Roxana Badea's Atestat

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Contents

Contents...............................................................................................1

Introduction.........................................................................................2

Chapter I History.............................................................................3

1. Early history...............................................................................3

2. The Kingdom of Haestingas.......................................................4

3. Hastings between XIst and XXIst century.................................4

Chapter II Battle of Hastings...........................................................7

1. Background ...............................................................................7

2. The two armies...........................................................................9

3. Battle.........................................................................................10

Chapter III Historical places.............................................................13

1. Alexandra Park...........................................................................13

2. Hastings Castle...........................................................................13

3. Hastings Pier...............................................................................154. Holy Trinity Church....................................................................16

5. Net Huts.......................................................................................17

6. White Rock Theatre.....................................................................18

7. Hastings Fishermens Museum....................................................19

Chapter IV Neighbourhoods and areas..............................................20

1. Ore Valley....................................................................................20

2. St Leonards-on-Sea......................................................................21

3. Silverhill.......................................................................................23

4. Hollington.....................................................................................24

5. Hastings Old Town.......................................................................24

6. The America Ground....................................................................25Bibliography..........................................................................................27

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Introduction

Hastings is a town

and borough in the county of EastSussex on the south coast of England.The town is located 39 km east of thecounty town of Lewes and 85 km southeast of London, and has an estimated

population of 87,000.

In historical terms, Hastings canclaim fame through its connection with

the Norman conquest of England; and also because it became one of themedieval Cinque Ports. Hastings was, for centuries, an important fishing port;although nowadays much reduced, it still has the largest beach-based fishingfleet in England. The town became a watering place in the 1760s, and then, withthe coming of the railway, a seaside resort.

The attraction of Hastings as a tourist destination continues; although thenumber of hotels has decreased, it caters for wider tastes, being home tointernationally-based cultural and sporting events, such as chess and running. Ithas set out to become "a modern European town" and seeks to attract

commercial business in the many industrial sites round the borough.As with the rest of the BritishIsles and Southern England,Hastings experiences a maritimeclimate with cool summers andmild winters. In terms of thelocal climate, Hastings is on theeastern edge of what is, on

average, the sunniest part of theUK, the stretch of coast from the

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Isle of Wight to the Hastings area. Hastings, tied with Eastbourne, recorded thehighest duration of Sunshine of any month anywhere in the United Kingdom -384 hours - in 1911.

Chapter I

History

I.1 Early History

The first mention of Hastings is found in the late 8th century in theformHastingas. This is derived from the Old English tribal nameHstingas,meaning "Hsta's people", "the family/followers of Hsta". Symeon ofDurham records the victory of Offa in 771 over theHestingorum gens, that is,"the people of the Hastings tribe", and the same tribe gave their nameto Hastingleigh in Kent. The place nameHstingaceasteris found in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle entry for 1050, and may be an alternative name for Hastings.However, the absence of any archaeological remains of or documentaryevidence for a Roman fort at Hastings suggest that Hstingaceastermay refer toa different settlement, most likely that based on the Roman remains atPevensey.

There is evidence of prehistoric settlements at the site of the town: flintarrowheads and Bronze Age artefacts have been found; Iron Age forts have beenexcavated on both the East and West Hills suggests an early move to the safety

of the valley in between, so that the settlement was already a port whenthe Romans arrived in Britain for the first time in 55 BC. At this time they beganto exploit the iron (Wealden rocks provide a plentiful supply of the ore), and sothe port was useful to them. One of the many local sites where the iron wasworked at Beauport Park, to the north of the town, which employed up to onethousand men and is considered to have been the third largest in the RomanEmpire.

With the departure of the Romans the town suffered setbacks. TheBeauport site had been abandoned; and natural and man-made attacks began.

The Sussex coast has always suffered from occasional violent storms; with theadditional hazard of longshore drift (the eastward movement of shingle along

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the coast) the coastline has been frequently changing. The original Roman portcould now well be under the sea.

Man-made attacks possibly included the Danish invaders, with theirharbour in the west of the borough. Bulverhythe, where its original site isconjectured, suggests that: -hythe orhithe means a port or small haven.

