultaneous attention to climate change and human impacts into
MPAs, such as no-take areas to maintain biodiversity and values. This is important in
maintaining an MPA from artisanal fishing and improving it from stagnation (Lutchman,
2005).
For example, on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, strategies to build resilience and adapt
include: focusing on reducing local stresses such as human disturbance or coastal
development, protecting adequate and appropriate spaces or ‘zones’ and maintaining key
groups in the ecosystems (ATME, 2010). In Fiji, the Navakavu locally managed marine
area located on Fiji’s main island of Viti-Levu, near Suva, shows benefits from projects,
including increased fish stocks in the no-take zone and increased value of the fishery
(Govan, 2009).
In Solomon Islands, Marine Conservation Areas such as the Arnavon Community
Marine Conservation Area (ACMCA) and the Tetepare MPA (which has 13 kilometres
of no-take zone) were reported. These community-based conservation projects now
support healthy fish populations and species such as green snail and giant clams, as well
as hawksbill turtles, most of which have disappeared from parts of Solomon Islands.
The improved ability of these systems to recover from disturbances should help to
maintain their important functions as the essence of ecological resilience (Holling 1973).
Unsworth and Cullen (2010) highlight that the chance of success involving conservation
of ecosystems is increased if the inter-connections with other ecosystems such as coral
reef and other seagrass meadows is done simultaneously, such as ridge to reef
conservation, where actions in the watershed impact on coral reefs and nearshore marine
ecosystems. In doing so, it would help to increase resilience against a number of threats
including climate change as a major threat working in synergy with other threats.
64
3.8 Previous work in Ghizo Island
This section briefly reviews past literature on climate change and sea–level rise. It
highlights 1) climate changes and sea–level rise in Ghizo, 2) human threats, and 3)
climate change and human-induced threats to coastal biodiversity.
3.8.1 Effects of climate change
Past literature on climate change and sea–level rise in Ghizo Island provides limited hard
data. Manele and Wein, (2006) report that Ghizo Island, with its relatively low, flat
coastal land areas, is highly vulnerable to sea–level rise and effects of climate change.
Like many other islands in Solomon Islands, Ghizo shows high risks from flooding,
inundation, tropical cyclones (Iroi, et al., 2006), sea–level rise, seasonal storms, high
tides, and storm surges particularly for its low-lying areas.
A workshop held by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) on people’s experiences of
climate change in Ghizo Islands identified changing wind and rainfall patterns as signs
of climate change. It was also related that erosion occurred along the shoreline in some
parts of Ghizo Island. Baseline studies at Ghizo Island indicated that coastal erosion is
severe, particularly along the south side of the point in the Malakerava village near Gizo
town, showing coastline retreat from 0–1.2 metres per year (Rearic, 1991). It was further
reported that there was a destruction of gabion walls in the 1960s. This shows there has
been coastal erosion in Ghizo Island for over the years caused by natural high tides and
waves (Rearic, 1991).
3.8.2 Effects of Human threats
Yee, Wale and Ariki (1999) reported human-induced threats to the coastal and marine
ecosystems as including human settlement and socio-economic infrastructure
development. For instance, Iroi et al. (2006) report evidence of shoreline erosion during
65
the building of roads and houses, a destructive process observed at a much faster rate at
Malakerava village in Gizo town.
Sabetian and Foale (2006) reported that scuba diving was a serious emerging threat
along with the combination of spear fishing and netting in Ghizo Island. The Ghizo
Conservation Area Management Plan (GMCA) also reports these threats. Because of the
increasing population, the pressures from various fishing methods, which result in
overharvesting of fish, have become major threats to the marine ecosystem and
resources. The usage of artisanal fishing, anchorages, nets, dynamite fishing, and muro
ami (which involves driving fish into nets by striking corals with rocks or sticks),
sewage disposal, and oil pollution were identified as contributing factors to threats to
collateral and coral damage (Lovell, et al., 2004; Manele and Wein, 2006;).
Continuous pressure from overfishing is also a major concern in Ghizo Island. Records
in Ghizo show the artisanal and small-scale commercial fishing are steadily increasing
as urban population increases (Sebatien, 2010). The key spawning aggregation sites in
Ghizo10, some of which are within the GMCA and in close proximity to the protected
area, are targeted areas during spawning times by fishers, and as a result, these sites
show a declining abundance of fish (Manele and Wein, 2006).
10 The four main spawning aggregation sites in Ghizo are Njari, Hotspot, Naru and Kennedy (see report by Manele and Wein, 2006).
66
3.8.3 Effects on Coastal biodiversity
Climate change effects on coastal biodiversity were also reported in parts of Ghizo
Island. For instance, signs of a bleaching event were recorded between January and May
2000, affecting many areas in the Solomon Island including Ghizo Island (Lovell et al.
2004). While there are limited data on the extent of bleaching for Ghizo islands, staff
members of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) in Gizo town reported slight bleaching of
corals in some parts of Ghizo (Manele, 2010 pers comm.).
Ghizo Conservation Area Management Plan (GMCA) provides evidence of coral
bleaching in Pusinau in Ghizo Island (Lovell et al., 2004; Manele and Wein, 2006). This
was supported by a baseline survey in Ghizo showing several colonies of corals having
been bleached and showing scars brought about by crown-of-thorns starfish (Hughes et
al., 2005).
A report on the coral status in the South West Pacific indicated a few sightings of coral
bleaching in several sites in Ghizo during the 2007 survey. It was concluded that these
basically related to factors that may have affected the waters, such as the water currents,
tidal movement, and the weather pattern (Kere, 2008). In islands surrounding Ghizo
Island, notably Babanga Island, it was reported that rough weather had contributed to an
increase in suspended sediments, which affected coral communities that had already
been pressured from higher water temperature and crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS)
(Lovell et al., 2004; Hughes et al., 2005).
Furthermore, reports show that the 2007 tsunami and associated earthquake had serious
great impacts on the coral reef structure and composition around Ghizo (Nellie, 2008). A
lower water temperature in 2006 compared to higher water temperature in 2007 was
believed to be related to the impacts of climate change. Several important reef finfish,
such as the Lutjanidae, Lethrinidae, and Siganidae, were reported to be low in
abundance after the tsunami in 2007 on Ghizo Island (Nellie, 2008).
67
A number of important commercial species such as the lobsters, giant clams, and trochus
are also reported to be in smaller numbers (Hughes et al., 2005; Manele and Wein,
2006). The marine species bêche-de-mer was found to be in a very low number because
of overharvesting (Hughes et al., 2005). Important commercial finfish such as the
groupers are more often heavily fished at aggregation sites as these species do form
transient spawning aggregation11 at various sites mainly targeted by subsistence,
artisanal, and commercial fisheries (Smith and Hamilton, 2006).
Over the years, sea level has been rising gradually. The disappearance of coastline and
massive erosion were attributed to widespread effects of sea–level rise in some parts of
Ghizo Island (World wildlife Fund, 2004; Iroi, et al., 2006). A report produced by
WWF (2004) based on villagers’ experience of climate change noted that casuarinas or
oak tree (Casuarina equisetifolia) and coconut trees (Cocos nucifera) were affected by
change of sea level and salt-water intrusion.
Villagers on Ghizo Island also noticed changes in crop growth as a result of changes in
wind and rainfall patterns causing waterlogged areas. Crops affected included important
crop plants such as the slippery cabbage (Neka) and cassava (Manihot esculenta).
Saeraghe villagers related that crop plants such as sweet potatoes and cassava do not
produce tubers or rot easily due to waterlogged ground. As well, young shoots of
cabbage and cassava were burnt and died out due to sun’s heat. (WWF, 2004).
3.9 Summary
In summary, global climate change is a major challenge of the 21st century. It poses a
serious threat to coastal biodiversity. While global warming is increasing, the frequency
of extreme events is also increasing, and in conjunction with human activities, coastal
ecosystems and biodiversity are greatly affected. Pacific Islands including Ghizo Island 11 There are two types of aggregation known as the ‘resident’ and ‘transient ‘spawning aggregations. Fish forming ‘transient’ spawning aggregations are highly vulnerable to overfishing since large numbers of harvestable stock are concentrated at predictable sites at predictable periods, enabling much higher catches. See project review document: TNC, 2006. Protecting and managing reef fish spawning aggregations in the Pacific, The Nature Conservancy, and TNC Pacific Islands Countries Report No.3/06.
68
in Solomon Islands and their coastal ecosystems are highly vulnerable to the impacts of
climate change coupled with other natural and human-induced changes. This is due to
their geographical characteristics of small land mass, located in the routes of natural
disasters, large coastlines, and dependence on marine resources. Thus ensuring of
coastal ecosystems and biodiversity to address climate change and environmental
change is crucial in the Pacific Islands and in Ghizo Island as they are important for
subsistence, food, employment and income and also play important roles such as
protecting coastlines against salt-spray, wind and sun, they also act as carbon sinks.
Adaptive measures include; seawalls, replanting of mangroves and corals, beach
conservation and mangrove rehabilitation and Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and
interconnection of ecosystems such as ridge to reef conservation, all of which help to
increase resilience against climate change and other synergistic threats.
69
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the results of fieldwork carried out on Ghizo Island. The chapter
will look at 1) perceptions of changing climate and weather patterns, 2) coastal and
inshore marine impacts, 3) other natural or human threats to coastal and marine
biodiversity, and finally, 4) community-based strategies that promote the conservation,
restoration and sustainable use of coastal biodiversity. Particular emphasis will be placed
on the importance of coastal vegetation in protecting people and providing resilience
against climate and environmental change.
4.2 Changing climate and weather patterns
As shown in tables 4.1 and 4.2, the respondents said there were 11 changes related to
climate or weather patterns, some of which are inter-related, and some such as tsunami
waves and earthquakes that are not related to changes in climate or weather, but have
probably reinforced these patterns.
Changes and unpredictability of rainfall were the most commonly mentioned change
(table 4.1), which are related to the changing occurrence of cyclones and drought. In the
drier months of August to November, which normally have lower rainfall-and flooding,
are now seem to be more frequent and intensive. In the past, rainfall tended more to
occur in shorter seasonal periods with only limited flooding. Now there seems to be
more frequent massive flooding. Likewise, the rainy season from November to March is
now experiencing drier periods, especially during January to February.
The other common change mentioned is sea–level rise, which could be related partly to
the recent tsunami or changes in currents and tidal range particularly during high tides.
This includes increasing inland penetration by the sea during high tides and associated
accelerated erosion affecting coastal crops and plants (table 4.2).
70
Rising air and sea temperatures, associated with sea–level rise are reportedly a common
change that negatively affects crop growth and the health of marine organisms, including
corals, shellfish and bêche-de-mer, especially the lollyfish that stays along the reef flats.
There have been reported changes related to lower tides and wind and current patterns.
Respondents report increases in speed, and changes of direction of wind and flow of
currents, which they claim have been responsible for recent increases in sedimentation
of coastal nearshore areas.
Changes in winds and currents have reportedly affected fishermen, forcing them to fish
further out at sea. The increase in storm surges and currents are usually associated with
increased of cyclone frequency. Although, reports of cyclones are recorded back to the
1960s in Ghizo, the vulnerability to wave surge and strong winds could become severe.
Earthquakes and cyclones as well as associated tsunami of 2007 were reported.
Although they are unrelated, their impacts seem to be associated with environmental
changes and seemed to have reinforced other changes experienced in the nearshore and
coastal environment. It is observed that most of these changes occur unexpectedly and
unpredictably over the years.
Drought was least reported. This means that the people experienced more rainfalls than
drought. The latest droughts they experienced were in 1997 and 1998 where coastal
biodiversity and ecosystems were affected.
4.3 Coastal impacts
As shown in table 4.2, 7 the respondents reported that the impacts were more severe on
coastal areas, causing saltwater incursion, coastal flooding, coastal erosion and damage
to coastal and inland vegetation, including crops.
Most commonly mentioned was the penetration of seawater further inland and its effect
on coastal crops and plants. This is evident by the poor health and growth of taro and
cabbages along the coastal areas, including the damage caused to beach peas (Vigna
marina) which was evident in Kogulavata and Paelongge village.
71
Tab
le 4
.1. S
peci
fic c
hang
es in
wea
ther
pat
tern
men
tione
d by
40
resp
onde
nts
to q
uest
ionn
aire
sur
vey
in 5
vill
ages
on
Ghi
zo I
sland
, Wes
tern
So
lom
on Is
land
s whe
n as
ked
to m
entio
n up
to 6
type
s of c
hang
es th
at th
ey h
ave
expe
rien
ced.
Fi
shin
g vi
llage
Sa
erag
he
villa
ge
Kog
ulav
ata
Pael
ongg
e vi
llage
G
izo
Tow
n F
M
Tot
al
Cha
nge
x/8
x/8
x/8
x/8
x/8
X/2
0 X
/20
X/4
0 C
hang
es in
rain
fall
4 8
8 8
8 18
18
36
Se
a–le
vel r
ise
7 8
5 8
7 17
18
35
In
crea
sing
hea
t/tem
pera
ture
3
6 7
8 8
16
16
32
Cha
nges
in w
ind
patte
rns
7 6
4 7
5 15
14
29
C
hang
es in
tida
l ran
ge
4 2
6 5
5 10
12
22
C
hang
es in
wav
es a
nd c
urre
nts
1 5
2 6
6 11
9
20
Tsun
ami w
aves
5
2 4
3 3
7 10
17
In
crea
sed
sea
tem
pera
ture
2
2 2
1 0
3 4
7 Ea
rthqu
akes
0
0 2
3 0
2 3
5 C
yclo
nes
2 1
1 0
0 2
2 4
Dro
ught
0
0 0
0 2
1 2
3
72
The recent history of inland flooding, however, may be related both to the effects of
tsunami waves and inland flooding by sea water during higher tides and periods of
intense rainfall.
Coastal erosion and land retreat over the years were reported to have caused damage to a
number of coastal trees and non-trees, most of which have shown a reduction in numbers
and distribution along the coastal area in all five villages.
Damage to coastal crops was reported to be more obvious because of increased
temperature and intense rainfall and flooding that had led to increases in pests and
weeds. This was more evident in Paelongge, Kogulavata and in Gizo town where coastal
crops are unhealthy and infected as rainfall events changes.
Table 4.2. Specific impacts of climate change, sea–level rise and other environmental changes to coastal ecosystem mentioned by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey on Ghizo Island, Western Solomon Islands.
Fishing village
Saeraghe village Kogulavata Paelongge
village Gizo Town F M Total
Coastal impacts x/8 x/8 x/8 x/8 x/8 X/20 X/20 X/40 Salt water intrusion 7 6 8 8 6 18 18 36
Damage to coastal trees 8 6 4 8 7 16 17 33
Damage to coastal non-trees 7 7 7 8 4 16 17 33
Inland flooding 8 4 7 8 4 15 16 31
Coastal erosion 6 6 4 6 8 15 15 30
Damage to coastal crops 3 7 5 7 4 12 14 26
Increased pests and weeds 1 1 2 5 1 5 5 10
73
4.3.1 Salt water intrusion
Salt-water intrusion is common in coastal areas where aquifers are connected with
seawater (Martens & Wichmann, 2007). According to the results (refer to table 4.2), it is
one of the major impacts of climate and environmental change and sea–level rise that
affected low-lying areas and coastal ecosystems. The study revealed that massive
intrusion of seawater was attributed to changes in tides, wind driven waves, and recent
increases in sea level. This was clearly indicated by the increased sedimentation along
the coastal area during high tides and even during low tides in Ghizo Island.
Salt-water intrusion is reported in all five villages but can be clearly seen in swampy and
boggy ground on Ghizo Island, particularly in Fishing village and Kogulavata
settlement, where residual salt water can be seen (see fig 4.1).
According to respondents, salt-water intrusion occurs mainly during high tides and when
there are high waves, which are reportedly becoming more frequent, more unpredictable
and intense in their impact as the weather pattern changes. Ghizo Island and its
considerable low-lying areas are particularly vulnerable to salt-water intrusion and
inundation especially with predicted sea level changes (Iroi, Yee and Lam, 2006).
Observations on Ghizo indicate that seawater intrusion has caused negative shifts in the
distribution of coastal vegetation and changed habitants for coastal species (Peter, Akao,
interviewed, 2010). For example, salt water intrusion aggravated by the tsunami of 2007
and associated huge tidal waves has affected the plant populations and important
habitats such as the mangroves, large rocks, coral boulders, coastal trees, and other
plants that provide them with shade, breeding grounds, and nurseries and refuge.
Surveys showed that swampy areas in Fishing village, Kogulavata settlement and parts
of Saeraghe village are particularly vulnerable to salt water intrusion and flooding
especially during high tides and periods of increased precipitation, hence leaving little
suitable habitat for root crops and non-trees, such as herbaceous sand-binding vines, to
grow along the coasts. For example, it was observed that in areas surrounding Fishing,
Kogulavata and Ghizo town, only limited vegetation remained along the coast.
74
Particularly in Fishing village, increased salinity has made it almost impossible for
important medicinal coastal plants and crops to grow because of high tides where rocks
and natural vegetation of the coastal areas were covered with salt water (refer to fig
4.1b).
Figure 4.1.Salt water intrusion (A and B) showing salt-water intrusion in Fishing village and (C and D) salt-water intrusion affecting coastal crop plants resulting in their being replaced by ferns, seen at Kogulavata. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
Furthermore, salt content can be massive depending on strength of tides and wind driven
waves. This is supported by observations made in Ghizo, where there have been
increased wind exposures and sea levels, thus further enhancing salt-water intrusion. For
example, observations at Fishing village showed that because the village was on the
point facing the windward side of Gizo town, waves were blown over the village during
75
high tides thus increasing inland flooding, salt-water intrusion, and salt spray, which
damaged coastal crops such as the sweet potatoes.
Similarly, in Kogulavata settlement, increased rainfall, salt-water intrusion and water-
logging due to sea–level rise has caused poor growth of important coastal non-trees and
crops such as the cabbages and taro plant. According to Wilson Fationo (interviewed in
2010), a combination of sea–level rise and high tides in 2005 and 2006 had aggravated
the problem. This was evidenced by the poor growth of crops and plants along the
coastal area as well as their deteriorating taste and quality.
It was further related that the increasingly high tides that can last for more than 3 days
cause salt water to move further inland, affecting and altering major habitats such as
coastal vegetation including important coastal crops such as taro (talo) most of which
have been found along the lowland areas are now being replaced by salt-water tolerant
ferns (see fig 4.1c-d). An informant (Fationo, 2010) recalled that this was very different
from what was seen before and there are now gaps between coastal ferns and palm trees
that were not present in the past (see fig 4.1c).
4.3.2 Damage to coastal plants
A wide range of important coastal trees and other non-tree plants was seen as being
seriously affected by changes in climate, sea state, and other environmental changes.