I.2 The Kingdom of Haestingas

From the 6th century AD until 771, the area around modern-day Hastings,as the territory of the Haestingas tribe, considered itself to be a separateKingdom from the surrounding Kingdoms of Suth Saxe ("South Saxons", i.e.Sussex) and Kent, and attempted to retain its separate cultural identity until the11th century. The kingdom was probably a sub-kingdom, the object of adisputed overlordship by the two powerful neighbouring kingdoms: whenKing Wihtred of Kent settled a dispute with King Ine of Sussex & Wessex in694, it is probable that he seceded the overlordship of Haestingas to Ine as partof the treaty.

In 771 King Offa of Mercia invaded Southern England, and over the next decadegradually seized control of Sussex and Kent. Symeon of Durham records a battlefought at an unidentified location near Hastings in 771, at which Offa defeatedthe Haestingas tribe, effectively ending its existence as a separate Kingdom. By

790, Offa controlled Hastings effectively enough to confirm grants of land inHastings to the Abbey of St Denis, in Paris. However, the Anglo-SaxonChronicle for 1011 relates that Vikings over-ran "all Kent, Sussex, Surrey andHaestingas", indicating the town was still considered a separate 'county' or

province to its neighbours 240 years after Offa's conquest. A royal mint inHastings was established in AD 928 during the reign of Athelstan

I.3 Hastings between XIst and XXIst century

The start of the Norman Conquest was the Battle of Hastings, fought on14 October 1066; although the battle itself took place 13 km to the north atSenlac Hill, and William had landed on the coast between Hastings andEastbourne at a site now known as Norman's Bay. It is thought that the Normanencampment was on the towns outskirts, where there was open ground; a newtown was already being built in the valley to the east. That "New Burgh" wasfounded in 1069, and is mentioned in the Domesday Book as such. Williamdefeated and killed Harold Godwinson, the last Saxon King of England, anddestroyed his army; thus opening England to the Norman conquest. Williamcaused a castle to be built at Hastings probably using the earthworks of theexisting Saxon castle.

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After the Norman Conquest in 1066 a castle was built at Hastings. At firstit was built of wood but it was soon rebuilt in stone, but by the 15th centuryHastings castle had fallen into a state of disrepair. . From the end of the 12thcentury Hastings had a priory (a small abbey). Medieval Hastings flourished as afishing settlement and a small market town. Fishermen from Hastings fished in

the North Sea off East Anglia and they sold much of their catch in GreatYarmouth. However Hastings failed to develop into a major port because theharbour silted up and also because of the floods.

In 1339 and 1377 Hastings suffereddisaster when it was attacked by theFrench and burned. That was an easy taskas most of the buildings were of woodwith thatched roofs, but the good thingaboutthis was that they could be easily

built. A stone wall was built south ofHastings, probably in the late 14thcentury to protect the town from attackfrom the sea but by the 18th century thiswall had fallen into ruins. In the late 14thcentury St Clement's Church was built.All the other Saints Church were built in the 15th century.

In the 16th century and 17th century Hastings slowly grew. In 1589

Queen Elizabeth granted Hastings a charter, that is a document granting thetowns people certain rights. By the Charter of Elizabeth I in 1589 the bailiff wasreplaced by a mayor, by which time the town's importance was dwindling. In theGeorgian era, patronage of such seaside places (such as nearby Brighton) gave ita new lease of life so that, when the time came with the reform of English localgovernment in 1888, Hastings became a County Borough, responsible for all itslocal services, independent of the surrounding county, then Sussex (East); lessthan one hundred years later, in 1974, that status was abolished.

Like all towns in those days Hastings suffered from outbreaks of the

plague. It struck in 1563, 1590 and 1597. However each time the population ofthe little town recovered. In 1619 the Hastings Grammar School was founded.

In the early 18th century Hastings was a small market town with apopulation of about 1,500. Apart from fishing Hastings in the 18th centuryHastings was famous for smuggling. Other industries in Hastings wereshipbuilding and rope making. However from the late 18th century Hastings

began to develop as a seaside resort. In the latter part of the 18th century itbecame fashionable among the wealthy to spend a Summer by the sea and manypeople believed that bathing in seawater was good for your health. So along withother towns on the south coast Hastings grew rapidly. By the end of the 18thcentury the resort of Hastings was booming. The first guide to Hastings was

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printed in 1794 and Marine Parade was begun in 1797. By 1801 Hastings had apopulation of 3,175. It would seem tiny to us but by the standards of the time itwas a small town. Hastings grew at a tremendous rate in the 19th century. By1851 the population of Hastings was 17,621. By the end of the century it had

passed 65,000. The new seaside resort grew rapidly although fishing remained

the main industry in Hastings. In the 1820's Pelham Place and Crescent werebuilt. So were Castle Street and Wellington Place. There used to be a streamcalled the Bourne, which flowed through the centre of the old town. It wascovered over in 1834. Today it lives on as the name of road. Also in 1834headland called White Rock was removed to improve communications.