Some plants which are more resilient and offer protection to coastal areas were also
affected. As shown in table 4.3, respondents indicated that some 14 coastal trees have
been negatively affected by climate change, sea–level rise and other environmental
changes in the study sites.
Impacts to coastal trees
The most affected common coastal trees were tropical almond (talise), beach
mahogany (buni), beach heliotrope (bebea), cordia (vauasi), casuarinas (aru), coconut
palms (ngochara), beach mulberry (nute), fish poison tree (putu), beach hibiscus
(fakasu), mangroves (petu) and pandanus (ramoso) (table 4.3).
76
Tab
le 4
.3. C
oast
al tr
ees r
epor
ted
to h
ave
been
neg
ativ
ely
affe
cted
by
clim
ate
chan
ge, s
ea–l
evel
ris
e, a
nd o
ther
env
iron
men
tal c
hang
es b
y 40
re
spon
dent
s to
ques
tionn
aire
surv
ey in
5 v
illag
es o
n G
hizo
Isla
nd, W
este
rn S
olom
on Is
land
s whe
n as
ked
to m
entio
n up
to 1
0 co
asta
l tre
e th
at h
ave
been
aff
ecte
d.
Fi
shin
g vi
llage
Saer
aghe
vi
llage
Kog
ulav
ata
Pa
elon
gge
villa
ge
Giz
o T
own
F M
T
otal
Aff
ecte
d co
asta
l tr
ees
Scie
ntifi
c N
ame
Loc
al N
ame
x/8
x/8
x/8
x/8
x/8
X/2
0 X
/20
X/4
0
Trop
ical
alm
ond
Term
inal
ia
cata
ppa
L.
alite
, tal
ise
4 7
3 7
8 14
15
29
Bea
ch m
ahog
any
Cal
loph
yllu
m
inop
hyllu
m
buni
, kw
ailo
6
8 3
8 3
12
16
28
Coc
onut
C
ocos
nuc
ifera
ng
ocha
ra, n
iu
7 2
4 3
5 10
11
21
Bea
ch h
elitr
ope
Tour
nefo
rtia
ar
gent
ea
bebe
a 5
4 2
7 3
11
10
21
Cas
uarin
a C
asua
rina
equi
setif
olia
ar
u, v
aru,
nar
u 2
7 1
4 6
12
8 20
Cor
dia
Cor
dia
subc
orda
ta
vaua
si 2
4 2
8 3
8 11
19
Bea
ch m
ulbe
rry
Mor
inda
citr
ifolia
no
ni, t
enon
,nut
e 2
3 2
4 3
7 7
14
Fish
poi
son
tree
Barr
ingt
onia
as
iatic
a fu
’u, p
utu,
pog
ala,
da
dao
3 2
2 6
2 6
7 13
Bea
ch h
ibis
cus
Hib
iscus
til
iace
ous
leru
, fak
asu
3 3
1 1
4 9
3 12
Man
grov
es
(orie
ntal
) Br
ugui
era
gym
norr
hiza
pe
tu
5 0
3 0
2 4
6 10
Pand
anus
Pa
ndan
us
tect
oriu
s ra
mos
o 2
3 1
1 3
4 6
10
Cre
ek P
rem
na
Prem
na
serr
atifo
lia
nou
, cha
kope
, zov
i 0
0 1
3 1
2 3
5
Bor
neo
teak
In
tsia
biju
ga
ivili
,kiv
ili
1 2
1 1
0 1
4 5
Milk
y M
angr
ove
Exco
ecar
ia
agal
loch
a ot
oto
0 0
0 0
3 2
1 3
77
Respondents report that damage to coastal trees is caused mainly by sea–level rise
during high tides, coastal erosion, stronger currents, and the effects of tsunami waves.
This was supported by Manele (2010 pers. comm.) who mentioned sea–level rise as one
of the significant impacts of climate change in Ghizo Island.
According to respondents in Ghizo, important medicinal trees and several other coastal
trees used for building and cultural purposes are now seen in fewer numbers, with some
coastal trees no longer found along the coastal area in some parts of the island. In some
areas along the coast near Malakerava and Fishing village, there are virtually no trees
left along the coastal area.
For example, coconut palms with their multipurpose usage have been affected by sea–
level rise, strong winds, waves, and high tides causing beach erosion and made worse by
the effects of tsunami wave. In Saeraghe and parts of Gizo town, where coastal trees
such as the beach mahogany and casuarinas whose roots were uprooted and exposed was
due to the gradual beach erosion caused by the rising sea level and strong waves (see fig
4.2 a-b). Also, important trees for carving and cultural purposes, such as the Cordia tree
(known by locals as the carving tree due to its strong wood) and beach heliotrope, were
also affected generally but mostly reported at Paelongge village (fig 4.2 c-d).
It was reported by several informants that coastal erosion over the years has caused
seawater to move roughly about 2-10 metres inland (Uza, D, 2010, pers. comm.). The
moving inland of sea level can be observed by looking at the changes of coastlines over
the years in Gizo town, which explains coastal erosion and the loss of the number of
coastal trees (fig 4.3).
With increasing erosion, coastal trees such as the casuarinas are particularly vulnerable
to extinction as they are unable to colonize and regenerate unless shoreline is accreting
and provides new areas for them, thus will eventually replaced by other species of trees
(Whitten et al., 2000). As a result, casuarinas and beach mahogany that were once
abundant along the beach are now few in numbers.
78
Figure 4.2. Affected coastal trees in Ghizo. A) roots of the Casuarina being exposed and fallen due to sea–level rise and coastal erosion at Saeraghe village, B) the beach mahogany trees, C) the cordia tree, D) the beach helitrope. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
The tropical almond, beach hibiscus and pandanus were reported to be more affected in
Malakerava in Gizo town, and Paelongge. For example, in Paelongge, high waves and
strong currents are exposing roots of the common tropical almond tree (see fig 4.4a).
This was due to erosion as sea moves further inland.
According to informant Riutule Tioko (2010) in Gizo town, tropical almond trees were
once massive along the coastal area in Malakerava area but as sea level gradually moved
inland, the ground was affected causing massive soil erosion resulting in exposing tree
roots and the death of high numbers of trees along the coasts.
79
Figure 4.3. Aerial maps showing changes of the coastlines over the years. (A-B) coastline of Gizo town in 1960-1984 (Adapted from the Solomon Islands Ministry of Lands and Survey) and C) the present map of Gizo town. (Source: Google.com.)
80
Figure 4.4. Affected coastal trees A) The almond tree at Paelongge village B) Affected mangroves at Fishing village C) the beach hibiscus D) the beach mulberry showing poor growth at Malakerava area in Gizo town. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
Reportedly, changes to seasonality and fruiting periods have also contributed to
unhealthy growth and reduction of the almond trees. According to Jack Forests
(interviewed 2010) from Gizo town, the almond tree was commonly known for its
season of bearing fruits but now changes are witnessed in irregularity in fruit bearing
and with increase temperature, the leaves turned yellow and were believed to be
unhealthy, although it is common for this deciduous tree’s leaves to turn yellow before
they drop (refer to fig 4.4a).
It was also noted that the intrusion of high waves generated by the tsunami in 2007
carried away tree stumps and uprooted these coastal trees. In Kogulavata and Fishing
village, the most affected trees were mangroves, beach heliotrope and beach hibiscus.
For example, in Fishing village, mangroves in particular were said to be affected mainly
81
by tsunami waves, which penetrated far inland (fig 4.4b). It was recalled that the tsunami
waves swept and washed ashore most of the mangroves, particularly the Bruguiera
gymnorrhiza, which are dominant along the coastal area. It was reported that direct force
of the waves tore the leaves, broke the branches, and uprooted entire trees. Silt deposited
by the tsunami waves may have clogged the pores of the aerial roots of mangroves,
suffocating them, causing massive damage to mangroves with an estimated loss of 40
percent of all trees (refer to fig 4.4b). Noel Fugui (interviewed 2010) of Fishing village
witnessed that changes in rainfall and high tides seem to have become extreme since the
tsunami event in 2007, apparently due to the loss of these protective trees.
Particularly seriously affected were the beach hibiscus and beach mulberry, (see fig
4.4c-d) both important medicinal trees. These important trees were believed to have
been affected by increased sun’s heat as revealed in their unhealthy leaves and irregular
changes in fruit bearing. People reported they now have to travel elsewhere to obtain
several of these trees. In Saeraghe, damage to the pandanus trees was due to salt-water
intrusion accompanied by wind-generated waves (Nelson, 2010 pers, comm.), while the
beach mulberries in particular were reported as no-where to be found.
The loss of these coastal trees has also affected a number of coastal animal species that
depend on them for habitat, shade, food and refuge. Important food species, such as the
brown land crabs (kahu) and mud - crabs (kakarita) seem to have been particularly
affected.
It was also reported that the loss of coastal trees has affected holothurians, some of
which depend on shade offered by these coastal trees. Seabirds such as Sandfords fish
eagle (kakaka) and the beach king fisher (kiokio) were also reportedly affected as a
result of habitat and food loss.
Those trees that were least affected seem to be those normally found in the inner
portions of the coastal littoral vegetation. These include the creek premna, Borneo teak
and the milky mangroves (refer to table 4.3). Most of these coastal trees are still present
and found to be resilient, due mainly to their wide tolerance and location.
82
Creek premna shrubs (chakope) were the least affected due to their ability to grow along
rocky shores, on larger atolls, in inland forests and on ridges (Whistler, 1992). Borneo
teak (kivili) in particular is capable of tolerating a wide range of environmental
conditions ranging from drier to wet climates and from sandy to muddy soils sometimes
at a considerable distance inland (Thaman et al., 2006). The milky mangrove (ototo)
which is normally found in the more protected inner margins of mangroves, is also
known for its tolerance of salinity and the wide spread nature of its multiple stems and
extensive cable roots that enable it to adapt to conditions of high waves and salinity
(http://sci.odu.edu/gmsa/about/mangrove_PDFs/Excoecaria%20agallocha.pdf).
Impacts on coastal vegetation
According to the survey, there were 16 coastal non-tree plant types that were particularly
affected due to big waves, sea–level rise, stronger currents, tides, increased temperature,
violent winds and the effects of tsunami waves. As shown in table 4.4, they include 16
different plants including vines, grasses and sedges, ferns, herbs and shrubs.
The most commonly mentioned non-trees that were clearly declining in abundance were:
beach morning glory (borukua) a common tropical vine normally found along the sandy
areas, beach pea (roko hike), sea purselane, beach sedge, beach spurge, beach bean,
beach dodder or woe vine (adoso) a leafless climbing twining vine and beach sunflowers
(chalu).
These species were clearly seen to be decreasing in numbers along shorelines.
Respondents reported many that have been washed ashore and exposed to sunlight as
high waves moved inland. Plants that have seriously decreased in abundance include the
morning glory, beach sunflower, beach sedge and beach spurge, with some such as
beach peas having totally disappeared in several sites.
The surveys in Ghizo Island, reported that unlike before, most of these coastal non-tree
plants have showed sharp reduction in numbers along the coastal area.
83
In Paelongge village, which is known for its high exposure to the wind and waves (fig
4.5a-b), which probably explains the reduction in coastal herbaceous plants such as the
beach morning glories, beach peas and beach bean (fig 4.6a-c).
84
Tabl
e 4.
4 Sh
rubs
, her
bs, v
ines
, gra
sses
and
sedg
es r
epor
ted
to h
ave
been
neg
ativ
ely
affe
cted
by
clim
ate
chan
ge, s
ea–l
evel
rise
and
ot
her
envi
ronm
enta
l cha
nges
by
40 r
espo
nden
ts to
que
stio
nnai
re s
urve
y in
5 v
illag
es o
n G
hizo
Isl
and,
Wes
tern
Sol
omon
isla
nds
whe
n as
ked
to m
entio
n up
to 1
0 co
asta
l tre
e th
at h
ave
been
aff
ecte
d.
Fi
shin
g vi
llage
Saer
aghe
vi
llage
Kog
ulav
ata
Pa
elon
gge
villa
ge
Giz
o To
wn
F M
To
tal
Aff
ecte
d no
n-
tree
s Sc
ient
ific
Nam
e L
ocal
Nam
e x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 X
/20
X/2
0 X
/40
Bea
ch m
orni
ng-
glor
yIp
omoe
a pe
s-ca
prae
tata
tu, b
oruk
ua8
6 2
7 6
15
14
19
Bea
ch P
ea
Vign
a m
arin
a ro
ko h
ike
1 3
4 4
3 7
9 16
Sea
purs
elan
e Se
suvi
um
port
ulac
astru
m
* 0
5 0
6 5
8 8
16
Bea
ch se
dge
Cyp
erus
st
olon
iferu
s *
0 3
0 6
6 7
8 15
Bea
ch sp
urge
C
ham
aesy
ce a
toto
*
1 6
1 7
0 6
9 15
Bea
ch b
ean
Can
aval
ia ro
sea
* 0
0 2
8 2
6 6
12
Woe
vin
e C
assy
thia
fil
iform
is ad
oso
0 4
1 4
2 8
3 11
Bea
ch su
nflo
wer
W
alla
ston
ia
biflo
ra
chal
u 0
3 2
3 2
4 6
10
Der
ris
Der
ris tr
ifolia
ta
buna
riro
2
1 3
0 1
7 2
9
Salt
bush
Sc
aevo
la ta
cada
na
su, k
ikid
onga
1
0 0
2 1
4 5
9
Crin
um li
ly
Cri
num
asia
ticum
bo
i man
avas
a 0
1 0
2 1
4 3
7
Poly
nesi
an
arro
wro
otTa
cca
leon
tope
talo
ides
* 0
2 0
2 0
4 3
7
? St
enot
aphr
um
mic
rant
hum
*
0 2
0 1
0 3
4 7
85
Poly
nesi
an b
urr
gras
s C
ench
rus
caly
cula
tus
* 0
1 0
2 0
3 3
6
? (H
emig
raph
is sp
) *
0 0
2 0
1 3
2 5
Silv
er b
ush
Soph
ora
tom
ento
sa*
0 1
0 0
0 1
0 1
86
Figure 4.5. Exposure of Paelongge village to wave energy and wind direction A) overlooking high-energy coastal area and B) showing the view when standing along the coast marked by the arrow (Photos by the author, 2010.)
In Saeraghe village, it was observed that most of the beach morning glory can now only
be found at a particular point along the end of the village towards the construction site
where the bridge is situated. In addition, the increase in erosion has exposed the woe
vine to the sun thus altering their color to become more reddish-yellow before they
eventually die (fig 4.6d).
It was also reported that the sea purselane, beach sunflower, beach sedge, and beach
spurge (see fig 4.7) are also affected, especially in Paelongge and Saeraghe villages,
which are mainly surrounded by sandy beach and are particularly vulnerable to coastal
erosion and the washing away of these plants. The beach sunflower showed an even
greater reduction in numbers along the coastal areas, most of which have been damaged
by increased seawater during high tides and increasing exposure resulting in changes in
colour (refer to fig 4.7c).
The beach sedge is also reported by respondents to be affected, especially in Paelongge
village and Gizo town (see table 4.4). In Gizo, the beach sedge was once well known for
its massive growth along the rocky coastal shores. However, widespread coastal erosion
87
along the coastal area towards Malakerava point has caused a sharp decline in its
numbers.
Figure 4.6. Several affected coastal non-trees A) the beach pea in Saeraghe village B) the beach bean at Paelongge village C) beach morning glory exposed to sun heat and waves during low tide in Paelongge village and D) the Woe vine which showed part of its vines affected by sea–level rise and heat evident by changes in color at Saeraghe village. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
Surveys showed similar problems in the more swampy areas of Fishing village and
Kogulavata settlement, as well as in parts of Saeraghe village and in Gizo town, where
coastal non-tree plants that had been affected by high tides and water related events of
tsunami waves were still affected by changing conditions.
88
Figure 4.7. Several affected coastal non-trees taken in Paelongge and Gizo. A) the sea purselane evident in Paelongge B) the beach spurge at Paelongge village C) the beach sunflower affected by high rise in seawater and increased heat and D) the once common beach sedge in Gizo town. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
According to Wilson Fationo (interviewed 2010) from Kogulavata, salt-water intrusion
during high tides affects several non-tree plants along the coastal area that are already
affected by waterlogged conditions stemming from the after-effects of the tsunami.
These include beach pea, morning glory, beach sunflower, which were normally found
along the coastal areas but are now fewer in number, with beach pea almost disappearing
after the 2007 tsunami.
89
It was also mentioned that the changes in climate, higher sea levels and tides, and
increased sea surface temperature, had already been witnessed even before the tsunami
event (Fationo 2010, pers. comm.).
Damage to morning glory was excessive in Fishing village (table 4.4). According to the
survey, beach morning glory was more affected by rising high tide together with wind
energy and aggravated by tsunami wave effects. Furthermore, human activities such as
the reclamation of land and clearance of mangroves (discussed further in section 4.5)
have also contributed to making inroads and gaps for tsunami waves to travel further
inland (fig 4.8).
Figure 4.8. Reclaimed area and gap that enabled tsunami waves to travel further inland at Fishing village. (Photo by the author, 2010.)
For example, as stated by the chief of Fishing village, as a result of mangroves
destruction and reclamation, tsunami waves were able to travel about 60 metres inland,
thus causing damage to coastal areas including trees and non-trees (Mana, 2010 pers.
90
comm.). Most of these non-tree plants are important medicinal plants and are culturally
important as foods and as well as for ropes to anchor canoes and building materials.
However, like trees, a number of coastal non-trees have demonstrated their resilience
over the years (refer to table 4.4). The reason for this is that most of these non-trees are
located further inland from the coasts. These species include derris vine (buni riro),
saltbush (kikidonga), crinum lily (boi manavasa), Polynesian arrowroot, Stenotaphrum
micranthum,�Polynesian burr grass, Hemigraphis sp. and silver bush.
Because of their inland location, most of these non-tree species are not exposed to the
increased force of the strong waves, sea–level rise, and soil salinity. Some plants, like
derris vine, are known to be able to cope with changes in salinity even during flooding,
as observed in Fishing village and Kogulavata. The silver bush, known for its high salt
tolerance and mostly found inland at Saeraghe is little affected. They are categorized as
the least affected non-trees along the coastal area.
Moreover, the common salt bush, which is still seen in numbers near Fishing village,
Paelongge village, and parts of Gizo Town (table 4.4) are least affected as they are
naturally quick to colonize and still found in larger numbers along many coastal areas of
Ghizo Island.
4.3.3 Inland flooding
Inland flooding is reported to be one of the coastal impacts caused by climate and
environmental change (table 4.2). It is reported in all five villages, with its effects more
widespread in Fishing village, Paelongge and Kogulavata.