There were several improvements in Hastings in the 19th century. In 1820a Paving and Improvement Act was passed by Parliament. This formed a bodyof men to pave, clean and light the streets. Hastings gained its first newspaper in1830. Also in 1830 Hastings obtained gas light. In 1833 a piped water supply

was created. The first real police force in Hastings was created in 1836. Therailway reached Hastings in 1851.

Holy Trinity Church was built in 1858. The first fire brigade in Hastingswas formed in 1861. Queens Hotel was built in 1862. Also in 1862 a ClockTower was erected. Hastings Pier was built in 1872. St Mary Star of the Sea was

built in 1883 by a poet named Coventry Patmore as a memorial to his wife.

A museum was founded in Hastings in 1879. Hastings Town Hall wasbuilt in 1881. Alexandra Park opened in 1882. Also in 1882 the first electric

light was generated in Hastings. West Hill Lift was built in 1891.

From 1830 Hastings faced competition from a new seaside resort at StLeonards, which was created by a man named James Burton. However in 1885the Old Town, the modern town and St Leonards were joined together to formone borough.

By 1901 the population of Hastings had risen to 65,528. East CliffRailway was built in 1902.Royal East Sussex Hospital opened in 1923. WhiteRock Pavillion was built in 1927. Marina Court was built in 1938. During the

Second World War Hastings was bombed several times and 154 people werekilled. Over 15,000 buildings were destroyed or damaged.

In the 1930s the town underwent some rejuvenation. Seaside resorts werestarting to go out of fashion: Hastings perhaps more than most. The towncouncil set about a huge rebuilding project, among which the promenade wasrebuilt; and an Olympic-size bathing pool was erected. The latter, regarded in itsday as one of the best open-air swimming and diving complexes in Europe, later

became a holiday camp before closing in 1986. It was demolished, but the area

is still known by locals as "The Bathing Pool.

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Today there is still a fishing industry in Hastings and a new fish marketwas built in 1993. Meanwhile the tourist industry is booming. The Corporation

bought Hastings Castle in 1951. The Fishermens Museum opened in 1956.White Rock Theatre opened in 1985. The Shipwreck Heritage Centre opened in1986. Priory Meadow Shopping Centre opened in 1996.

Chapter II

Battle of Hastings

The Battle of Hastings occurred on 14 October 1066 during the Normanconquest of England, between the Norman-French army of Duke William II of

Normandy and the English army under King Harold II. It took place at SenlacHill, approximately 10 km northwest of Hastings, close to the present-day townof Battle, East Sussex, and was a decisive Norman victory.

Harold II was killed in the battle - legend has it that he was shot throughthe eye with an arrow. He was the last English king to die in battle on English

soil until Richard III was killed at the Battle of Bosworth Field. The battlemarked the last successful foreign invasion of the British Isles. Although therewas further English resistance, this battle is seen as the point at which Williamgained control of England, becoming its first Norman ruler as King William I.

The battle also established the superiority of the combined arms attackover an army predominately composed of infantry, demonstrating theeffectiveness of archers, cavalry and infantry working cooperatively together.The dominance of cavalry forces over infantry would continue until theemergence of the longbow, and battles such as Crecy, Poitiers and Agincourt in

the Hundred Years War.

The famous Bayeux Tapestry depicts the events before and during thebattle. Battle Abbey marks the site where it is believed that the battle wasfought. Founded by King William "the Conqueror" (as he became known), itserves as a memorial to the dead and may have been an act of penance for the

bloodshed. The site is open to the public and is the location of annual re-enactments of the battle.

II.1 Background

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Harold Godwinson, from the most powerful family in England, claimedthe throne shortly after Edward the Confessor died in January 1066. He securedthe support of the Witenagemot, the English assembly of nobles, for hisaccession. Some sources say that Edward had verbally promised the throne tohis cousin, William, the Duke of Normandy, but decided on his deathbed to give

it to Harold. While Edward the Confessor's great-nephew Edgar theling wasalso in England, he was deemed too young.