Flooding of low-lying areas is one of the most obvious consequences of increased sea–
level rise and high waves and tides. This exposure is likely to increase as sea–level rises
with climate change. It was reported that inland flooding usually occurs during periods
of heavy rainfall, which seem to be increasing and changing their seasonal distribution
(table 4.1). Ghizo Island is reported to be particularly at risk from flooding, inundation
from tropical cyclones, and sea–level rise along its low-lying areas (Iroi, et al., 2006).
91
Fishing village and Kogulavata settlement, for example, are low-lying swampy areas,
which makes them more vulnerable to inland flooding and periodic inundation by
seawater. One of the reported reasons for inland flooding is the presence of natural
underground springs that flow similar to a river, but mix with salt water during high
tides and increased rainfall causing inland flooding (Fationo, 2010, pers comm.). It was
observed that even shorter periods or rainfall normally generate massive flooding (Isaac,
2010, pers. comm.). In addition, it was observed in Kogulavata that inland flooding also
occurs after high tides (Lilo 2010, pers. comm.).
Respondents recalled and related how the 2007 tsunami waves, which occurred in
combination with higher tides and increased rainfall, caused serious inland flooding. The
flooding in this scenario increases sea level as well as making inroads for tsunami waves
to travel inland, leading to destruction of and damage to important coastal habitats such
as the mangroves and non-trees.
In Fishing village, Saeraghe, Paelongge and Gizo, respondents reported that tsunami
waves accompanied by high tides had not only altered coastal habitats, but had caused
declines in population of migratory and resident birds, which may have lost important
breeding and nesting grounds. For example, several seabirds and water eagles such as
terns (chelekae), beach stone curlew (bilikiki), the Pacific reef egrets (chou), the
Sanford’s fish eagles and the frigate birds (table 4.5), that were reported to have once
inhabited coastal areas, usually in large numbers, have shown a sharp reduction over the
years.
It was reported that the main cause of their reduction was alteration and damage to
important habitats such as the mangroves and from loss of food. Most of these species
reportedly feed on juvenile mackerel and even smaller shells, reef fish and crustaceans
that had also declined as a result of the tsunami. Thus, their loss and reduction has
affected these important seabirds. This was supported by the report by Ghizo Marine
Conservation Area, suggesting that the beach stone curlew is becoming a near threatened
bird in Ghizo, showing the vulnerability of several sea birds.
92
It was also reported in the five villages that the slightest rainfall and the recent effects of
tsunami waves can cause major landslides, which can alter soil zonation through
increased flow of sediments during flooding. Particularly vulnerable to these effects of
inland flooding are Malakerava village and some parts of Kogulavata area, because of
the steep areas located behind these villages.
According to Jack Forest from Gizo town, Ghizo Island is geologically very young and
thus the soil is especially vulnerable to rainfall. He continues to explain that only a slight
rain can cause soil erosion, particularly at Malakerava, where an unsealed road is
particularly susceptible to holding much water causing sedimentation being washed
away after rainfall.
Similarly, in Kogulavata, rainfall causes increased sedimentation that washes into the
sea causing a brownish discoloration of the sea, which can affect marine habitats such as
corals. Second, the waterlogged areas from increased runoff and sedimentation also
affect regrowth of coastal trees and crops that villagers cultivate along the coast, most of
which are already affected by the tsunami waves (fig 4.9).
Figure 4.9. Affected areas in Kogulavata A) sedimentation from runoff during inland flooding affecting the sea state and corals B) waterlogged areas affecting regrowth of trees (Photos by the author, 2010.)
93
Tabl
e 4.
5. S
eabi
rds r
epor
ted
to h
ave
been
neg
ativ
ely
affe
cted
by
envi
ronm
enta
l cha
nges
12, G
hizo
Isla
nds.
Fi
shin
g vi
llage
Saer
aghe
vi
llage
K
ogul
avat
a
Pael
ongg
e vi
llage
G
izo
Tow
n F
M
Tot
al
Aff
ecte
d se
a bi
rds
Scie
ntifi
c N
ame
Loca
l N
ame
x/8
x/8
x/8
x/8
x/8
x/20
x/
20
x/40
Tern
s La
rida
e sp
ch
elek
ae
7 7
7 7
6 17
17
34
Paci
fic re
ef e
gret
s Eg
retta
sa
cra
chou
2
7 6
8 7
14
16
30
Bea
ch st
one
curle
w
Burh
inus
ne
glec
tus
bilik
iki
4 7
2 5
8 13
13
26
Sanf
ord
fish
eagl
eH
alia
eetu
s sa
nfor
di
kaka
ka
3 3
4 6
4 9
11
20
Frig
ate
bird
fr
egat
idae
sp
bela
ma
4 3
4 8
1 9
11
20
Bea
ch K
ingf
ishe
r H
alcy
on
saur
opha
ga
kiok
io
2 4
2 2
3 6
7 13
duck
s An
as sp
. ar
anga
0
0 1
0 0
0 1
1
12En
viro
nmen
tal c
hang
es in
clud
ed c
limat
e ch
ange
and
sea
–lev
el ri
se, a
mon
gst o
ther
s. Th
e 40
resp
onde
nts
in th
e qu
estio
nnai
re su
rvey
in 2
010
repr
esen
ted
5 vi
llage
s on
G
hizo
Isla
nd, W
este
rn S
olom
on Is
land
s. Th
ey w
ere
aske
d to
nam
e up
to 5
seab
irds t
hey
repo
rted
to h
ave
been
neg
ativ
ely
affe
cted
.
94
4.3.4 Damage to coastal crops
Damage done to coastal crops was also mentioned as an impact from climate and
environmental change (table 4.2). Apart from salt-water intrusion and inland
flooding, which are affecting previously mentioned crops, increased temperature,
rainfall and pests also reportedly negatively affect crops.
The impacts of increased temperature and pests and weeds have been reported in the
five villages, with the most affected crops being sweet potato, beans, bananas and the
slippery cabbage. For example, in Paelongge village, it was reported that increased
sunlight has caused heating of soil that has affected sweet potato mounds, which
produce smaller tubers, and the growth of several bean species (fig 4.10a).
Figure 4.10. Several affected crops: A) beans at Paelongge village B) banana patch affected at Malakerava C) taro plant affected by increased rainfall and flooding at kogulavata and D) potatoes mounds that were affected from increased pests and temperature. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
95
Similarly, in Gizo town, Jack Forest, an elderly resident of Gizo town, recalled that
today most crops can not withstand the increased heat for even a week without dying.
This is evident by the changes in the colour of their leaves and lower yields in crops
such as slippery cabbage. In Malakerava village, it was reported that increased
temperature accompanied by stronger winds has affected fruit crops such as the
banana plants along the coastal area. The color and shape of their leaves changed
because of increased heat and wind force, which in turn lowered fruit yield (see fig
4.10b).
Besides, frequent rainfall is also evident in parts of Kogulavata area, where leaves of
taro have changed colour (fig 4.10c). According to respondents, increased rainfall is
also associated with increased pests and weeds (refer to table 4.1).
For example, in Paelongge and Fishing village, melon fly and grasshopper damage to
crops such as the cabbages, melons, bananas and sweet potato has increased as
evidenced by holes in their leaves (fig 4.10d). Similarly, in Kogulavata, it was
reported that there has been unprecedented pest and weed infestation of crops leading
to reduced yields.
4.4 Inshore marine impacts
The survey showed that there were a number of perceived inshore marine impacts
due to climate change, sea state and other environmental changes, which included: 1)
damage and death of corals, 2) declining finfish resources, 3) damage to sea grasses
and seaweeds, 4) depletion of marine invertebrates and 5) disruption of the marine
food web (table 4.6).
96
Table 4.6 Specific impacts of climate change, sea–level rise and other environmental changes to the inshore marine ecosystem by 40 respondent to questionnaire survey in villages on Ghizo, Western Solomon Islands.
Fishing village
Saeraghe village Kogulavata Paelongge
village Gizo Town F M Total
Inshore marine impacts x/8 x/8 x/8 x/8 x/8 X/20 X/20 X/40 Damage and death of corals 7 7 7 8 6 16 19 35
Declining finfishes 7 6 6 8 7 16 17 33 Damage to seagrass/seaweeds 6 6 5 7 5 13 16 29
Depletion of marine invertebrates/ animals 6 3 7 6 6 13 15 28
Disrupted food web 3 7 2 7 6 11 14 25
4.4.1 Damage and death of coral
According to the results, the most affected coral species were the branching corals
(Acropora spp.), staghorn corals, Montipora corals, head corals and table corals, all
of which were reported in the five villages (table 4.7). It was reported that increased
temperature, unpredictability of wind patterns including changes in tides and
currents, coastal erosion and the recent effects of tsunami waves in 2007 had
contributed damage to reefs in Ghizo.
Reports of extreme low tides, which can last for several days accompanied by
increased temperature, accounted for much death of corals along the inshore waters,
but were more evident at Paelongge village and Malakerava in Gizo town (fig 4.11).
For example, at Malakerava, lower spring tides unlike ever experienced before are
quickly replaced by higher tides. The prolonged low tides have lead to the death of
corals and rocks on the reef unlike anything experienced before (Kezi, 2010 pers
comm.) (fig 4.12).
97
Tab
le 4
.7.
Cor
als
repo
rted
to
have
bee
n ne
gativ
ely
affe
cted
by
clim
ate
chan
ge,
sea–
leve
l ri
se a
nd o
ther
env
iron
men
tal
chan
ges
by 4
0 re
spon
dent
s to
ques
tionn
aire
surv
ey in
5 v
illag
es o
n G
hizo
Isla
nd, W
este
rn S
olom
on Is
land
whe
n as
ked
to m
entio
n up
to 3
livi
ng c
oral
s tha
t ha
ve b
een
affe
cted
.
Tab
le 4
.8. S
eagr
ass/
seaw
eeds
and
oth
er m
arin
e pl
ants
rep
orte
d to
hav
e be
en n
egat
ivel
y af
fect
ed b
y cl
imat
e ch
ange
, sea
–lev
el r
ise a
nd o
ther
en
viro
nmen
tal c
hang
es b
y 40
res
pond
ents
to
ques
tionn
aire
sur
vey
in 5
vill
ages
on
Ghi
zo I
slan
d, W
este
rn S
olom
on I
slan
ds w
hen
aske
d to
m
entio
n up
to 5
seag
rass
/sea
wee
ds th
at h
ave
been
aff
ecte
d.
Fi
shin
g vi
llage
Saer
aghe
vi
llage
K
ogul
avat
a
Pael
ongg
e vi
llage
G
izo
Tow
n F
M
Tot
al
Aff
ecte
d se
agra
ss a
nd
seaw
eed
Sc
ient
ific
Nam
e L
ocal
Nam
e x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 X
/20
X/2
0 X
/40
Sea
grap
es
Cau
lerp
a ra
cem
osa
im
e, re
vo
8 6
7 8
8 19
18
37
Tape
seag
rass
En
halu
s aco
roid
es
afu,
Eu,
kul
i he
le
7 6
5 7
8 18
15
33
Spoo
n se
agra
ss
Hal
ophi
la o
valis
*
2 5
0 8
3 9
9 18
Sick
le se
agra
ss
Thal
assi
ahe
mpr
ichi
i ku
li ng
ongo
to
2 4
3 6
2 9
8 17
Serr
ated
ribb
on se
agra
ss
Cym
odoc
ea se
rrul
ata
* 1
0 3
6 0
7 3
10
Fi
shin
g vi
llage
Sa
erag
he
villa
ge
Kog
ulav
ata
Pael
ongg
e vi
llage
G
izo
Tow
n F
M
Tot
al
Aff
ecte
d L
ivin
g C
oral
S
cien
tific
Nam
e L
ocal
N
ame
x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 X
/20
X/2
0 x/
40
Bra
nchi
ng c
oral
Ac
ropo
ra sp
*
6 6
5 8
7 16
16
32
Stag
horn
cor
al
Acro
pora
ce
rvic
orni
sbi
nu b
inu
7 5
5 8
5 14
16
30
Mon
tipor
a co
rals
M
ontip
ora
sp
voa
1 5
2 4
6 8
10
18
head
cor
als
Porit
es sp
pa
tuka
e 1
3 2
8 1
9 6
15
Acr
opor
a ta
bula
r co
rals
Ac
ropo
rida
spp
voa
todi
0
1 0
0 1
0 2
2
98
Figure 4.11. Showing prolonged lower tides which can last over days A) Lower tides along the reef flat along the Malakerava area in Gizo town B) Lower tides and altered stones from tsunami waves along the Paelongge village towards Suvania village. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
Figure 4.12. Showing dead corals and boulders along the inshore marine waters of Malakerava area as a result of sedimentation over the years during lower tides. (Photo by the author, 2010.)
99
Moreover, continuous coastal erosion from increased rainfall and sea–level rise are
the major causes for the death and poor growth of corals in parts of Ghizo Island,
especially in Gizo town towards the Malakerava area due to increased sedimentation,
which can lead to death of nearshore corals by smothering and reduced light
availability, which corals need for photosynthesis.
As climate change intensifies it, will also affects how coral reefs recover after being
faced with natural disturbances such as the tsunami wave force and associated
earthquakes which occurred in 2007 in the Western Province, during which coral
reefs in Ghizo Island were the most adversely affected. Although tsunami waves are
seen as being unrelated to climate change and variability, their impacts offers useful
guidance to the potential future impacts of climate change particularly through
inundation (Weir 2010, pers comm.).
In Kogulavata, Paelongge and Saeraghe village, sudden shifts in sea state such as
increased waves and currents aggravated by the force of tsunami waves and
associated earthquakes have affected the corals, particularly Acropora corals,
Montipora corals (voa), staghorn corals (binu binu) branching and table corals along
the coastal area (fig 4.13).
For example, in Paelongge the aftermath of tsunami and associated were the cause of
damage made to a number of branching corals. At Saeraghe and Fishing village it
was reported that branching corals were not recovered after the tsunami.
At Kogulavata and Paelongge, respondents mentioned that unlike before, currents are
much stronger thus creates extreme sedimentation (Parakena, 2010 pers comm.).
This is reflected by the changes in the colour of Acropora sp corals and usually when
washed ashore due to exposed to sunlight (fig 4.14 a-d).
100
Figure 4.13. Showing corals affected by tsunami and associated earthquakes (A-B) broken table and branching corals in Njari lagoon and (C-D) damaged caused to table corals and Acropora corals. (Source: Tingo Leve, WWF, Gizo).
Figure 4.14. Affected Acropora corals A) Death of Acropora coral due to tsunami waves and sedimentation in Kogulavata (B-D) corals being washed ashore and deposited inland at Paelongge village. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
101
4.4.2 Decline of reef finfishes
According to the survey, a wide range of finfish had declined in numbers due to
climate and environmental changes aggravated by anthropogenic activities, reported
in all of the five villages (refer to section 4.5) and table (4.9).
According to the respondents, the alteration of important habitats like larger corals
and boulders and seagrasses–aggravated by changes in tides and waves, increased
sea level and high waves generated by tsunami waves–have contributed to the
decline of finfishes. The most affected fish were the brown marbled grouper,
humphead parrotfish, giant trevally, humpback grouper, steephead parrotfish,
barracuda, humpback red snapper, rabbit fish and the Spanish mackerel. Most of
these finfish are of commercial importance in Ghizo (table 4.9).
For example, in Paelongge and Fishing village, residents witnessed that finfishes,
particularly the humphead parrotfish and the groupers, were hardly being caught in
substantial numbers since the tsunami and the loss of Acropora corals, and that it has
been almost 6 years since these fishes were caught in large numbers (Liva 2010 pers.
comm.). The added effects of anthropogenic activities such as over-fishing have also
reportedly contributed to a decline in numbers of these finfish (refer to section 4.5 on
human threats).
Local respondents also believe that stronger waves and currents have also
contributed to declines in finfish populations and may affect migration and
movement of gametes and fish larvae, particularly during spawning, when eggs are
often carried away by unpredictable currents and at times eaten by other fish (Akao,
2010 pers. comm.). This is also believed to disrupt dispersal, especially during the
period of larval settlement. In addition, several finishes that are at times abundant on
coral reefs and as well as the red emperor (Ihana orava lao) and the sweet lips
(Piripirikocho) are disappearing as foods are reduced.
The least affected species include deepwater snappers and job fishes, surgeonfish
(koere) and the blue lined large eye bream (refer to table 4.9) that are found on the
outer reefs slope and seamounts and still in abundance in the market on Ghizo Island.
102
This is supported by the report of the Ghizo Marine Conservation Area management
plan (GMCA) where high numbers of Acanthurids are still observed (Manele and
Wein, 2006), whereas the blue lined large-eye bream (ramusi lao) tends to be found
in the muddy areas and even outer reefs, rather than on healthy inshore coral reefs,
thus possibly explaining their higher numbers.
103
Tabl
e 4.
9. F
infis
h re
port
ed to
hav
e be
en n
egat
ivel
y af
fect
ed b
y cl
imat
e ch
ange
, sea
–lev
el r
ise
and
othe
r en
viro
nmen
tal c
hang
es b
y 40
res
pond
ents
to q
uest
ionn
aire
sur
vey
in 5
vill
ages
on
Ghi
zo I
slan
d, W
este
rn S
olom
on I
sland
s w
hen
aske
d to
men
tion
up to
10
finfis
h th
at h
ave
been
aff
ecte
d.
Fish
ing
villa
ge
Saer
aghe
vi
llage
K
ogul
avat
a Pa
elon
gge
villa
ge
Giz
o T
own
F M
T
otal
Aff
ecte
d Fi
nfish
Sc
ient
ific
Nam
e L
ocal
Nam
e x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 X
/20
X/2
0 X
/40
Bro
wn
mar
bled
gr
oupe
r Ep
inep
helu
s fu
scog
utta
tus
paza
ra b
urek
i, sa
ka, b
oka,
sa
boka
5
7 6
8 7
15
18
33
Gre
en
hum
phea
d pa
rrot
fish
Bolb
omet
opon
m
uric
atum
to
pa
8 5
4 6
5 13
15
28
Gia
nt tr
eval
ly
Cara
nx ig
nobi
lis
batu
batu
, mar
a 4
3 4
6 6
13
10
23
Hum
pbac
k gr
oupe
rCr
omile
ptes
al
tivel
isre
kata
, rek
a,
paja
ra ju
lele
5
3 4
4 5
12
9 21
Stee
p H
ead
Parr
otfis
h Ch
loru
rus
mic
rorh
inos
m
alak
i, bi
rake
2
6 5
5 5
8 13
21
Gre
at b
arra
cuda
Sp
hyra
ena
barr
acud
a ba
lbal
u, g
hohi
3
4 2
3 5
7 10
17
Span
ish
Mac
kere
l Sc
ombe
rom
orus
co
mm
erso
n ta
ngiri
4
7 1
1 3
8 8
16
Hum
pbac
k re
d sn
appe
r Lu
tjanu
s gib
bus
hehe
uku
1 3
2 2
5 4
9 13
Juve
nile
m
acke
rel
Scom
brid
ae sp
ka
tuka
tu
1 0
1 5
4 9
2 11
Trig
ger f
ish
Balis
tidae
spp
kubu
ku
3 0
2 3
1 5
4 9
Squa
re ta
il co
ral t
rout
Pl
ectr
opom
us
areo
latu
s pa
jara
tino
ni
2 2
1 1
1 4
3 7
Leop
ard
cora
l tro
ut
Plec
trop
omus
le
opar
dus
Paja
ra o
rava
1
1 1
1 3
2 5
7
shor
t tai
l red
sn
appe
r Et
elis
car
bunc
ulus
do
varo
0
2 1
1 3
3 4
7
Blu
e lin
ed la
rge
eye
brea
m
Gym
nocr
aniu
s gr
ando
culis
ra
mus
i lao
1
1 1
2 1
2 4
6
104
Red
empe
ror
Lutja
nus s
ebae
ih
ana
orav
a la
o 3
0 1
2 0
2 4
6
Mac
kere
l Sc
ombr
idae
spp
bum
a 1
2 0
1 2
4 2
6
Roun
d ta
il se
a br
eam
G
ymno
cran
ius
euan
us
mat
alap
a,
ram
usi
1 2
0 1
2 2
4 6
Nee
dle
Fish
Be
loni
dae
spp
boko
fu, c
ham
u 1
3 0
0 1
4 1
5 Lo
ng ta
il re
d sn
appe
rEt
elis
cor
usca
ns
dova
ro
1 2
0 0
2 3
2 5
Scar
let s
ea
perc
h Lu
tjanu
s m
alab
ricu
s ba
ke, i
hana
or
ava
0 0
2 3
0 3
2 5
Goa
t fis
h M
ullid
ae sp
p.
hum
ihum
i 2
0 0
1 1
1 3
4
Swee
t lip
s fis
h H
aem
ulid
ae sp
p pi
ripi
rikoc
ho,
mih
u 0
1 0
2 1
1 3
4
Sadd
le b
ack
cora
l tro
ut
Plec
trop
omus
la
evis
pa
jara
tula
e 0
0 2
0 2
2 2
4
Rabb
it fis
h Si
gani
dae
spp
tete
gho
2 0
0 0
1 0
3 3
Shar
p to
oth
job
fish
Prist
ipom
oide
s ty
pus
dova
ro
2 0
0 0
0 2
0 2
Surg
eon
fish
Acan
thur
idae
spp.
ko
ere
1 0
0 0
1 0
2 2
Gol
den
eye
job
fish
Prist
ipom
oide
s fla
vipi
nnis
ih
ana
golo
1
1 0
0 0
1 1
2
Mul
let f
ish
Mug
ilida
e sp
p.
lipa
1 0
0 0
0 0
1 1
Milk
fish
C
hano
s cha
nos
povu
1
0 0
0 0
0 1
1
105
4.4.3 Damage to seagrass and seaweeds
The survey showed that damage to seagrass and seaweeds is one of the impacts to
inshore marine ecosystems due to climate and environmental changes (table 4.6).
Affected species include sea grapes (ime), tape seagrass (kuli hele), spoon seagrass,
sickle seagrass (kuli ngongoto) and serrated seagrass (refer back to table 4.8).
The effects of tides and currents, rising sea level, increased rainfall including
increased sedimentation have affected a number of seagrass and weeds reported in all
of the five villages, which are known for massive seagrasses and weeds along the
inshore marine waters.
For example, in Kogulavata, it was reported that the continuous increase and
intensity of rainfall has affected a number of sea grapes and seagrasses, reportedly
due to mixing of freshwater with salt water as flooding intensifies (Fationo, 2010
pers. comm.). Similarly, Fishing village reported that sea grapes were affected due to
increased salt-water intrusion during higher sea level thus depriving them of sunlight.
Malakerava area in Gizo town, Paelongge and Saeraghe villages have reported that
exposure to high winds and waves and the continuous coastal erosion have also
contributed to the damage and death of sea grapes, tape seagrasses, spoon seagrass,
sickle seagrass and serrated seagrass. For example, residents at Malakerava village
recalled that seaweeds, particularly the sea grapes, that were easily collected on
nearby stones and rocks along the reef are now found only in certain areas, while the
tape seagrass was reported as hardly found due to increase sedimentation (Siote,
2010 pers. comm.).
In Paelongge, it was reported that the gradual coastal erosion as sea moved inland
accompanied by increased wind-driven waves has affected the tape seagrass.
Residents recalled that tape seagrass, which was very abundant in the past in the
inshore waters, as determined by its saline odour, have been washed ashore, (Sam,
2010 pers. comm.) (fig 4.15).
106
Figure 4.15. Paelongge village showing moving inland of sea level: insert remains of tape sea grass that were being washed ashore due to stronger wind and currents. (Photo by the author, 2010.)
In Saeraghe, death of tape seagrass and spoon seagrass is due to most of them being
washed ashore and later exposed to increase sunlight. This is evident by reduced
patches of tape sea grasses (fig 4.16). Spoon seagrass, was reported as hardly found
compared to previous years. This can be explained by most of these species that are
closely located close to shallow, suggesting that their vulnerability is due to erosion,
from wave and currents (fig 4.17).
On the other hand, the sickle seagrass was reported to be more abundant in
Paelongge (table 4.7) but is also affected due to being swept there by strong currents
and increased sea level and sedimentation.
Moreover, lower tides accompanied by increased temperature are reported as factors
that have led to death of the serrated ribbon seagrasses particularly in Paelongge
village, which is evident from the browning and death of seagrass blades with
prolonged exposure to sunlight and desiccation (fig 4.1.8).
107
Figure 4.16 Diminished distribution of tape seagrass at Saeraghe village. Insert: the tape seagrass. (Photo by the author, 2010.)
Figure 4.17 Diminished distribution of spoon seagrass at Saeraghe village. Insert: the once common spoon seagrass. (Photo by the author, 2010.)
108
Figure 4.18 Coastal areas along Paelongge village towards Suvania village where evidence of lower tides and increased temperature is observed. Insert: the affected serrated seagrass. (Photo by the author, 2010.)
4.4.4 Depletion of coastal and marine invertebrates and animals
A wide range of marine organisms was reported to be seriously declining in
abundance. Affected invertebrates include crabs and lobsters, bêche-de-mer,
shellfishes, squids, octopuses, starfishes, sea turtles and sea birds, a number of which
are of commercial importance. Although the main reason seems to be
overexploitation, changes in climate seem to be exacerbating this and their declining
abundance undermines local resilience to climate and environmental change.
Affected crabs and lobsters included the common painted spiny lobsters (chehana
kongu), the mud crab (kakarita), spotted reef crab (Carpilius maculatus) Caledonian
slipper lobsters (chehana) and stripe–leg spiny lobster (chehana lupa), all of which
have shown massive reduction over the years (table 4.10).
109
Tab
le 4
.10.
Cra
bs/lo
bste
rs a
nd p
raw
ns r
epor
ted
to h
ave
been
neg
ativ
ely
affe
cted
by
clim
ate
chan
ge, s
ea–l
evel
ris
e an
d ot
her
envi
ronm
enta
l ch
ange
s by
40
resp
onde
nts
to q
uest
ionn
aire
sur
vey
in 5
vill
ages
on
Ghi
zo I
sland
, Wes
tern
Sol
omon
Isl
ands
whe
n as
ked
to m
entio
n up
to 5
cr
abs a
nd lo
bste
rs th
at h
ave
been
aff
ecte
d.
Fi
shin
g vi
llage
Sa
erag
he
villa
ge
Kog
ulav
ata
Pael
ongg
e vi
llage
G
izo
Tow
n F
M
Tot
al
Aff
ecte
d cr
abs/l
obst
ers
and
praw
ns
Scie
ntifi
c N
ame
Loc
al
Nam
e x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 X
/20
X/2
0 X
/40
Pain
ted
spin
y lo
bste
r Pa
nulir
us
vers
icol
or
cheh
ana
kong
u 7
8 7
7 7
18
18
31
Mud
cra
b Sc
ylla
serr
ata
kaka
rita
7 6
6 5
6 16
14
30
Spot
ted
reef
cra
b C
arpi
lius
mac
ulat
es
* 3
3 5
8 6
11
14
25
Cal
edon
ian
slip
per l
obst
er
Parr
iibac
us
cale
doni
cus
cheh
ana
6 3
3 5
5 11
11
22
Coc
onut
cra
b Bi
rgus
latr
o tu
pe
0 4
4 4
6 7
11
18
Strip
e-le
g sp
iny
lobs
ter
Panu
lirus
long
ipes
c
heha
na
lupa
0 3
4 6
4 6
11
17
Pron
ghor
n sp
iny
lobs
ter
Panu
lirus
pe
nici
llatu
s ch
ehan
a lu
pa
1 3
5 3
3 6
9 15
Com
mon
ban
ded
man
tis
shrim
p Ly
sios
quill
ina
mac
ulat
e ha
haka
4
4 0
3 2
6 7
13
Bro
wn
land
cra
b C
ardi
som
a ca
rnife
x ka
hu
0 6
3 1
3 5
8 13
Smoo
th re
d ey
ed c
rab
Erip
hia
seba
ra
* 3
2 0
1 0
3 4
7
Her
mit
crab
D
arda
nus
meg
istos
ko
mba
1
0 0
1 1
3 0
3
Red
cla
w la
nd c
rab
Car
diso
ma
sp.
hauk
u 0
1 0
0 1
2 0
2
Gho
st C
rab
Ocy
pode
qua
drat
a ki
kio
0 1
0 1
0 2
0 2
110
Most of these crabs and lobsters are usually found in shallow reefs and rocks, sandy
areas and shallow waters. A few, such as the mud crabs, are found in mangrove areas
and on soft muddy bottoms and brackish water habitats. Coconut crabs and brown land
crabs are found along terrestrial areas and in coastal forest.
It was reported that the alteration of large rocks, stones and including mangrove areas by
tsunami waves, sand beach erosion, lower tides and increased sedimentation has
contributed to the decline in these crab and lobster number. Declines in the Caledonian
slipper lobster and the stripe-leg spiny lobster were greatest in Fishing village and
Paelongge (table 4.10). According to the respondents, these lobsters, which are usually
found along the inshore reefs especially under bigger stones, are now found further out
in the sea and usually at night (Pitu, in an interview conducted, on the 3rd of August,
2010).
The reduction of Proghorn spiny lobsters and the spotted reef crabs was reported in
Kogulavata area, Gizo town and Paelongge village (table 4.10). It was reported that the
spotted reef crab are usually found in clean waters and burrow under holes along the
reef. They are mostly affected by accelerated erosion and sedimentation and from
tsunami waves.
In Gizo town it was reported that these lobsters usually come out during high tides, the
unusually prolonged lower tides which have caused longer exposure of reef flats, corals
and bigger stones to sun’s heat have placed these species under greater stress. In
Saeraghe, it was also reported that the brown land crabs (kahu) that is usually harvested
during November and December are now obtained in much lower numbers than they
were before. Crabs and lobsters that were less affected include smooth red eyed crab,
hermit crab (komba), the red claw land crab (hauku) and the ghost crab (kikio).
As shown in table 4.11, there were at least 21 types of bêche-de-mer reported to have
been negatively affected by climate change, sea–level rise, environmental change and
over–harvesting.
111
Tabl
e 4.
11. B
êche
-de-
mer
/Hol
othu
rian
s re
port
ed to
hav
e be
en n
egat
ivel
y af
fect
ed b
y th
e cl
imat
e ch
ange
, sea
–lev
el r
ise
and
othe
r en
viro
nmen
tal c
hang
es b
y 40
res
pond
ents
to q
uest
ionn
aire
sur
vey
in 5
vill
ages
on
Ghi
zo I
sland
, Wes
tern
Sol
omon
Isla
nds
whe
n as
ked
to m
entio
n up
to 5
bêc
he-d
e-m
er th
at m
ay h
ave
been
aff
ecte
d.
Fish
ing
villa
ge
Saer
aghe
vi
llage
K
ogul
avat
a Pa
elon
gge
villa
ge
Giz
o T
own
Fem
ale
Mal
e T
otal
Aff
ecte
d
Bêc
he-d
e-m
er
Scie
ntifi
c N
ame
Loc
al N
ame
x/8
x/8
x/8
x/8
x/8
X/2
0 X
/20
X/4
0
Lolly
fish
Hol
othu
ria a
tra
puha
ka ju
ka
7 7
6 7
7 16
18
34
Cur
ry fi
sh
Stic
hopu
s he
rrm
anni
*
4 5
5 7
6 13
14
27
Pric
kly
redf
ish
Stic
hopu
she
rrm
anni
pu
haka
ra
mos
o
4 4
6 6
5 12
13
25
Snak
efis
h H
olot
huria
co
lube
r *
2 3
3 4
1 6
7 13
Bro
wn
sand
fish
Bo
hads
chia
vi
tiens
is pu
haka
pea
r 3
3 2
2 2
6 6
12
brow
n cu
rry
fish
Stic
hopu
s vas
tus
* 2
3 2
2 3
6 6
12
Surf
redf
ish
Actin
opyg
a m
aurit
iana
*
0 0
0 6
3 5
4 9
Gre
en fi
sh
Stic
hopu
s ch
loro
notu
s pu
haka
ra
mos
o ki
ki
1 1
2 0
4 3
5 8
Sand
fish
Hol
othu
ria
scab
ra
* 2
0 1
1 3
3 5
8
Whi
te te
atfis
h H
olot
huria
fusc
ogilv
a pu
haka
bisi
li 3
1 1
1 1
2 5
7
Ston
e fis
h Ac
tinop
yga
leca
nova
*
0 4
1 1
0 2
4 6
112
Tige
r fis
h Bo
hads
chia
ar
gus
* 2
2 0
0 1
2 3
5
Bur
ying
bl
ackf
ish
Actin
opyg
a sp
inea
*
2 1
0 1
1 4
1 5
Flow
er fi
sh
Pear
sono
thur
ia
grae
ffei
* 2
1 0
0 1
1 3
4
Cha
lk fi
sh
Boha
dsch
ia
sim
itis
Puha
ka p
ea
2 0
1 0
1 3
1 4
Can
dy c
ane
fish
Thel
enot
a ru
bral
inea
ta
* 2
0 1
0 1
3 1
4
Bla
ck te
at fi
sh
Hol
othu
ria
whitm
aei
* 1
0 1
1 0
1 2
3
Hai
ry b
lack
fish
Ac
tinop
yga
echi
nite
sPu
haka
om
o 0
1 1
1 0
1 2
3
Dee
p w
ater
red
fish
Actin
opyg
a ec
hini
tes
* 1
1 0
0 0
1 1
2
Dra
gon
fish
Stic
hopu
s ho
rren
s gro
up
0 0
0 0
2 0
2 2
Elep
hant
tru
nkfis
h Ac
tinop
yga
echi
nite
s *
0 0
1 0
0 0
1 1
113
The most affected species are lollyfish (puhaka juka), curry fish, prickly redfish
(puhaka ramoso), snakefish, brown sandfish (puhaka pear) and brown curry fish, most
of which are rarely (or if) found, only in small numbers and small sizes along the reefs,
most of which have been over harvested.
Other less-affected species include the surf red fish, green fish, sandfish, white teatfish
(puhaka bisili), stone fish and a range of other species, which–also in decline–are still
caught, often in deeper waters (table 4.11).
Although most of these species are commercially harvested (Manele and Wein, 2006), it
was reported in most villages environmental changes had contributed to the species
decline. The alteration of seagrasses and sand beach habitats was due to gradual sea–
level rise, increased sedimentation, stronger waves and currents, prolonged lower tides,
and effects of the recent tsunami waves.
The results of the surveys are supported by the survey carried out by WWF. In Ghizo
Island, although most of these holothurians are still present most of the commercially
important species, such as the curry fish, brown curry fish, sand fish, and white teat fish,
have shown reduction in abundance. This is the reason for the implementation of a ban
on the export of sea cucumbers (Manele and Wein, 2006).
The survey shows that a wide range of shellfishes, especially giant clams, have declined
in abundance over the years, reportedly due to a combination of excessive harvesting
and climate and environmental change (table 4.12).
The most affected species included elongate giant clams (hulumbu), trochus (lalava),
strawberry conch (ununusu), common spider conch (rigasa), bear paw giant clam
(hohombulu), fluted giant clam (veru veru), striate beach clam (kene kene), blacklip
pearl oyster (suvi), gold ring cowry (chukobibiho) and the mud whelk (ropi) (fig 4.19).
114
Tabl
e 4.
12. S
hellf
ish r
epor
ted
to h
ave
been
neg
ativ
ely
affe
cted
by
clim
ate
chan
ge, s
ea–l
evel
ris
e an
d ot
her
envi
ronm
enta
l cha
nges
by
40
resp
onde
nts t
o qu
estio
nnai
re su
rvey
in 5
vill
ages
on
Ghi
zo Is
land
, Wes
tern
Sol
omon
Isla
nds w
hen
aske
d to
men
tion
up to
6
shel
lfish
that
hav
e be
en a
ffec
ted.