William took Harold's crowning as adeclaration of war. He

planned to invadeEngland and take thecrown. The Norman armywas not powerful enough,

so nobles as far asSouthern Italy werecalled to conveneat Caen, in Normandy.There, William promisedland and titles to hisfollowers and claimedthat the voyage wassecured by the pope.

William assembled a fleetsaid to number 696 ships

if accurate this wouldimply an army of over20,000 men. This forcewaited in port through thesummer, supposedly

because of adverseweather but quite

possibly from fear of aclash at sea with thelarge English fleet. They finally sailed for England after the exhaustion ofsupplies forced Harold to dismiss his fleet and army and many English shipswere wrecked by a storm. On 28 September 1066 William landed unopposedat Pevensey.

The English King Harold II, who had been waiting for a Normaninvasion, had rushed his army northward to attack aninvading Norwegian Vikingarmy under King Harald Hardrda and Tostig

Godwinson (Harold's brother). He defeated the invaders at the Battle ofStamford Bridge, near York. Upon hearing that the Duke's forces had landed he

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hurried southward to meet the invaders. His brother, Earl Gyrth, urged a delaywhile more men could be assembled, but Harold was determined to show his

people that he could defend his new kingdom decisively against every invader.He departed London on the morning of 12 October, gathering what forces hecould on the way. After camping at Long Bennington, he arrived at Senlac Hill

on the night of 13 October.Harold deployed his force, astride the road from Hastings to London,

on Senlac Hill, some 6 miles (10 km) inland north-west of Hastings. Behind himwas the great forest of Anderida (the Weald), and in front the ground fell awayin a long glacis-like slope, which rose again at the bottom as the opposing slopeof Telham Hill.

II.2 The two armies

The English army fought two other major battles, at Gate Fulfordand Stamford Bridge, less than three weeks before the Battle of Hastings. Thelatter resulted in the destruction of Harald Hardrda's Viking army, but alsoaffected the English army's battle-worthiness at Hastings.

The English army consisted entirely of infantry. It is possible that some orall the members of the army rode to battle, but once at the appointed place theydismounted to fight on foot. The core of the army was made up of full-time

professional soldiers called housecarls who had a long-standing dedication to theKing. Their armour consisted of a conical helmet, a chain mail hauberk, and akite-shaped shield. Their primary weapon was the two-handed Danish battleaxe,although every man would have carried a sword as well.

The bulk of the army, called the fyrd, was composed of part-time Englishsoldiers drawn from the landowning minor nobility. These thegns were the land-holding aristocracy of the time and were required to serve with their own armourand weapons for a certain number of days each year. The Victorian concept ofthe noble peasant defending his lands with a pitchfork has been quashed by

modern archaeological research.The most formidable defence of the English was the shield wall, in which

all the men on the front ranks locked their shields together. In the early stages ofthe battle, the shield wall was very effective at defending against the Normanarchery barrages. The entire army took up position along the ridge-line; ascasualties fell in the front lines the rear ranks would move forward to fill thegaps.

The Norman army was made up of nobles, mercenaries, and troops from

Normandy (around half), Flanders, Brittany (around one third) and France(today Paris and le-de-France), with some from as far as southern Italy. TheNorman army's power derived from its cavalry which were reckoned amongst

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the best in Europe. They were heavily armoured, and usually had a lance and asword. As with all cavalry, they were generally at their most effective againsttroops whose formation had begun to break up. Apart from the missile troops,the Norman infantry were probably protected by ring mail and armed with spear,sword and shield, like their English counterparts.

The large numbers of missile troops in William's army reflected the trendin European armies for combining different types of forces on the battlefield.The bow was a relatively short weapon with a short draw but was effective onthe battlefield. Hastings marks the first known use of the crossbow in battle inEnglish history.

II.3 Battle

The battle's first blow was actually given by William's jester Taillefer at 9am. He rode out to Senlac ridge, sang the Song of Roland while juggling asword. He then attacked, killed an English warrior before being killed. The

Normans may have left this out of the Bayeux Tapestry out of embarrassment.

William relied on basic tactics with archers in the front rank weakeningthe enemy with arrows, followed by infantry which would engage in closecombat, culminating in a cavalry charge that would break through the Englishforces. However, his tactics did not work as well as planned. William's armyattacked the English as soon as they were ready and formed up. Norman archersshot several volleys but many of the arrows hit the shield wall and had very littleeffect. Believing the English to have been softened up, William ordered hisinfantry to attack. As the Normans charged up the hill, the English threw downwhatever they could find: stones, javelins, and maces. The barrage inflictedheavy casualties among the Norman ranks, causing the lines to break up.