Fish
ing
villa
ge
Saer
aghe
vi
llage
K
ogul
avat
a Pa
elon
gge
villa
ge
Giz
o To
wn
Fem
ale
Mal
e To
tal
Aff
ecte
d Sh
ellfi
sh
Scie
ntifi
c N
ame
Loca
l Nam
e x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 X
/20
X/2
0 X
/40
Elon
gate
gi
ant c
lam
Trid
acna
max
ima
ose,
hu
lum
bu
6 5
3 7
3 9
15
24
Troc
hus
Troc
hus n
ilotic
us
lala
va
2 6
3 5
5 10
11
21
Stra
wbe
rry
conc
hSt
rom
bus
luhu
anus
unun
usu
1 6
5 3
4 10
9
19
Com
mon
sp
ider
con
ch
Lam
bis l
ambi
ri
gasa
1
5 4
3 6
8 11
19
Bea
r paw
gi
ant c
lam
H
ippo
pus
hipp
opus
ho
hom
bulu
5
2 2
5 4
9 9
18
Flut
ed g
iant
cl
am
Trid
acna
sq
uam
osa
veru
ver
u 4
3 2
4 3
4 12
16
Stria
te b
each
cl
a mAt
acto
dea
stria
te
kene
ken
e 4
2 3
3 3
6 9
15
Bla
cklip
pe
arl o
yste
r Pi
ncto
dea
mar
garit
ifera
su
vi
4 1
1 2
4 8
4 12
Gol
d rin
g co
wrie
Cy
prae
a an
nulu
s ch
uko
bibi
ho
3 2
3 1
2 7
4 11
Mud
whe
lk
Tele
scop
ium
te
lesc
opiu
m,
ropi
5
1 2
1 1
6 4
10
Serp
ents
he
ad c
owrie
Cy
prae
a an
nulu
s ch
uko
1 1
3 2
0 5
2 7
115
Tige
r cow
rie
Cypr
aea
annu
lus
chuk
o 0
1 3
1 1
4 2
6
Silv
er m
outh
tu
rban
Tu
rbo
argy
roto
mus
po
pu
0 1
1 2
2 3
3 6
Ant
ique
ark
An
adar
a an
tiqua
t ari
ki
0 0
1 2
1 2
3 5
Fila
men
tous
ho
rse
conc
hPl
euro
ploc
a fil
amen
tosa
* 0
2 1
1 0
3 2
5
Leop
ard
cone
Co
nus l
eopa
rdus
ch
uko
poisi
ni
0 1
1 2
0 2
2 4
Duc
al th
orny
oy
ster
Sp
ondy
lus
squa
mos
us
* 0
0 0
1 1
1 2
3
Rou
gh
turb
anTu
rbo
seto
sus
* 1
0 1
0 0
1 1
2
You
thfu
l ve
nus
Peri
glyp
ta
puer
pera
lde
o 0
0 0
0 2
1 1
2
Paci
fic
asap
his
Asap
his
viol
asce
ns
* 0
0 0
2 0
1 1
2
Polis
hed
nerit
e Ne
rita
pol
ita
sise
0
0 0
0 0
0 1
1
Plic
ate
nerit
e Ne
rita
plic
ata
sise
0
0 1
0 0
0 1
1
Gib
bon
conc
h St
rom
bus
gibb
erul
us
* 0
0 0
0 0
0 1
1
Com
b ve
nus
Gaf
rari
um
pect
inat
umsa
kapu
ti 1
0 0
0 0
1 0
1
116
Figure 4.19. Several affected shellfish A) the elongate giant clam B) the Blacklip pearl oyster C) the fluted giant clam D) common spider conch E) strawberry conch F) trochus. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
117
Most of these, which were formerly abundant along shallow reefs, are reported to be
hardly found or to appear only in smaller numbers and sizes. Particularly rare are the
striate beach clam, elongate giant clam and trochus, which were formerly common along
reefs and white sandy beaches.
Other less-affected species, which are still found, but reportedly in reduced numbers,
include the serpents head cowrie (chuko), tiger cowrie (chuko), silver mouth turban
(popu), antique ark (riki), filamentous horse conch, leopard cone (chuko poisini), ducal
thorny oyster, rough turban, youthful venus (deo), pacific asaphis, polished nerite (sise),
plicate nerite (sise), gibbon conch and comb venus (sakaputi).
Survey shows that the main contributing factors to the declines in these shellfishes were
changes in tides, currents, and violent winds accompanied by the tsunami wave’s force
including the alteration of corals and seagrass, coupled with human activities such as
over-harvesting, pollution and habitat modification. For example, the elongate
clamshells and the striate beach clams were the most affected species reported in Fishing
and Paelongge villages due to damage of corals, most of which are affected continuously
from humans walking on the reef, coastal erosion and sedimentation. The recent effects
of tsunami waves, which altered major habitats such as corals and stones, also
contributed to the decline in these species, many of which are embedded in, or are
associated with, affected corals and larger stones.
In Saeraghe, Paelongge and Gizo town along the Malakerava reefs it was reported that
trochus shells, strawberry conch and striate beach clam were affected by tsunami waves
and by increased lower tides that increased sunlight exposure. It was reported that the
striate beach clam was being wiped out due to accelerated beach erosion aggravated by
tsunami waves. In Malakerava, the loss of the common spider conch and strawberry
conch were due to loss of sea grass beds.
According to the respondents, the slower growth of these species, particularly the giant
clams, shows their vulnerability to climate and environmental changes in relation to the
process of recovery from the tsunami. Whereas giant clams were easily found along the
reefs in the past, as sea gradually rises, accompanied by the damage and death of corals
118
along the reef, and overharvesting these clams are hardly found (Isaac, 2010 pers.
comm.). (refer to section 4.5 on over harvesting).
Moderately affected shellfish that are showing signs of decline were serpents head
cowrie (chuko), tiger cowrie (chuko) and silver mouth turban (popu). In Kogulavata, it
was reported that loss of seagrass and reef, which enhances erosion and sedimentation,
has contributed to the reduction in the number of tiger cowries and strawberry conches.
In addition, prolonged lower tides have also contributed to the loss of the serpents head
cowries.
Less affected shellfish include the antique ark (riki), filamentous horse conch, leopard
cone (chuko poisini), ducal thorny oyster, rough turban, youthful venus (deo), pacific
asaphis, polished nerite (sise), plicate nerite (sise), gibbon conch and comb venus
(sakaputi); all these have shown resilience as being observed in the five villages.
Squids and octopuses have also declined in numbers in Saeraghe village, Paelongge
village and Gizo town (table 4.13). As shown in table 4.13, 2 types of squids and
octopus were being commonly mentioned as affected, the common octopus (gasere) and
common squid (kuskusolo).
The common octopuses and squids caught in large numbers and in bigger sizes in the
past are now hardly found. The least affected includes the cuttle fish squid (nuto), which
were already declining in numbers.
The common octopus and common squid are widely known for their usage as bait and
for commercial sale. It was reported that usually these octopus and squids are found
along the inshore reefs but today they tend to be found further out in the sea. For
example, in Saeraghe, and Fishing village including Gizo town, it was reported that the
decline of the number of these octopus and squid species was further increased due to
loss of habitats, increased exposure to sunlight during lower tides, destruction of stones
by unpredictable and stronger currents and further aggravated by tsunami waves.
119
Tabl
e 4.
13.
Squi
ds a
nd o
ctop
uses
rep
orte
d to
hav
e be
en n
egat
ivel
y af
fect
ed b
y cl
imat
e ch
ange
, se
a–le
vel
rise
and
oth
er
envi
ronm
enta
l cha
nges
by
40 r
espo
nden
ts to
que
stio
nnai
re su
rvey
in 5
vill
ages
on
Ghi
zo Is
land
, Wes
tern
Sol
omon
Isla
nds.
Fi
shin
g vi
llage
Sa
erag
he
villa
ge
Kog
ulav
ata
Pael
ongg
e vi
llage
G
izo
Tow
n F
M
Tota
l
Aff
ecte
d Sq
uid
and
Oct
opus
Scie
ntifi
c N
ame
Loca
l N
ame
x/8
x/8
x/8
x/8
x/8
X/2
0 X
/20
X/4
0
Com
mon
oc
topu
s O
ctop
us
cyan
ea
gase
re
4 7
4 7
7 15
14
29
Com
mon
Sq
uid
Sepi
ateu
tis
less
ioni
ana
kusk
usol
o 4
6 2
3 2
8 9
17
Cut
tle fi
sh
(squ
id)
Sepi
a sp
. nu
to
0 1
1 2
1 2
3 5
120
On the other hand, the decline of most of the crustaceans and shellfish, which are the
preferred food for most octopus and squid, also helps to explain the reduction in their
numbers in Paelongge (Pitu 2010 pers, comm.).
Meanwhile, the cuttle fish was still evident along the reefs within the five study villages.
These species like any other species could well decline in number over the years if
climate change intensifies, as they are susceptible to lower tides especially when trapped
in rock pools as tides goes out, which is noticeable in the sites of Malakerava area in
Gizo town, Paelongge village and Kogulavata.
The blue sea-star (raga lima) are also reported to be reduced in numbers, especially in
Fishing village and Paelongge (refer to table 4.14). It was reported that the sea–level rise
aggravated by tsunami waves and increased sedimentation has affected corals and
seagrasses, their main habitat.
The other marine animals that were reported to be in declining numbers, but less so, are
salt-water crocodiles (vua), dugongs (rumu), sea urchins (hui) and whales (ivu), which
could become increasingly threatened as climate change effects intensify.
4.4.5 Disruption to marine food web
Disruption to the marine food web is identified as one of the results stemming from
climate changes and environmental change to inshore marine waters (table 4.6).
Generally, as habitats are altered, distribution and interactions will be affected, right
down to the level of species and of other organisms that depend solely on others for
food. That is to say, in marine ecosystems, every living thing is eaten by something
(Reid et al., 2009).
The alteration and damage done to a number of corals, seagrass beds and weeds has
affected the feeding behaviour of a number of inshore marine species. For example, the
damage and death of Acropora sp. branching corals has reportedly contributed to the
decline in numbers of the common parrotfish such as the green humphead parrotfish and
121
steep head parrotfish, most of which depend and feed on corals. The damage and
reduction of corals also affects several of the giant clams and trochus, most of which are
associated with corals.
In addition, damage and deteriotion of seagrass and seaweed beds has affected the
number of important but threatened marine turtles such as the leatherback turtles
(kariatolu), hawksbill turtles (vonu pede) and the green sea turtles (vonu vonu) most of
which frequent and feed on seagrass and seaweeds (fig 4.20).(refer to table 4.15).
Figure 4.20. Several affected sea turtles A) Green sea turtle B) Leatherback turtles and C) the hawksbill (Source: Shannon Seeto, WWF, Gizo, 2010.)
122
Tab
le 4
.14.
Oth
er m
arin
e an
imal
s rep
orte
d to
hav
e be
en n
egat
ivel
y af
fect
ed b
y cl
imat
e ch
ange
, sea
–lev
el r
ise a
nd o
ther
env
iron
men
tal
chan
ges b
y 40
res
pond
ents
to q
uest
ionn
aire
surv
ey in
5 v
illag
es o
n G
hizo
, Wes
tern
Sol
omon
Isla
nds.
Fish
ing
villa
ge
Saer
aghe
vi
llage
K
ogul
avat
a
Pa
elon
gge
villa
ge
G
izo
Tow
n F
M
Tot
al
Aff
ecte
d ot
her
anim
als
Scie
ntifi
c N
ame
Loc
al
Nam
e x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 X
/20
X/2
0 X
/40
Blu
e st
arfis
h Li
ncki
a la
evig
ata
raga
lim
a 5
2 0
5 0
5 7
12
Saltw
ater
C
roco
dile
s C
roco
dylu
s po
rosu
s vu
a 0
1 1
0 0
0 2
2
Dug
ongs
D
ugon
g du
gon
rum
u 0
1 0
0 0
1 0
1
Sea
urch
ins
Dia
dem
a an
tilla
rium
hu
i 0
0 0
0 0
0 1
1
Wha
les
Bala
enop
teri
dae
sp.
ivu
0 1
0 0
0 1
0 1
Tab
le 4
.15.
Tur
tles r
epor
ted
to h
ave
been
neg
ativ
ely
affe
cted
by
clim
ate
chan
ge, s
ea–l
evel
rise
and
oth
er e
nvir
onm
enta
l cha
nges
by
40
resp
onde
nts t
o qu
estio
nnai
re su
rvey
in 5
vill
ages
on
Ghi
zo Is
land
, Wes
tern
Sol
omon
Isla
nds w
hen
aske
d to
men
tion
up to
2 o
r m
ore
type
s of
turt
les t
hat h
ave
been
aff
ecte
d.
Fish
ing
Vill
age
Saer
aghe
vi
llage
K
ogul
avat
a
Pa
elon
gge
villa
ge
G
izo
Tow
n F
M
Tot
al
Aff
ecte
d tu
rtle
s Sc
ient
ific
Nam
e L
ocal
Nam
e x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 X
/20
X/2
0 X
/40
Leat
her b
ack
turtl
es
Der
moc
hely
s co
riac
ea
kari
atol
u, f
onu
6 5
7 7
6 14
17
31
Haw
ksbi
ll Er
etm
oche
lys
imbr
icat
e vo
nu P
ede
8 3
4 5
4 10
14
24
Gre
en se
a tu
rtle
Che
loni
a m
ydas
vo
nu v
onu
2 6
1 3
4 10
6
16
123
As shown in table 4.15, respondents mentioned 3 types of turtles that are now hardly
found unlike before, many of them normally came ashore mainly to nest and frequent
habitats along the sandy beach areas.
The leatherback turtles were commonly reported by respondents in Paelongge and
Kogulavata to have been affected, whereas, the hawksbill turtle were commonly
mentioned and reported in Fishing village and green sea turtles in Saeraghe (table 4.15).
The damage to important coastal trees, such as the mangroves in particular, has affected
juvenile fish and crustaceans such as the common mud crabs, which depend largely on
mangroves for habitat and food. As stressed above, the loss of juvenile finfish such as
the juvenile mackerel has led to a reduction of a number of larger predators, most
notably the great barracuda, brown marbled grouper, humpback grouper, giant trevally
and Spanish mackerel. In Paelongge, it was reported that the giant trevalley, which feeds
mostly on juvenile mackerel, is now rarely found because of the loss of small fish
resources.
The reduction in the number of juvenile finfish and shellfish has also led to a reduction
in a number of seabirds, such as frigate birds and Pacific reef egrets that depend on reef
fish along the reef. In Paelongge village, the loss of several smaller shells such as the
striate beach clam (kene kene) was reported. These shellfish inhabit sandy intertidal
beaches but their habitat loss because of continuous erosion has affected the number of
beach stone curlews (bilikiki).
These interrelationships show that most species are one way or the other inter-connected
and that their survival depends on various species. When disturbance occurs this
reportedly results in migration elsewhere and declines in their numbers and distribution
and or eventually death, especially for those that cannot survive in disturbed habitats. As
a result, the food chain is disrupted.
124
4.5 Human threats to coastal ecosystems
Human activities that are perceived as threats to coastal and inshore marine ecosystems
were reported. These activities have been observed and reported to affect ecosystems
and species, thus undermining their resilience to climate change and other environmental
changes. These threats, which varied in severity, included: 1) settlement development; 2)
sand and gravel mining; 3) infrastructure development; 4) firewood acquisition; 5)
commercial development; and 6) exploitation of medicinal plants (table 4.16).
The most common human threat is the settlement development along coastal areas,
including clearance for buildings and building of roads, wharves, bridges and sea walls
along the coast. Overharvesting of coastal trees for fuel, medicines and commercial
purposes is also a concern.
4.5.1 Settlement development
Settlement development is one of the foremost human-induced threats to coastal
biodiversity in the five study sites (refer to table 4.16). As population increases, there is a
high demand for residential development and materials utilized for the construction of
buildings; bridges and infrastructure are also required. For example, the population of Ghizo
Island had increased to 7,177 in 2009 compared to 5,323 in 1999, an increase of 25%
(Solomon Islands 2009 Population and Housing Census, 2009).
The increased pressure on resources due to construction and development along the
coast was reported more at Fishing village, Saeraghe and Paelongge including Gizo
town, explaining why coastal settlement is identified as the highest contributing factor
affecting the health of coastal biodiversity. In Gizo town, the increase in population is
visible in the expansion of human settlement and development occurring along the
coastal area, compared to previous human settlement (fig 4.21).
125
Tab
le 4
.16.
Spe
cific
thre
ats f
rom
hum
an a
ctiv
ities
to c
oast
al b
iodi
vers
ity m
entio
ned
by 4
0 re
spon
dent
s to
ques
tionn
aire
surv
ey in
5 v
illag
es
on G
hizo
Isla
nd, W
este
rn S
olom
on Is
land
s.
Fi
shin
g vi
llage
Saer
aghe
vi
llage
K
ogul
avat
a
Pael
ongg
e vi
llage
G
izo
Tow
n F
M
Tota
l
Hum
an a
ctiv
ities
x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 X
/20
X/2
0 X
/40
Settl
emen
t dev
elop
men
t 6
5 2
6 5
11
13
24
Sand
and
gra
vel m
inin
g 5
4 3
5 3
13
7 20
Infr
astru
ctur
e de
velo
pmen
t 4
4 1
5 4
8 10
18
Hou
seho
ld fu
el
4 4
0 4
1 5
8 13
Com
mer
cial
pur
pose
s 1
1 4
2 0
6 2
8
Med
icin
al p
urpo
ses
2 2
1 1
0 3
3 6
126
Figure 4.21. Increase in human population and settlement over the years in Gizo town (A) Gizo town in 1968. (Adapted from SOPAC, Fiji) and B) Gizo town in 2009. (Source, Google.com.)
The reported expansion of settlement and construction has led to a higher demand for a
number of coastal trees. Coastal trees most affected are reported to include beach
127
mahogany, mangroves, casuarinas, tropical almonds and Borneo teak. For example, in
Fishing village, which has extensive mangroves, respondents who have resided in the
village for the past 30 years mentioned that mangroves are the most affected coastal trees
when it comes to human settlement and development, in terms of both clearance and use for
construction (fig 4.22a-b).
Figure 4.22. Large cleared area A) buildings along the coastal area of Fishing village, which once consists of mangroves, photo taken during the aftermath of tsunami B) Freshly cut mangroves used as building materials in Fishing village C) Beach mahogany used as post in Paelongge. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
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In Paelongge beach mahogany was widely harvested as a preferred house post (Sam, 2010
Pers. comm.) (fig 4.22c). The affected mangrove community is demonstrated in the
reducing size of mangrove forests, which have been decreased considerably due to human
settlement (fig 4.23).
Figure 4.23. The size of mangrove forests indicated by lighter green in Ghizo Island towards Fishing village A) Size of mangrove forests in 1960 (Adapted from the Solomon Island Ministry of Lands and Survey) and B) decease of mangrove forests in 2009. (Source, google.com). Copied and modified by the researcher and Shannon Seeto, WWF, Gizo.
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Furthermore, the 2007 tsunami reportedly caused damage to coastal trees, including
mangroves, which was most profound in Fishing village (see table 4.3). Removal and
loss of such coastal vegetation has led to increased erosion and salt-water intrusion,
which in turn, as stressed above, has affected major habitats leading to a reduction of
several crustaceans such as the mud crabs (kakarita), brown land crabs and the mud
whelk (ropi) (fig 4.24) most of which inhabit mangroves.
Moreover, the loss of these important coastal trees, such as the mangroves and even the
casuarina trees, has affected several of the seabirds such as the Pacific reef egrets and
the terns, most of which are reported to be more dependent on these coastal trees to
search for food and even habitats for nesting and roosting.
Figure 4. 24. Affected crab and shellfish A) the brown land crab and B) the mud whelk (Photos by the author, 2010.)
4.5.2 Sand and gravel mining
Mining of sand and gravel was reported to be the second major contributing threat to the
coastal biodiversity on Ghizo Island (refer to table 4.16).