The infantry charge reached the English lines, where ferocious hand-to-hand fighting took place. William had expected the English to falter, but thearrow barrage had little effect and nearly all the English troops still stood, their

shield wall intact. As a result William ordered his cavalry to charge far soonerthan planned. Faced with a wall of axes, spears and swords, many of the horsesshied away despite their careful breeding and training. After an hour of fighting,the Breton division on William's left faltered and broke completely, fleeingdown the hill. Suffering heavy casualties and realising they would be quicklyoutflanked, the Norman and Flemish divisions retreated with the Bretons.Unable to resist the temptation, many of the English broke ranks, includinghundreds of fyrdmen and Harold's brothers, Leofwyne and Gyrthe. In thefollowing confused fighting, William's horse was killed from underneath him,

and he toppled to the ground. Initially, many of William's soldiers thought thathe had been killed, and an even greater rout ensued. It was only after he stood upand threw off his helmet that William was able to rally his fleeing troops.

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William and a group of his knights successfully counter-attacked thepursuing English, who were no longer protected by the shield wall, and cutdown large numbers of fyrdmen. Many did not recognise the Norman counter-attack until it was too late, but some managed to scramble back up the hill to thesafety of the housecarls. Harold's brothers were not so fortunatetheir deaths

deprived the English of an alternative leader after the death of Harold. The twoarmies formed up, and a temporary lull fell over the battle. The battle had turnedto William's advantage, since the English had lost much of the protection

provided by the shield wall. Without the cohesion of a disciplined, strongformation, the individual English were easy targets. William launched his armyat the strong English position again and many of the English housecarls werekilled.

With such a large number of English fyrdmen now holding the front rank,the disciplined shield wall that the housecarls had maintained began to falter,

presenting an opportunity to William. At the start of the battle the hail of arrowsfired at the English by William's bowmen was ineffective because of the Englishshields. Though many on the front ranks still had shields, William ordered hisarchers to fire over the shield wall so that the arrows landed in the clustered rearranks of the English army. The archers did this with great success. Legend statesthat it was at this point that Harold was hit in the eye by an arrow. Many of theEnglish were now weary. William's army attacked again, and managed to makesmall chinks in the shield wall. They were able to exploit these gaps, and theEnglish army began to fragment. William and a handful of knights broke

through the wall, and struck down the English king. Without their leader andwith many nobles dead, hundreds of fyrdmen fled the field. The housecarls kepttheir oath of loyalty to the king, and fought bravely until they were all killed.

Only a remnant of the defenders made their way back to the forest. Someof the Norman forces pursued the English but were ambushed and destroyed inthe dusk when they ran afoul of steep ground, called, in later (12th century)sources, "the Malfosse", or "bad ditch". The most likely site of Malfosse can beidentified today as Oakwood Gilla deep ditch now traversed by the A2100 road,north of Battle. William rested his army for two weeks near Hastings, waitingfor the English lords to come and submit to him. Then, after he realised hishopes of submission at that point were in vain, he began his advance on London.His army was seriously reduced in November by dysentery, and William himselfwas gravely ill. However, he was reinforced by fresh troops crossing the EnglishChannel.

Meanwhile in London the remnants of the English government hadassembled and hastily chosen the young and inexperienced Edgar the Athelingas king. It has been said they chose him because a weak king was better than no

king at all and in the absence of any of the Godwinson family he was now theonly viable candidate. It is not known if he was crowned, it would have madesense to have him crowned as soon as possible as his predecessor Harold had

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been, but there is no record to support this. Not long after the election of Edgarthe northern earls, Edwin and Morcar left the city and returned with their forcesto their respective earldoms. It has been speculated that they regarded the warwith William as a dispute between him and the Godwinson family and hoped tomake their own peace. Other members of the English establishment such as

Edgar's sisters Margaret and Cristina hastily decamped with their retinues toChester for safety.

William advanced through Kent devastating Romney and receiving thesubmission of Dover and its important castle. At Dover he paused for a weekreceiving the submission of Canterbury on October 29. He sent messengersto Winchester who received the submission of that city from the widowedQueen Edith. From Canterbury William advanced to Southwark. After beingthwarted in an attempt to cross London Bridge he destroyed the town. He nowapproached the city by a circuitous route crossing

the Thames at Wallingford ravaging the land as he went. The Norman forcesadvanced on London from the north-west eventually reaching Berkhampstead inlate November 1066.

Messages were relayed between William's forces and the beleagueredauthorities in London. Eventually it was agreed that the city would be sparedfurther carnage if Edgar abdicated and William was recognised as king. Thisagreement seems to have been imposed on the young Edgar. In early December,Ansgar the Sheriff of Middlesex, the archbishops of York and Canterbury and

the deposed Edgar the Atheling came out and submitted to the Norman duke.William received them graciously and accepted their submission. From here herelocated his forces to Romford taking with him appropriate hostages. Williamwas crowned king on Christmas Day, 1066 at Westminster Abbey.

The Battle of Hastings is an example of the theory of combined arms.The Norman bowmen, cavalry and infantry cooperated to deny the English theinitiative and gave the homogeneous English army few tactical options exceptdefence. It is possible that this tactical sophistication existed primarily in theminds of the Norman chroniclers. The account of the battle given in the earliest

source,the Carmen de Hastingae Proelio, is one where the Norman advancesurprises the English, who manage to gain the top of Senlac Hill before the

Normans. The Norman light infantry is sent in while the English are formingtheir shield wall and then the main force was sent in. The Battle of Hastings hada tremendous influence on the English language. The Normans were French-speaking, and as a result of their rule, they introduced many French words thatstarted in the nobility and eventually became part of the English language itself.

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Chapter III

Historical places

III.1 Alexandra Park

Spanning more than 100acres, the park began life as a

humble plant nursery during the1850s.By 1859 it fell under thecontrol of the HastingsCorporation, who made it theiraim to turn the area into a publicspace and originally opened the

park as St Andrews PleasureGrounds.Over the next 20 yearsfacilities including a refreshment

tent were added and in 1867 theGas Board Band was given

permission to play in the gardens and the bandstand erected.

In 1877 renowned landscape gardener Robert Marnock began one of hislast works, introducing plants and shrubs to the park on a budget of 250.Marnock had designed the layout for Dunorlan Park, Tunbridge Wells, andSheffield Botanical Gardens as well as Warwick Castle Rose Garden andPeacock Garden. The Prince and Princess of Wales (Princess Alexandra)officially opened the park on June 26 1882 and the Park was renamed in honourof the Princess. The house at the park gates was called Saxonhurst and was built

by Joseph Catt in 1870. Two statues of Norman knights at one time stood in thegarden of the house.

A massive 3.4 million was invested during the late 90s/early 00s toregenerate Alexandra Park using Robert Marnocks original plans from the1870s. The park was officially re-opened in April 2004 by the Mayor ofHastings and TV gardener Charlie Dimmock.

III.2 Hastings Castle

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Before or immediately after landing in England in 1066 William ofNormandy ordered three fortifications to be built, Pevensey Castle in September1066, Hastings (before the Battle of Hastings) and Dover, a few days after the

battle. Hastings Castle was originally built as a motte-and-bailey castle near theshore. In 1070 William had issued orders for the Castle to be rebuilt in stone,

along with the St Mary's Chapel.Numerous English kings stayed frequently at the castle on their visits to

Hastings. Notably William Rufus held court here in front of his army whilewaiting for the chance to slip accross the channel to normandy. 1201 saw KingJohn declare the English to be "Masters of the Sea" whilst he was at the castle.

During the reign of Henry II, Thomas Becket was Dean of the chapelinside the castle. Both this original chapel and the later Collegiate Church of theBlessed Virgin Mary are now just a ruin. The Count of Eu held the castle for

most of the Norman period, but King John ordered that the castle be destroyedto prevent it falling into the hands of the Dauphin Louis. In 1220, Henry III re-fortified the castle.

In 1287 violent storms battered the south coast for many months and thesoft sandstone cliffs eventually succumbed to the elements. Large sections of theface fell into the sea along with parts of the castle.

In 1339and 1377, the

town wasattacked by theFrench leavingmany burnt

buildings whichincluded homes.Throughout thenext centuryerosion was

unchecked andgradually more ofthe castle waslost to the sea.

The mid 16th century saw the castle receive another blow as Henry VIIIcommissioned that all Catholic monasteries were to be destroyed and this leftthe site in decay for many years. After that the site was purchased by the Pelhamfamily and used for farming until the ruins had become so overgrown they werelost from memory.

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During World War II, the castle received more damage as Hastings was atarget for bombing raids. In 1951 the Hastings Corporation purchased the siteand converted it into a tourist attraction.