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Sand and gravel are important commodities used in a mixture of sand and cement to
produce concrete for backfill, building foundation, and maintenance and upgrading of
public and private roads. It can also be used as a substitute for crushed quarry rocks in
circumstances where the distant location of the quarries makes it difficult and expensive
to obtain, or where the local quarry does not meet the engineering standards required for
the intended construction purposes. For example, the construction of the newly funded
Gizo hospital has increased the demand for sand and gravel (fig 4.25a).
Figure 4.25. Sand and gravel mining A) Sand mining for Gizo hospital B) construction of bridge at Saeraghe village, which contributed to increased erosion C) Quarry at Paelongge village, which affected the beach morning glory and D) Sand filling at Gizo town. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
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Environmental damage due to increased housing and construction, including felling of
trees for timber and mining of gravel and sand, has been reported to have affected
coastal plants through massive sedimentation during runoff. In Saeraghe, the severe
threat of sand and gravel mining to construct bridges has caused eroding of creek banks,
which has reported to have affected important coastal trees and shrubs like the pandanus
and other vegetation (fig 4.25b).
In Paelongge, sand and gravel mining has affected coastal vegetation such as the
common beach morning glory by uprooting and altering their distribution, as shown in
(fig 4.25c). Similarly in Gizo town and in Fishing village the excavation of sand for
reclamation purposes and construction of homes (fig 4.25d) was said to have affected
vast numbers of mangroves, which were once found along, the coastal areas (refer to
table 4.3).
4.5.3 Infrastructure development
The development of infrastructure was reported as one of the most destructive activities
to the coastal biodiversity in Saeraghe, Paelongge and Malakerava village in Gizo town.
On Ghizo Island, infrastructure development consisting mostly of the construction of
wharves, roads, bridges and drainage has been commonly identified as being a threat to
the coastal biodiversity, particularly to coastal trees and plants, through land
degradation, massive erosion and sedimentation. This is particularly problematic
because most of the coastal trees, especially casuarinas, usually take years to recover and
grow again, according to respondents.
The development of infrastructure is evident in the increase in the number of roads
constructed in Gizo town as more people tend to travel and more modes of
transportation are used for accessibility (refer to fig 4.21).
For instance, the observed unsealed road that runs across the Malakerava area in Gizo
town (fig 4.26) was reported to have contributed to the massive erosion over the years
especially through flooding from increased precipitation.
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Figure 4.26. The unsealed road constructed along the coastal area of Malakerava village in Gizo town, which contributes to damaging of important coastal trees through erosion and mass sedimentation. (Photo by the author, 2010.)
The construction of road along the coastal area has caused much damage to several
coastal trees including several important coastal species. As witnessed by Riutule Tioko
of Malakerava in Gizo Town:
Before, a number of tropical almond trees and casuarina forests that acted as a
barrier to waves and ferocious winds were found along the coast in vast numbers,
but the road constructions accompanied by erosion and sedimentation has
destroyed a number of these important coastal trees and plants, including the beach
mahogany, and the sea purselane, which were once massive along the coastal area
were also lost. This has eventually caused a reduction in the number of sea birds
such as the terns, unlike before.
Similarly, in Saeraghe, a number of coastal trees such as the coconut palms, beach
mahogany and even Borneo teak trees that were once commonly found along the coastal
areas have been damaged because of culvert construction. The development along the
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coastal area, especially from New Manda to Saeraghe village, has been reported to have
caused considerable impacts especially through land degradation, which has caused loss
of plants such as derris, beach sunflowers, pandanus, and coconut trees.
4.5.4 Overharvesting of coastal trees
The overharvesting of coastal trees particularly for household fuel, commercial
development, and medicine are reported as an additional threat to coastal biodiversity
that undermine resilience (refer to table 4.16).
One of the major contributing factors of coastal tree harvesting is the acquisition of
wood for firewood. The increasing demand for firewood is reported more in Saeraghe,
Paelongge, Fishing village and in Gizo town. In Fishing village, mangroves are reported
to be a coastal tree villagers commonly use as firewood (fig 4.27a) which has
contributed to the decline in their numbers along the coast.
In Gizo town, particularly in Malakerava, firewood was being sold to generate income
(refer to fig 4.27b-c). In Saeraghe, the overharvesting of coastal trees such as the beach
mahogany and casuarinas (table 4.4) has contributed to the declining number of bêche-
de-mer (puhaka) as shade provided by a number of these trees is reduced over the years.
This has also required residents living in the Malakerava to walk further inland to find
firewood.
Similarly, in Kogulavata area and Paelongge, the overharvesting of the tropical almond
and the beach mahogany has led to a decline in the number of coastal sea birds such as
the frigate birds (belama), terns and the Pacific reef egrets that depend on these trees as
habitat.
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Figure 4.27. Harvesting of trees for fuel A) Firewood freshly cut from mangroves in Fishing village B) Boat used to transport firewood to the main market in Gizo town C) Increased amount of firewood sold at the Gizo market as demand increases with population. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
The survey also showed that woodcarving and logging,13 has had a negative impact that
is more apparent at Kogulavata where carvings could only be made either for tourists or
for hotel orders (fig 4.28a-b).
13 Logging was reported to occur in the 1960s and what is seen today is the secondary growth according to the report by Manele and Wein, (2006).
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The reduction of cordia trees was reported to be more widespread in Paelongge,
Saeraghe and the Malakerava area in Gizo town (refer to table 4.3). It was reported in
Saeraghe village that the cordia tree (vauasi) is known by the villagers as a good carving
tree therefore it has reduced over the years due to the increased number of people
engaged in commercial woodcarving (Noelyn Sam, 2010 pers. comm.) and due to
increased demand for handicrafts by an increasing number of tourists and visitors.
Figure 4.28. Harvesting of trees for commercial purposes A) Carvings that are usually made and sold for income at Gizo hotel B) Carvings made in Kogulavata for coffee table stand. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
The fact that Ghizo Island’s local economy revolves mainly around services and tourism
(Sabetian and Foale, 2006) this is seen as a threat that will further increase the
vulnerability of such coastal ecosystems and species to the effects of climate change.
The over-exploitation of coastal trees for medicinal purposes was also seen as a threat to
coastal biodiversity in Ghizo Island. It was reported that most people use coastal plants
and even corals for medicinal purposes. The most commonly reported medicinal plants
were the beach mulberry and Borneo teak. Today the usage of these coastal plants is not
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as common a threat as in the past, due to urbanization and improvement of medical
services in Ghizo Island.
4.6 Human threats to inshore marine ecosystems
The survey showed that the six main human-induced threats that affect the inshore
marine ecosystems were: 1) overfishing, 2) over harvesting of marine resources, 3) coral
overharvesting, 4) pollution, 5) destructive fishing methods and 6) anchorage and
walking on corals (tourism) (table 4.17).
Table 4.17. Specific threats to marine biodiversity mentioned by 40 respondents to questionnaire survey in 5 villages on Ghizo Island, Western Solomon Islands asking them to mention at least up to 5 human activities that are destructive.
Fishing village
Saeraghe village Kogulavata Paelongge
village Gizo Town F M Total
Human activities x/8 x/8 x/8 x/8 x/8 X/20 X/20 X/40
Overfishing 8 5 4 7 6 18 11 30 Overharvesting
of marine resources
5 6 5 5 3 14 10 24
Coral Harvesting 6 5 0 3 3 8 9 17
Pollution 4 0 0 1 5 3 7 10 Destructive
fishing 1 3 3 0 2 5 4 9
Anchorage on corals 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
Overfishing is evidenced by a sharp reduction in the number of finfish such as the
groupers, Parrotfishes and other important commercial finfish, as people depend entirely
on selling of finfish as their means of cash income. This is evident by the increase
number of finfish that were caught each day and which are sold at the main market in
Gizo town.
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The overharvesting of marine resources is evident by the decline in numbers of various
resources such as shellfish, like the trochus, bêche-de-mer, seaweeds, corals for
commercial purposes and home decoration or the striate beach clam, spider conch and
the tridacna maxima.
Pollution from oil spillages, disposal of waste including empty tins and plastics and
sedimentation from erosion along the coastal area goes hand in hand with reports of
affected sea turtles and declining seaweeds, shellfishes and coral health along the
inshore marine waters particularly in Gizo town and Malakerava area.
Also of concern are destructive fishing methods, which include fish poisoning using
derris roots, explosives, gill netting, hand line fishing, reef gleaning, and breakage of
corals from anchorage.
4.6.1 Overfishing
Overfishing is reported as the major threat to the inshore marine resources in all five
villages (refer to table 4.17).
Villagers on Ghizo Island harvest fish either for subsistence and or for commercial
purposes, most of which are sold at the main market in Gizo town and at times to private
hotels. For example, in Fishing village, the majority of the people living along the coast
were reported to be more dependent on finfish for subsistence than the other villages.
Almost 100% of the households are involved in fishing on a daily basis, receiving
income on average of SBD$128 per day for 6 days and SBD$3072 per month from
fishing alone (Manele and Wein, 2006).
In Paelongge, Saeraghe and Gizo town, there are reports of declining abundance of
groupers, most of which are now rarely seen along inshore marine waters. It was
reported that usually groupers including the coral trout are the first group of finfish that
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are caught in large numbers over the years, particularly when large numbers of fish
aggregate to spawn14.
Saeraghe village, a village located next to Njari Island15 reported that overfishing occurs
especially during the spawning period. Once spawning aggregation sites are depleted, it
is difficult for stocks to recover. Other reportedly overfished species for small-scale
commercial fishing purposes are the green humphead parrotfish, steephead parrotfish
(birake), brown marbled grouper, the sweet lip fish, humpback grouper, the square tail
coral trout, leopard coral trout (pajara orava) and the juvenile mackerel (katukatu)
(refer to table 4.9).
The humphead parrotfish is reported as an important fish sold as fish and chips in Gizo
town. In Paelongge, overfishing of juvenile mackerel has led to a reduction in their
numbers, which, as stressed above, has affected the abundance of other bigger finfishes
such as the giant trevally (mara) which depend on these juvenile finishes for food.
This is supported by a report on the Ghizo Marine Conservation Area (GMCA) that
finfish such as the groupers, the wrasses and parrotfish, including the jacks and
trevalley, were low in abundance due to fishing down the food web, with the large
consumer species disappearing first (Manele and Wein, 2006). This is shown by the
increasing abundance of smaller undersized finfish sold at Gizo Market (refer to fig
4.29).
14 See the following report document: Hamilton and Kama, 2004 and Hamilton et al., 2005.
15 Njari Island is one of the major spawning sites conserved in Ghizo Island.
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Figure 4.29. Several affected finfish A) the brown marbled groupers (B-C) fewer numbers of Parrotfish amongst other finfish including undersized finfish and D) selling of finfish at Gizo market as daily activities by villagers for income. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
4.6.2 Overharvesting of inshore marine resources
Overharvesting16 of inshore marine resources is reported as the second most apparent
threats in Ghizo Island including all the various sites (refer to table 4.17). A reduction in
the number of marine resources because of overharvesting for the purpose of home
decorations, fishing baits, home decorations, and for construction purposes is reported
within the five villages.
16 Harvesting of species either for subsistence or commercial purpose at a greater rate than they can replace themselves.
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According to the survey, overharvesting of important marine resources such as
shellfishes, corals, marine invertebrates such as gold ring conch, bêche-de-mer, the giant
clams and seaweeds (particularly the sea grapes) was reported in all of the five study
sites in Ghizo.
In Ghizo Island, bêche-de-mer species that have been over harvested are the brown
sandfish, snakefish, chalk fish, and the Lollyfish (Forest, pers comm., 2010). It was
related that the curry fish and prickly redfish, including the trochus, are highly paid
species in the market (table 4.11-12) (Moses Suguri interviewed, 2010). Most of these
products are sold to various local bêche-de-mer and trochus buyer companies such as the
Sunking Enterprise and the Western Pacific Shells, as well as other small companies
licensed for exporting marine resources.
About half of the population in Ghizo depends on marine resources for their source of
livelihood and income. This has contributed to the decline in the number of the marine
resources. For example, in Saeraghe, it was related that harvesting of marine resources
provides income to meet basic needs such as fuel (kerosene), cost of light, ranging from
SBD$14.00 to $16.00 per month, store food, and school fees for children. These reasons
have contributed to the overharvesting of marine resources (Rose Kegula, interviewed,
2010).
Overharvesting of shellfish, particularly to generate income and for home decoration
was reported in the five study sites. In particular, the overharvesting of gold cowries,
serpents head cowries, and strawberry conch was reported in Gizo town and Fishing
village. These shells have been sold for income, used for making macramé, and home
decoration.
At Saeraghe, shells such as the striate beach clam, spider conch, and the elongate giant
clam were overharvested for consumption and home decorations (fig 4.30a-b). The
harvesting of these marine resources is the only means of livelihood as related by
Martha that; “More harvest means more money” (Martha, interviewed, 2010).
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Figure 4.30. Harvesting of shells for home decoration A) the elongate giant clam B) spider conch and the striate beach clam at Saeraghe village. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
The overharvesting of seaweeds, crabs, octopuses, and squids was also observed in the
five study sites. For example, in Kogulavata, and speaking on behalf of the women,
Damaras Lilo (interviewed, 2010) related that women tend to go out to the inshore
waters to harvest round sea grapes (ime) for sale (fig 4.31). Usually the harvesting of
seagrapes for income involves netting, which usually results in unsustainable practices
affecting seaweeds.
The harvesting of seaweeds for income is said to be better than crops grown and sold
from gardens. The reason is that pests and diseases continuously damage garden crops
like potatoes, slippery cabbage, and other root crops whereas the selling of seaweeds
earns approximately SBD$80.00–SBD$120 per day.
Overharvesting of corals and stones for construction, income, jewellery making such as
necklaces and for lime production was reported to be a major threat to corals in the five
villages. The most affected corals according to respondents were the Acropora corals,
staghorns, Montipora and head corals, most of which are easily harvested along the
inshore marine zone.
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Figure 4.31. Sea grapes sold at Gizo main market as the main source of income for some of the villagers. (Source: Zelda Hilly, World Fish Centre, Gizo.)
For example, in Fishing village and Paelongge, corals were harvested especially for lime
production and exportation (refer to table 4.7). The increased demand is demonstrated in
the sharply rising trend in coral harvesting in the Solomon Islands when corals were
exported for income purposes over the years (fig 4.32a-b). In Saeraghe, Paelongge, Gizo
town and Kogulavata, corals were harvested to build coastal roads, sea walls and bridges
(fig 4.32c-d).
Due to overharvesting of corals a number of marine organisms were reported as having
been affected. For example, in Fishing village, it was reported that overharvesting of
corals and stones has caused a decline of numbers of common octopuses, important
finfishes and the giant clam shells (refer to table 4.9). Most of the giant clams and
shellfish such as the blacklip oyster, trochus, spider conch and strawberry conch were
reduced over the years as it takes them about 10 to 20 years to reproduce (Forest, 2010
pers. comm.).
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Figure 4.32. Overharvesting of corals A) increasing trend of coral harvesting in Solomon Islands B) the Staghorn coral used for lime production. (Adapted from Teitelbaum, 2007) (C) harvesting of corals and stones for bridges at Saeraghe village and D) wharves Kogulavata settlement. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
4.6.3 Pollution
Pollution is one of the threats that affect inshore marine habitats and species. Pollution
from plastics, debris, disposed wastes and oil spillage from inter-island boats is reported
as one of the major threats to marine habitats (table 4.17) (fig 4.33).
In Ghizo, land based pollution is a major threat but more reported in Gizo town and
Fishing village. For example, in Gizo town, which attracts a number of people to the
market and shops as well as increased transportation of people using boats, has
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contributed to increases oil spillage, debris and empty plastics and even erosion from
waves generated by boats. This is evident by the changes in the sea state observed by
residents.
This was reported to affect marine ecosystems by clogging habitats, particularly when
the debris finds its way into the waters during runoff. In Fishing village, located across
Gizo town, shows that oil spillage, tins and plastics are reported as posing threats to
inshore marine ecosystems such as seagrasses, shellfishes and sea turtles. This explains
the decline of these important marine species.
Figure 4.33. Land based pollution A) increased pollution from littering and B) pollution from dumping of waste materials in Gizo town affecting important ecosystems by clogging drainage channel.
4.6.4 Destructive fishing methods
The usage of destructive fishing methods was also seen as a threat to the marine
ecosystems and species, but to a lesser extent. Destructive fishing method such as using
dynamite, fish poisoning using derris root plants, netting and reef gleaning are major
threats to corals and marine organisms and are more reported at Saeraghe, Kogulavata
and Gizo town. For example, in Saeraghe and Paelongge dynamite fishing has been
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going on for some years and is reported as destructive of corals and living marine
organisms, altering reef structure.
In Kogulavata, the fish poisoning method, an old fishing technique using coastal plants
to kill and stun finfishes, was reported to be used mostly along the reef during lower
tides to catch finfishes and marine invertebrates. It was further revealed that the method
using derris roots does have the same effects as cyanides, and is liable to kill the entire
reef fish and coral polyps population in the area.
On the other hand, using nets is also reported as a destructive fishing technique. For
example, in Saeraghe, nets literally destroy corals directly. This is so, when nets get
tangled around corals and also when fishermen exert force in trying to free their nets.
Also, fishermen tend to cause great damage by distracting fish and driving them into
nets by resident movement of poles or paddles without regard for the proximate of
corals.
Furthermore, reef gleaning, particularly when fishermen tend to trample directly on
corals, and seagrass as well as using various fishing implements such as knives and
metal rods to extract burrowing and attached organisms like giant clams. These methods
can damage major habitats, as is evident by a sharp reduction of marine species.
4.6.5 Tourism
The increase of numbers of tourists using modern boats is regarded as offering little
threats to the inshore marine ecosystems, though it is reported in all of the five villages
except in Gizo town. The survey showed that increased usage of local motorized boats,
especially during tourist excursions to nearby islands, has contributed to the damage and
decline of corals.
Ghizo islands, is well known as being a great place for a holiday destination for scuba
diving and snorkeling. These activities cause only slight disturbances but have great
impacts on the coral reefs, when tourists, visitors, and divers anchor their boats on the
reef. Any activity that involves anchorage has a direct effect on reefs. This can lead to
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damage or breaking of corals. This was evident in Ghizo Islands where anchors are
directly dropped on reefs. Besides, direct walking on reefs and other boat-based
activities can mistakenly uproot or break corals, which are fragile, and also release
pollutants that are threatening to marine habitats.
These activities however, while destructive to marine ecosystems and major habitats
through boat anchorages, boats have least impact on inshore marine ecosystems. These
slight human disturbances can also contribute much to the injury to the nearby coral reef
ecosystem, damaging habitats and causing pollutants and degradation. This is because
reefs are particularly vulnerable even to the slightest disturbances of human activities.