III.3 Hastings Pier

Hastings piermarks the seafront

boundry betweenHastings and StLeonards.Construction began

in December 1869and was officiallyopened on August5th 1872 by EarlGranville (LordWarden of theCinque Ports), thiswas Britains firstever Bank Holiday.

Design was by Eugenius Birch and cost 22,250. Originally modelled onBrighton West Pier but with the addition of an eastern pavilion that seated 2,000poeple. The pier was 275m long and varied in width from 13.6m to 57.5m.

The Eastern style pavilion was enlarged and re-roofed in February 1899.Desaster struck in July 1917 and the pavilion was destroyed by fire. Areplacment structure came in 1922 with a less elaborate ballroom style structureat the end of the pier. The Art Deco facade and minarets at the shoreward endwere added during the 1940s. Dobell Bros, a local watchmaker and jewellers inRobertson Street, commissioned the clock that still resides in the Art Deco style

entrance.

The 1940's to 70's are often percieved as the high point of the piers historywith dancing every night, daytime concerts, stunt driving and speedboat trips tothe harbour and back. A Paddle steamer used to depart from the end of the pierwith trips to Eastbourne, Rye Bay and even Boulogne.

During the Second World War the pier was sectioned to prevent Germaninvasion. Despite some bomb damage the pier was re-opened in 1946.

In 1966 the Triadome was erected on the first part of the pier to house theHastings Embroidery, which consisted of 27 panels of embroidery depicting the

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history of Hastings between 1066 and 1966. The Triadome was later used as anaquarium and then for an amusement arcade but was eventually removed.

Queen Elizabeth opened the Triadome in 1966 to commemorate the 900thanniversary of the Battle of Hastings and Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone,opened the Hastings Embroidery on 25th May of the same year.

In the 1960's and 70's Hastings Pier became a magnet for top rock and popbands of the time. During the 80's and 90's popularity reduced and the pierownership changed hands several times, struggling to be financially viable. Anapplication for Millennium funding was refused in 1996 to worsten the situation.The owners in 1996 went out of business and the pier was subsequently closedto the public. This remained the case until new owners re-opened in May 2001with a re-vamp of the main walk-through to boot. In June 2006 the pier wasdeclared unsafe by Hastings Council due to damaged supports and a fear that too

many people on the deck could prove dangerous.In October 2010 the pier suffered a huge fire which tore through 95% of

it's upper structure. Believed to be arson, two teenagers were said to have beencaught jumping from the structure. To the dismay of many locals the two werenever prosecuted despite the courts proving they were not only present at thetime the fire started, but also that the fire was started by "a human act".

III.4 Holy Trinity Church

The church was built in 1857by a noted Victorian architect SamuelSanders Teulon. It was constructed inthe Gothic style of the MiddlePointed or Decorated period (1812-72) on land reclaimed from the sea,known at that time as the AmericaGround.

The site allocated for the building ofthe Church was oddly shaped andcalled for all Teulons ingenuity andskill. By designing the Church withonly one aisle, he was able to

produce a longer and loftier nave,(93' x 62') and by placing the

buttresses in the interior of the naveinstead of outside, he has created a

much greater sense of space in thebuilding.The dedication of the Church to the Most Holy Trinity recalled themedieval Augustinian priory of that name (where the multi-storey car park now

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stands in Priory Street). The Church was opened for worship on MichaelmasDay 1858 which is kept as the Churchs Patronal Festival and maintains aconnection with the ancient Church of St. Michael which once stood near WhiteRock. St. Michael is also the patron saint of Hastings and appears on theBorough Seal.

Holy Trinity was fortunate in having Dr. Theodore Crosse as its firstVicar and Samuel Saunders Teulon as its architect, both of whom were mencommitted to the highest standards of church design and decoration. Togetherwith the leading architects of the day, they showed particular concern with thestained glass used in the service of the Church.The glass in Holy Trinity wasmade by two of the greatest 19th century stained glass designers andmanufacturers, Messrs Clayton and Bell, and Charles Eamer Kempe.

Symbols of the church's dedication to the Holy Trinity can be seen

throughout the building with many of the features being grouped into threes.Trefoils, triquetras, triangles and interlocking circles. The door at the base of thetower in Robertson Street was designed to be the main entrance and issurrounded by the symbol of the Holy Trinity. The main entrance was changedto the door in Trinity Street. The space provided in the nave is suprisinglyspacious due to the internal butress design and strong pillars. The roof isconstructed in hammer-beamed style which is finely carved and features a singleand double trefoil at each end of the arch.