The fact that much of Ghizo islands economy revolves around services and tourism, will
pose a bigger threat to nearby reefs, especially when population increases due to the
urban nature of the township, which can be compared to other more rural areas (Hughes,
Pers comm., 2010).
4.7. Coastal biodiversity: Local perspectives and strategies for adapting to climate and environmental changes.
The locals perceived certain forms of coastal protection in adapting to climate and
environmental change. These include: 1) coastal trees, 2) mangroves, 3) large stones and
boulders, 4) corals, 5) seaweeds and grasses (table 4.18).
The most common habitats reported in all of the five villages include coastal trees,
mangroves, and seagrass and weeds. The least mentioned habitats are corals, large rocks,
and stones.
The coastal trees especially mangroves provide better protective measures than corals,
and several larger rocks and stones, as they have been affected and exploited by
anthropogenic activities and tsunami waves. The replanting of coastal trees is important
for protection against winds, waves, coastal erosion, and sedimentation.
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Table 4.18. Local perceptions on roles that habitat and ecosystems play in protection against climate and weather changes and environmental changes.
4.7.1 Coastal trees
According to the survey, the most important trees, in protecting coastlines were beach
mahogany, tropical almond, casuarinas and mangroves. For example, a few respondents
from Saeraghe and Paelongge village mentioned that coastal trees such as the beach
mahogany help to hold the soil together, particularly their roots. This provides some
control of coastal erosion during higher waves, strong winds, and sea–level rise.
In Saeraghe, most coastal trees particularly, the beach mahogany has shown resilience
over the years particularly in playing the role of coastal protection. Likewise, in
Paelongge, the tropical almond is reported as a good form of coastal protection but are
being continuously under threat from erosion as sea–level rises, producing obvious sand
loss.
Fishing village
Saeraghe village Kogulavata Paelongge
village Gizo Town F M Total
Major habitats x/8 x/8 x/8 x/8 x/8 X/20 X/20 X/40
Coastal trees 0 2 0 5 2 5 4 9
Mangroves 2 1 2 1 0 5 1 6
Seagrass and weeds 0 2 1 2 0 1 4 5
Corals 0 0 0 4 0 2 2 4
Large rocks and stones
0 0 1 1 1 2 1 3
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4.7.2 Mangroves
The important role of mangroves in the protection of coastal areas is widely known.
Respondents on Ghizo Island, who witnessed the 2007 tsunami, mentioned how
mangroves protected coastlines, inner coastal plants, and people from its effects
including salt-water intrusion and flooding, stressed this.
For instance, the important role of mangroves is reported in Kogulavata area where
several people mentioned that was it not for the mangroves, the damage inflicted by
tsunami waves would have been much greater from where they settled (Roderick, 2010,
pers. comm.).
In Fishing village, mangroves help to provide breeding habitats and have played a role in
regaining species that were lost over the years. Such species were the groupers, Spanish
mackerel, parrotfish, and goatfishes.
4.7.3 Seagrass and weeds
Respondents identified seagrass and weeds as important habitats to regain marine
species. However, most of these are declining in number and vulnerable to
overharvesting, stronger currents, and waves. In several cases, several finfish such as
the green humphead parrotfish graze these weeds.
The survey shows no response indicating respondents’ awareness on the important role
that seagrass and weeds do play in countering the negative impacts of climate and
environmental changes.
4.7.4 Corals
Several respondents mentioned that corals are important habitats in helping to increase
marine stock such as finfishes, octopuses, and shellfishes. However, these species have
been affected and reduced in numbers over the years, particularly due to human
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activities. A number of these corals were affected because of the tsunami wave,
excercebated by human activities and over-exploitation.
While there were no responses as to what specific roles corals do play in countering the
negative impacts of climate and environmental change, they are perceived as good forms
of coastal protection from tidal waves that penetrate further inland.
4.7.5 Importance of large rocks for coastal protection and habitat
A number of people stressed the importance of large rocks for providing protection to
coastal areas and habitat for important marine organisms. Their removal for construction
of infrastructure and the impact of the 2007 tsunami increased coastal vulnerability
without their protection (table 4.18).
For example, in Kogulavata, Paelongge, and Malakerava village, several respondents
reported that the force of tsunami waves, human activities, and the continuous usage of
rocks to build sea walls (figure 4.34) and bridges altered a number of larger rocks and
big boulders.
Figure 4.34. Large rocks and boulders constructed as sea wall for coastal protection at Malakerava area in Gizo town. (Photo by the author, 2010.)
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4.8. Local perceptions of adaptation to climate and environmental change.
The study showed that there were nine suggestions locals perceived that could help stop,
protect, and reverse degradation and endangerment of coastal and inshore marine
ecosystems and biodiversity (table 4.19). These include: 1) replanting and rehabilitation
of coastal trees, especially mangroves; 2) land-based projects; 3) legislation enactment
and enforcement; 4) MPAs; 5) community awareness; 6) coral replanting; 7) monitoring;
8) replanting of seagrass/weed; and 9) land-use planning. Some of these have been
attempted while others such as land-use planning have not been attempted but which
indicate potential to assist in mitigation (reducing impacts) and adaptation (refer to table
4.20).
4.8.1 Coastal tree and mangrove replanting and conservation
The survey showed that the replanting of coastal trees especially mangroves was a
common suggestion (table 4.19). The protection of species such as beach mahogany,
casuarinas, tropical almonds, and mangroves was suggested to be given priority for
protection.
The replanting and conservation of coastal trees, especially mangroves, was to ensure
the protection of coastal areas and assist regeneration of various marine species.
Mangrove replanting in particular has been suggested in several villages, notably Gizo
town, Paelongge and Saeraghe villages, particularly in affected areas.
The actual replanting of coastal trees was reported and observed in the five study
villages. This strategy was carried out individually rather than as a community-based
strategy (see table 4.20). This has been successful to certain extent as coastal tree
replanting is one of the old methods practised in Ghizo Island over the years. This
strategy has been the form of protecting soil erosion from the sea–level rise.
Most trees that were replanted included the beach mahogany, casuarinas, the tropical
almond, coconut palms; the milky mangroves and saltbush (fig 4.35). For example, in
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Saeraghe, the replanting of beach mahogany was a good means of protection that has
shown resilience over the years (refer to fig 4.35a). Similarly, in Malakerava area in
Gizo town, the replanting of casuarinas, coconut palms, and milky mangroves was
evident (fig 4.35b-c). In Paelongge, replanting of coconut palms and saltbush trees can
be sighted along the coastal area (fig 4.35d).
Based on the survey, replanting of coastal trees was intended as a form of protection
against wind, strong waves, sea–level rise, as well as to avoid sedimentation and sand
erosion. This strategy, according to residents of the study sites, is one of the positive
strategies as it is less expensive, reliable, and easy to do.
Figure 4.35. Replanting of several coastal trees A) replanting and conservation of beach mahogany in Saeraghe village B-C) replanting of casuarinas and several coconut palms in Malakerava in Gizo town and D) replanting of several salt bush and coconut palms in Paelongge. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
152
Tabl
e 4.
19. L
ocal
per
cept
ions
on
envi
ronm
enta
l con
serv
atio
n, m
anag
emen
t of c
oast
al a
nd in
shor
e m
arin
e bi
odiv
ersit
y.
Fish
ing
villa
ge
Saer
aghe
vi
llage
K
ogul
avat
a Pa
elon
gge
villa
ge
Giz
o To
wn
F M
To
tal
Rec
omm
enda
tions
x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 x/
8 X
/20
X/2
0 X
/40
Coa
stal
tre
e an
d m
angr
ove
repl
antin
g 3
1 3
3 2
5 7
12
Land
bas
ed p
roje
cts
2 1
3 4
2 3
9 12
Law
enf
orce
men
t 2
1 1
2 5
5 6
11
MPA
4
0 1
2 3
6 4
10
Aw
aren
ess
3 0
5 1
1 7
3 10
Cor
al re
plan
ting
1 2
2 2
2 3
6 9
Mon
itorin
g 0
1 0
3 3
5 2
7
Seag
rass
s/w
eed
repl
antin
g 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
1
Land
-use
pla
nnin
g 0
0 0
0 1
1 0
1
153
In addition, replanting of mangroves is a strategy practised in Ghizo Island. This was
also carried out in Kogulavata and Fishing village. For example, in some parts of
Kogulavata area, mangroves were replanted to help protect coastlines from
sedimentation and flooding during unusual rainfall. This stems from the nature of the
area, which is prone to flooding and increased erosion and sedimentation (fig 4.36).
In Ghizo island, replanting of mangroves has come about as sea level has risen causing
salt-water intrusion aggravated by high tides and strong waves along the coastal area.
The replanting of mangroves was due to the tsunami event in 2007, which damaged a
number of mangroves, most of which are taking years to recover.
It was also mentioned that mangrove replanting was carried out as a means of providing
protection against tides, storm surges, tropical cyclones, salt-water intrusion, and loss of
sediments. As well, the replanting of mangroves was to increase and restore stocks and
habitats of fisheries as well as protecting and restoring inshore marine invertebrates that
have been declining.
Figure 4.36. Replanting of mangroves A) Fishing village B) Kogulavata area. (Photos by the author, 2010.)
154
4.8.2 Land based projects
The survey found out that locals commonly suggest land-based projects. This is
noticeable at Paelongge and Kogulavata. The importance in engaging land based
projects is to generate income rather than depending solely on the marine environment.
It was also suggested that the Government Ministries such as the Ministry of Agriculture
and Livestock and various NGOs must assist in providing financial support in
establishing cattle farms, piggery, poultry, and aquaculture projects. This strategy is to
provide alternatives for the recovery and increase of marine resources.
The people have also suggested special project development for women. The importance
of such projects is that women are the group who do most work in the gardens and are
involved in harvesting of inshore resources. As suggested in the literature review, such
projects, must be carried out with care because of the threat of nutrient pollution to coral
reefs and nearshore biodiversity.
4.8.3 Legislation
Respondents in Fishing village, Paelongge, and Gizo town recommended the need for
enactment and enforcement of legislation and governance. Suggestions included
enacting legislation and imposing fines to control overharvesting of trees and marine
resources as a means to reduce vulnerability and unsustainability hence, prohibiting
diving in the important areas of high biodiversity.
4.8.4 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
Numerous local people suggested the establishment of Marine Protected Areas with
temporary and permanent rotational closures. The rationale behind this is to ensure that
some areas are closed while other areas are open where people can still have access to
resources. This was to control and manage the harvesting of resources. It was also
suggested that there is a need to implement taboo areas or ‘no-take zone” like Fishing
155
village and Gizo town (table 4.19). Imposition of the “no-take zones” was suggested for
a month or even years. This is to enable restocking of marine resources and enhancing
sustainable harvesting. The people perceive this to be successful if the NGOs and
community leaders work together.
156
Tab
le 4
.20.
Spe
cific
str
ateg
ies
carr
ied
out
that
pro
mot
e th
e co
nser
vatio
n, r
esto
ratio
n an
d su
stai
nabl
e us
e of
coa
stal
and
ins
hore
mar
ine
biod
iver
sity
men
tione
d by
40
resp
onde
nts
to q
uest
ionn
aire
sur
vey
in 5
vill
ages
on
Ghi
zo I
slan
d, W
este
rn S
olom
on is
land
s w
hen
aske
d to
m
entio
n up
to 5
stra
tegi
es th
at w
ere
carr
ied
out.
Fi
shin
g vi
llage
Sa
erag
he v
illag
e
K
ogul
avat
a
Pael
ongg
e vi
llage
G
izo
Tow
n F
M
Tot
al
Com
mun
ity b
ased
stra
tegi
es
x/8
x/8
x/8
x/8
x/8
X/2
0 X
/20
X/4
0
Coa
stal
tree
repl
antin
g 0
7 3
4 6
5 15
20
Mar
ine
prot
ecte
d ar
ea
0 7
6 3
0 10
6
16
Sea
wal
l con
stru
ctio
n 5
2 3
0 5
5 10
15
B
anni
ng o
f ove
rhar
vest
ing
of b
êche
-de
-mer
and
seag
rass
1
1 6
1 4
7 6
13
Man
grov
es re
plan
ting
and
con
serv
atio
n 7
1 3
0 0
5 6
11
Cor
al re
plan
ting
and
cons
erva
tion
0 5
1 2
0 4
4 8
Seaw
eed
repl
antin
g 0
2 1
2 0
2 3
5
lobs
ter c
lam
and
cra
b nu
rser
y 0
2 0
0 0
0 2
2
157
The establishment of the Marine Protected Areas was observed in Ghizo Island. The
protected areas are referred to as Ghizo Marine Conservation Area (GMCA). GMCA
was first commenced in 1998 with the help of World Wide Fund (WWF) and the
Western Province government. The main intention was to protect the four main islands
of Kennedy, Nusatupe, Njari, and the submerged reef system of hotspots as well as
various surrounding reef ecosystems (Manele and Wein, 2006) (fig 4.37).
Figure 4.37. Location of four areas targeted for protection as MPAs in Ghizo Island (Adapted from Foale and Manele, 2004.)
The GMCA consists of two types of management tool. The first is the permanent marine
protected areas or “no take areas”, which are shown by the solid red lines, aiming to
protect areas that are high in biodiversity, especially areas of high coral cover, high fish
diversity, and spawning aggregation sites. The other is the multiple use of marine
protected areas, shown by the dotted pink lines, where management options such as
158
controlled harvesting practices, aqua-culture developments, and subsistence harvesting
for food and income generating is allowed (Manele and Wein, 2006) (fig 4.38).
Figure 4.38. Marine conservation area in Ghizo Island (Adapted from Manele and Wein, 2006).
Survey has showed several study sites located within the GMCA. These sites have some
of the major habitats that are intended to be protected and conserved. For example, in
Kogulavata, where corals are protected, harvesting was not allowed in some parts of the
area. These GMCA areas were marked with white floaters indicating that these areas are
under Permanent Marine Protected Areas, which means that certain marine habitats were
targeted to be protected and conserved (fig 4.39).
In Gizo town, while reports showed no community-based method of conservation
around its marine waters, a resident who has been residing in Gizo town over the years
mentioned that the marine area along the jetty next to the Gizo hotel has been protected,
159
allowing no activities to be generated. This is due to the fact that the area holds one of
the places where small to large Spanish mackerels are found (Forest, interviewed 2010).
Figure 4.39. Conserved area identified by the white floater at Kogulavata. (Photo by the author, 2010.)
The Marine Conservation Area, which has been going on for the past 13 years, enables
the protection or safeguarding of unique and important resources such as corals and
marine species, which are affected over the years.
Although these marine protected areas, with the assistance of WWF, have been
implemented in Ghizo Island, it was reported ineffective over the years (Stephen, 2010
pers.comm.). For example, in Saeraghe, the areas marked as protected were ineffective
as people still fish within these marine waters. This was also reported in Gizo and
Kogulavata, where people still fish every now and then, anytime of the day.
One of the working staff of WWF when discussing the challenges and obstacles to the
management of MPAs, related that:
160
Though most of the MPAs were set up by the WWF in Ghizo Island, they are not
effective due to different perspectives held by different people in Saeraghe,
Paelongge, and Fishing villages. While some respected MPA, others regard these
marine areas as their own place to fish (Manele, 2010 pers. comm.).
It was also reported that the five villages within the Marine Protected Areas were
considered intact, unlike today. Before, marine resources such as seaweeds, finfishes,
shellfishes, and crustaceans were harvested and controlled only for consumption. Now it
is more that preservation is solely for commercial purposes. As a result, harvesting of
the marine resources has not been controlled, rendering these protected areas ineffective.
To preserve and increase the number of marine resources, it was suggested that MPAs
should be developed and implemented in other villages such as Fishing village and
Malakerava area in Gizo town (Taitoi, 2010 pers. comm.). The restrengthtening through
educational awareness of MPAs is necessary, as people are ignorant about the idea of
conservation and management. As well, the increased usage of rafters and Fads would
support conservation efforts by encouraging fisherman to focus their fishing activities
offshore and relieve the pressure on the coral reef habitats.
4.8.5 Public awareness to people and communities
It was strongly recommended that there must be more effort to increase awareness and
education in relation to climate change within communities surrounding Ghizo Island.
This strategy is highly important so that people are aware and understand the concept of
‘climate change’ and the impacts these changes have on coastal biodiversity, which may
have impacts on their livelihood (Eresia, 2010 pers. comm.).
Besides, assistance must come from the Government Ministry. For instance, the
Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources could provide financial assistance and
enable the establishment and recruitment of officers. These officers can be utilized to
assist in awareness programs and to ensure the establishment of awareness centres in the
161
various communities. As well as enabling monitoring of climate change projects that are
able to provide access to information and dissemination of information about climate
change and other variability of changes to local public and other institutions.
4.8.6 Coral replanting
Locals have suggested that coral replanting and rehabilitation be carried out. This is to
increase habitats as well as foods for marine organisms, which make up most of the
peoples’ livelihood. Coral replanting was commonly suggested in Paelongge and
Kogulavata area (refer to table 4.19).
Coral replanting and conservation method was suggested in Gizo, Paelongge, and
Saeraghe. Survey carried out found that the method of coral replanting was individual
rather than community based but with the help and assistance of WWF. More often,
those engaged in replanting were those who attended small workshops that were
organized by WWF and the World Fish at Gizo town.
In Paelongge, it was reported that replanting and conservation of corals and large stones
was carried out with the assistance of WWF to help protect these marine ecosystems and
also enable conservation of habitats for marine species that dwell within, most of which
help to sustain the livelihood of the people.
In Saeraghe, coral replanting was done to increase fish stocks. This is evident in several
areas as shown in (fig 4.40). It was related that before the tsunami, which occurred in
2007, corals were usually harvested within 2 weeks but today, with the impacts of the
tsunami waves and the prolonging of climate changes over the years, it has taken weeks
and months. Clamshells, on the other hand, were also replanted amongst corals.
While it is an optimal strategy to recover important marine species, the strategy is
reported as ineffective in several villages, such as Paelongge and Saeraghe, due to
increased force of waves and currents and the recent tsunami in 2007. As a result, most
of the corals were damaged and the process of replanting was not intact. The only
162
location where replanting of corals, especially clams, takes place at the end of Saeraghe
village.
Figure 4.40. Coral replanting at Saeraghe village. (Photo by the author, 2010.)
4.8.7 Extend monitoring efforts
Local community members have pointed to the need for enforcement or the use of local
observers for security purposes especially of people to engage in daily monitoring of
projects carried out in the villages. This is to ensure that projects carried out on land,
such as the cattle projects and even marine protected areas, are being successfully
implemented. This is because such monitoring effort has never been implemented and
successful in the past.
Effective monitoring is vital. It helps identify trends and important information for
reporting and more so for use in any future development and management. This
establishment of longer monitoring programs over a longer period is ideal, especially to
163
evaluate the impacts of climate change and conditions of certain areas so that new
management programs can be identified and implemented.
4.8.8 Seagrass and seaweed replanting
The replanting of seagrass and seaweeds was suggested by local villagers, particularly at
Malakerava in Gizo town. This is to ensure restoration of these species, as they are being
heavily affected and becoming scarce in certain areas. Protecting and restoring these
major ecosystems helps to recognize their important role in providing refuge, habitat and
migratory corridors to enable movement of species.
In Ghizo, replanting of seaweeds was reported as one strategy that was being carried out
with the assistance of WWF. This practice was reported at Saeraghe, Kogulavata and
Paelongge (table 4.20). Seaweed replanting at Saeraghe involves tying them to ropes
that were supported with the help of floaters that hold the ropes. This strategy was done
with the help of WWF. This was carried out to restore these species, which have shown
a marked decline over the years.
While seaweed replanting in Saeraghe and Kogulavata was carried out, it showed itself
as ineffective over the years due to high and stronger currents and waves, prolonged
lower tides, overharvesting for commercial purposes, and in some cases, grazing by
several finfish such as the humphead parrotfish. Similarly in Paelongge, it was reported
that seagrasss that was supposed to be grown at Paelongge (Suvania passage) has been
identified as ineffective due to much stronger waves and currents and winds (Isaac,
2010, pers. Comm.).
The clam and crab nursery was also established to increase stock as most of these
important crustaceans such as the cray fish, lobsters, and coconut crabs are rapidly
declining. This was reported in Saeraghe, with a method that involves drilling coconut
strands, so that eggs carried by waves and currents could be easily trapped in these
holes. These, too, were reported ineffective and very few respondents mentioned this
strategy as a worthwhile initiative (table 4.20).
164
4.8.9 Land-use planning
The replaning and relocation of the Gizo town was suggested. It was reported that
government should stop building along the coastal areas and at steep elevations. In
addition, land should be sub-divided into particular activities like parks, residential, and
commercial locations. This is to lessen human activities along the coast that affect
nearby inshore marine waters, which may later affect major habitats and species.
165
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion
The study of the five villages on Ghizo Island in the Western Solomon Islands shows
that the impact of climate change is a reality and perceived by locals in terms of changes
in climatic variables, such as rainfall patterns heat and temperature, timing, intensity and
direction of cyclones, winds and drought; and sea level or sea state changes such as
changes in the timing and magnitude tides, currents and waves, They have also
experienced other non-climatic changes, such as the major tsunami and earthquake of
2007, the extreme effects of which have either reinforced or been reinforced by more
strictly climate-related changes.
The overall perceived effects of these changes, include salt-water intrusion, inland
flooding, coastal erosion and increase of pests; together they are causing damage to, and
loss of, many important local trees and plants, crops, corals, seagrasses, seabirds, finfish
and marine invertebrates. All of these climatic and environmental changes are clearly
exacerbated by human activities, such as population increase and immigration to Ghizo,
overharvesting of timber and construction materials (sand, rock and coral) for
construction and settlement, pollution, over-fishing and destructive fishing methods, all
of which together undermine the resilience of ecosystems and communities to climate
change, tsunamis and other changes.
For the Pacific Island communities like those of Ghizo Island, most of whom depend
almost entirely on their local terrestrial, coastal and marine resources for livelihood
security, these perceived climate change and associated impacts are clearly making them
more vulnerable to global change in all of its manifestations. This is particularly true for
countries such as Kiribati, Tuvalu and Tokelau, and small islands, such as the islands of
Ghizo, who, because of their coastal location and dependence on nearshore coastal
resources, are more vulnerable to beach erosion, salt water intrusion, coastal flooding
and accelerated sedimentation that are clearly already affecting local vegetation and food
crops and nearshore marine resources.
166
The impact of salt-water intrusion can alter habitats, reducing the number of species and
thus affecting both human food production and coastal food chains. This correlates with
the theory that as salt-water concentration increases, species diversity declines, which
results in less complex impoverished food chains (Zimmermann, 2007).
As such, a number of recommendations and adaptive strategies are being considered by
the ‘grassroots’ communities and from personal observation for employment on Ghizo
Island for protecting and conserving coastal ecosystems and biodiversity to help
communities adapt to climate change. These include replanting of coastal trees,
mangroves, corals and sea grasses, the establishment of Marine Protected Areas, and the
enactment of appropriate laws to prohibit unsustainable practices.
Because of the central importance of coastal biodiversity for the people of Ghizo Island,
the protection of coastal biodiversity through community-based ecosystem management
and protection must be seen as the most cost-effective, culturally appropriate and
technologically feasible first line of defence against climate and other environmental
change and human degradation and overharvesting of coastal resources. Therefore
management strategies for protecting and conserving are crucial to successful future
adaptation to climate change, sea–level rise and other environmental changes. The study
has shown that there has been the establishment of some community marine managed
areas, the replanting of mangroves and the restocking of coral, but these are just a start
and other initiatives must be implemented and, most importantly, monitored to
determine their long-term success in combating the loss of biodiversity and
strengthening resilience to climate and environmental change.
5.2 Recommendations for future studies
There are ten fundamental recommendations based on the outcomes of the Ghizo Island
study of local perceptions of the impacts of climate and environmental change, its
causes, and the potential roles that local communities can play in either exacerbating
these negative impacts or, preferably, reducing vulnerability and adapting to these
changes.
167
• There should be more quantitative studies based on measurements taken along
the coastal zone in order to better understand and quantify the extent of sea–level
rise and how this has or may have affected the coastal biodiversity. This is
important so as to come up with strategies to protect coastal trees and plants,
including food plants and important components of coastal and marine food
chains.
• Further studies on coral bleaching and death should well be carried out in Ghizo.
This needs to be done by establishing long-term monitoring and data collection
networks to document spatial and temporal changes due to climatic, sea
temperature and sea state change, other environmental changes, particularly in
sensitive sites, such as Pusinau Island where bleaching has been reported..
• Education and awareness programs based on the important livelihood and
ecological roles played by various coastal and marine ecosystems and their
importance in addressing climate change and sea–level rise in adapting and
mitigating should be carried out in communities on Ghizo Island. This is to build
and enhance support for coastal and inshore marine management approaches that
protect both coastal biodiversity and livelihood needs of the people.
• Education and awareness programs need to be implemented to protect and
support traditional ecological knowledge, particularly the documentation of
names and cultural and ecological importance of edible and medicinal plants; and
practices for water conservation, erosion control; and the management and use,
including names and conservation status of important coastal and inshore marine
ecosystems and species that are vulnerable to climate change and environmental
change. This should be implemented at all levels from government and non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) and to individual villages and people.
• There is also a need to translate, and make local village people aware of, the
most up-to-date modern knowledge about the causes and impacts of climate
168
change and sea–level rise, how this reinforces and is reinforced by other
environmental events, such as tsunamis, and human overexploitation and
environmental degradation and what are the types and effectiveness, and the
reasons for the effectiveness, of interventions to address and adapt to climate and
environmental change.
• Some Marine Protected Area (MPAs) has already been implemented by the
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) around Ghizo Island. It is recommended
that the protection of marine areas should also cover areas that are most
vulnerable from human exploitation, sea-level rise and coastal erosion, rather
than just concentrate on rural, more intact, less-degraded sites. For example,
MPAs should be considered for areas along the Malakerava village in Gizo town
and in Fishing village areas. This was supported by people’s perceptions that the
protection of marine areas covers only several villages of interest to conservation
groups and neglects those areas that may be under greater pressure and where
marine protection would yield considerable multiple benefits in terms of
livelihood sustainability and adaptation to climate and environmental change.
Greater responsibility should be given to local communities by using rotation
strategies where time is given for harvesting and prohibition on MPAs areas.
• It is important to locate and map areas of important fishing grounds mentioned
by various fishermen, as several of these could be important spawning sites that
could be protected to reduce exploitation of fish stock and enable re-generation
of vulnerable and threatened fish species during spawning.
• Replanting of mangrove forests is highly recommended, especially in the more
vulnerable study sites such as along the Malakerava area and Fishing village.
This is to ensure coastal protection from sea–level rise, storm surge and
unpredictability of tsunami waves, as Ghizo is vulnerable to these events due to
Ghizo’s location within the prone area. Such action would also serve to increase
important habitat and nursery grounds for a wide range of marine organisms.
169
• Special meetings and workshops should be held with chiefs or leaders from
various communities, with particular emphasis on the importance of community
based projects run by local people in collaboration with appropriate partners,
possibly conservation or development NGOs. This will ensure a sense of
responsibility of each community in learning about, managing and conserving
their ecosystems and biodiversity. For the owners and users, because it is their
livelihood, the conservation and sustainability of these resources offers the best
strategy for adapting to the effects of climate change and environmental changes.
• A recommended approach is the promotion of Integrated Coastal Zone
Management (ICZM) including the protection of coastal and inshore ecosystems
to ensure protection and conservation of coastal biodiversity.
• There is a need for the provision of financial support in order to promote
research in technologies for community-based climate change adaptation and the
importance of coastal ecosystems and biodiversity as a basis for adaptation and
resilience to climate change. This should be provided to local and regional
tertiary institutions, NGOs, relevant government departments, with the
stipulation that local communities take part in, thus have ownership of the
results, and can address the findings of such research.
In summary, it is hoped that this research has been an example of this latter
recommendation and has yielded valuable insight into the magnitude and complexity of
climate and environmental change issues, the importance of the sustainable use and
management of coastal biodiversity as the best option for addressing these problems, and
the paramount importance of research and solutions that involve multiple stakeholders,
particularly the local communities that are most affected by climate change and who
have the capacity to do their best to adapt to it, if they are given the right information
and support to complement their own in-depth traditional knowledge of what has
happened and what can be done.
170
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APPENDIX 1. Questionnaire
Climate change, sea–level rise and coastal biodiversity survey questionnaire in Solomon Islands, July-September 2010.
Name of respondent: _________________________M/F________ Age:__________Village/Occupation: ____________________
QuestionnaireNo:_____________________________Interviewer:___________________Date:________________________
Identifying elements/effects of climate change
1. How long have you been staying in the village? Identify if possible number of years.
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. What is climate change according to your understanding/image or picture which you associate with climate change? Please explain.
_______________________________________explain__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What are six (6) changes in the climate or weather pattern that you have experienced in your living in the village? Explain what it is and what its effects have been and how often have they occurred and severity and nature of impacts.
1.______________________________________explain________________________________________________________________________Effects_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Frequency of occurrence over the past years______________________________________________________________________
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Severity and nature of impacts______________________________________________________________________________________ 2.______________________________________explain________________________________________________________________________Effects_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Frequency of occurrence over the past years______________________________________________________________________ Severity and nature of impacts______________________________________________________________________________________ 3.______________________________________explain________________________________________________________________________Effects_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Frequency of occurrence over the past years______________________________________________________________________ Severity and nature of impacts______________________________________________________________________________________ 4.______________________________________explain________________________________________________________________________Effects_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Frequency of occurrence over the past years______________________________________________________________________ Severity and nature of impacts______________________________________________________________________________________ 5.______________________________________explain________________________________________________________________________Effects_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Frequency of occurrence over the past years______________________________________________________________________
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Severity and nature of impacts______________________________________________________________________________________
6.______________________________________explain________________________________________________________________________Effects_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Frequency of occurrence over the past years______________________________________________________________________ Severity and nature of impacts______________________________________________________________________________________
Impacts on coastal and marine ecosystem (Biodiversity)
4. What are three (3) main types of ecosystem, habitats or land use types in the coastal zone; and what are the three (3) main types of impacts on these from climate change or variability or sea–level rise or changes in sea state? 1._____________________________________________________________ 2._____________________________________________________________ 3._____________________________________________________________
5. List three (3) most severe impacts (for each climate change identified in question 3) or other environmental changes on coastal ecosystem?
1.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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6. List three (3) most severe impacts (for each climate change identified in question 3) or other environmental changes on marine ecosystem?
1._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7. List ten (10) coastal trees that are important for livelihoods and have been affected by climate change, sea–level rise or other environmental changes in the coastal zone?
1._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 5._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 6._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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7._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 8._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 9._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 10.______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
8. List ten (10) other coastal plants (not trees) that are important and have been affected by climate change, sea–level rise or other environmental changes in the coastal zone?
1._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 5._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 6._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 7._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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8._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 9._______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
10.______________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
9. What are up to 10 finfish that have been affected by climate change, sea–level rise or other environmental changes in the coastal zone?
1.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 5._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 6.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 7.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 8._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 9._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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10._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
10. What are five (5) crabs/lobsters/prawns that have been affected by climate change, sea–level rise or other environmental changes in the coastal zone?
1.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 5._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
11. What are up to 6 shellfish that have been affected by climate change, sea–level rise or other environmental changes in the coastal zone?
1.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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5.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 6._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
12. What are up to 5 bêche-de-mer/holothurians that have been affected by climate change, sea–level rise or other environmental changes in the coastal zone?
1.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 5.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
13. What are three (3) squids and octopus that have been affected by climate change, sea–level rise or other environmental changes in the coastal zone?
1.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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14. What are three (3) living corals that have been affected by climate change, sea–level rise or other environmental changes in the coastal zone?
1.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
15. What are up to 5 seaweeds, seagrasses or other marine plants that have been affected by climate change, sea–level rise or other environmental changes?
1.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 5.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
16. What are two (2) turtles that have been affected by climate change, sea–level rise or other environmental changes?
1.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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2.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
17. What are five (5) sea birds or ocean birds that have been affected by climate change, sea–level rise or other environmental changes?
1.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 5.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
18. What are three (3) coral rocks that have been affected by climate change, sea–level rise or other environmental changes in the coastal zone?
1.__________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.__________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3.__________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
19. What are three (3) beach resources that have been affected by climate change, sea–level rise or other environmental changes?
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1.__________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.__________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3.__________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
20. List other plants and animals (not mentioned above) that are important and are affected by climate change, sea–level rise or other environmental changes.
1.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3..________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Other threats to coastal and marine biodiversity
21. List 5 human activities that can be destructive to coastal biodiversity. List and explain.
1._________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3..________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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5._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
22. List 5 human activities that can be destructive to the marine biodiversity. List and explain.
1._________________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________;.;.;_______________________ 2.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 5._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Role of coastal biodiversity in mitigating and adaptation to climate change and environmental changes in the coastal zone.
23. List 3 main coastal ecosystem or habitats that you think are important and useful in providing protection/insurance against climate change, sea–level rise and environmental changes in the coastal zone. List and explain their roles and also what is their conservation status? Are they intact or have they been degraded? Explain.
1.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Conservation status_____________________explain________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________
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2.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Conservation status_____________________explain________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ 3._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Conservation status_____________________explain________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________
24. List 3 marine ecosystem or habitats that you think are important and useful in providing protection/insurance against climate change, sea–level rise and environmental changes in the coastal zone. List and explain their roles and also what is their conservation status? Are they intact or have they been degraded? Explain.
1.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Conservation status_____________________explain________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ 2.________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Conservation status_____________________explain________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ 3._________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Conservation status_____________________explain________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________
25. Have there been any strategies used in the village that promote the conservation, restoration, and sustainable use of coastal biodiversity? Y/N
1.__________________________________________________
26. If yes then list 5 strategies that have been done by the community to conserve, restore and sustainable use of coastal biodiversity.
1.______________________________________________explain_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2.______________________________________________explain________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3._______________________________________________explain_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4._______________________________________________explain______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 5._______________________________________________explain_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
27. List 5 strategies that have been done by the community to conserve, restore and sustainable use of marine biodiversity.
1.__________________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2.___________________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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3.___________________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4.___________________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 5._______________________________________________________explain________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
28. What are three (3) things that government, NGOs or outside agencies can do to help stop or reverse degradation of the marine environment and the loss and endangerment of coastal biodiversity?
1.__________________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.___________________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3.___________________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
29. What are three (3) things that government, NGOs or outside agencies can do to help stop or reverse degradation of the marine environment and the loss and endangerment of marine biodiversity?
1.__________________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.___________________________________________________explain____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3.___________________________________________________explain___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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APPENDIX 2. Respondents to the questionnaires and interviews
Agiri, D. 2010. Fisherman, Paelongge village.
Akao, P. 2010. Carpenter, Kogulavata village.
Baea, N. 2010. Climate change witness, Gizo town
Baea, P. 2010. Climate change witness, Gizo town
Eresia, B. 2010. Resident, Paelongge village.
Fationo, C.W. 2010. Church elder, Kogulavata village.
Forest, J. 2010. Resident, Gizo town
Fugui, N. 2010. Pastor, Fishing village.
Hughes, A. 2010. Marine officer, James Cook University, Australia.
Isaac, J. 2010. Farmer, Paelongge village
Kegula, R. 2010. Resident, Saeraghe village,
Kezi, F. 2010. Fisherman, Malakerava village, Gizo town.
Kikore, O. 2010. Resident, Saeraghe village
Kopa, A. 2010. Farmer, Saeraghe village.
Kuse, F. 2010. Agriculture officer, Saeraghe village,
Lilo, D. 2010. Resident, Kogulavata village.
Liva, B. 2010. Resident, Paelongge village.
Mana, L. 2010. Chief, Fishing village.
Manele, B. 2010.Gizo marine project coordinator, World Wildlife Fund, Gizo
Mani, G. 2010. Resident, Fishing village
Martha, M. 2010. Resident, Fishing village
Mason, S. 2010. Resident, Fishing village.
Nelson, S. 2010. Shop keeper, Gizo town.
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Rakena, E. 2010. Resident, Kogulavata village.
Paul, D. 2010. Farmer, Kogulavata village.
Pitu, J. 2010 Chief, Paelongge village
Pitu, M. 2010. Resident, Paelongge village
Riutule, T. 2010. Resident, Malakerava village Gizo town.
Rodrick, L. 2010. Fisherman, kogulavata village.
Rupeti, M.L. 2010. Resident, Saeraghe village.
Sam, A. 2010. Fisherman, Paelongge village.
Sam, N. 2010. Resident, Paelongge village.
Seka, E. 2010. Resident, Gizo town.
Sigili, M. 2010. Resident, Saeraghe village.
Siote, A. 2010. Resident, Gizo town,
Stephen, E. 2010. Farmer, Kogulavata village,
Stephen, K. 2010. Resident, Kogulavata village
Sualalu, B. 2010. Seaman, Fishing village.
Sualalu, M. 2010. Resident, Fishing village
Suguri, M. 2010. Bech-de-mer diver, Saeraghe village,
Taito, T. 2010. Fisherman, Fishing village
Tioko, R. 2010. Resident, Malakerava village, Gizo town
Toihere, C. 2010. Technical aid, Nusatupe
Uza, D. 2010. Farmer, Saeraghe village.
Weir, T. 2010. Personal communication, Pacific Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development, USP, Suva.