III.5 Net Huts

The prominentnet huts on the beachin Hastings Old Townare made of clinkerweather boarding andstand an average of 25feet high. These

unique woodenbuildings wereoriginally used asworkshops and storagefor nets, sails and

ropes.

In 1934 the Borough Council restricted the area allowed for each net hutto eight square feet because of the limited space between the cliffs and the sea.

To overcome this problem the fishermen built their equipment stores upwards tomaximise the allowed space and constructed three stories, one above the other.

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About 45 of these unique structures can still be seen today and they areconsidered one of Hastings most famous and internationally known landmarks.Many more were originally built but have been destroyed by strong seas duringthe past 150 years. The council also demolished some during the 1950's to clearthe beach area for development.

With the advent of nylon nets there was less need for workshops and thebuildings main use became storage. The remaining net huts are still used for thispurpose today and are regularly maintained to withstand the elements.

III.6 White Rock Theatre

White Rock Theatre is a medium-

scale receiving housevenue owned by HastingsBorough Council situatedon the seafront of Hastings, East Sussex,on the south coast ofEngland. It has a seatingcapacity of 1066 (afterthe date of the Battle of

Hastings) and it currentlypresents a variedprogramme of touring

shows including opera, ballet, musicals, the Hastings Musical Festival andchildren's shows.

The original East Sussex Hospital was replaced with the White RockPavilion which was opened by Edward, Prince of Wales in April 1927. It was

built for the Hastings Municipal Orchestra. The pavilion underwent a further re-modification in 1937 and again in 1985 when it was renamed the White Rock

Theatre.

The auditorium is split on two levels The Stalls and The Circle with anoverall capacity of 1,066 seats. The Stalls is also split into flat and raked seatingareas. The stage is 47 feet (14 m) wide and 31.6 feet (9.6 m) deep, with a 1/28rake.

From its very beginning Hastings Borough Council ran the Theatre. Asthe years went by and the Theatre continued to run at a loss, the council decidedto close the Theatre down. This announcement was met with the fierce

opposition from local people and groups rallied round in support of the WhiteRock. In May 2002 Clear Channel Entertainment, a huge American

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organisation, took over management of the venue. In December 2005 ClearChannel Entertainment was spun off from the main body of Clear Channel and

became Live Nation. On February 1, 2009, HQ Theatres took over as operator ofthe White Rock in partnership with Hastings Borough Council.

III.7 Hastings Fishermens Museum

The Museum is theformer Fishermens Churchof St Nicholas. It was builtin 1854 on the beach at theheart of the fishing industry

because fishermen rarelyattended the two nearby

parish churches of AllSaints and St Clements.They were seen as localaborigines in a state ofgreat mental darkness. Thenew church was built ofKentish ragstone, with a

pulpit and communion tableat the east end, and seating

for 290 people. Althoughinitially opposed by the local community, by the 1880s this mission church tothe fishermen had become popular, and remained so until the Second WorldWar. It was then requisitioned by the military and used as a store. After the war,Hastings Council would only offer it on a one-year lease, which made ituneconomic to restore the damaged building as a church. It was therefore usedas a store by traders until the early 1950s. The Fishermens Church was achapel of ease and was never formally consecrated, but it is still used today forreligious events, including baptisms, harvest festivals and carol concerts.

The Museum was set up by the Old Hastings Preservation Society in1956. The society wanted to save the Fishermens Church as a building, and had

been offered one of the last of the Hastings luggers, the Enterprise RX 278, byits owner Harold Pepper. Hastings Council leased the church to the society, andthe borough engineer in April 1956 demolished part of the southern wall so theEnterprise could be pulled in. Within a month the Enterprise had been set up ondisplay, along with many other interesting objects and pictures. The FishermensMuseum was formally opened by the mayor of Hastings, Alderman FredHussey, on 17 May 1956. Initially it was only open for limited hours in thesummer, but since 1995 it has been open every day of the year, bar ChristmasDay. The Museum is very popular, both with local people (many of whom have

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donated material) and with visitors. A large extension, the Vestry Gallery, wasbuilt in 2001 with grants from the Heritage Lottery Fund and other bodies.

Chapter IV

Neighbourhoods and areas

Some of the areas and suburbs of Hastings are Ore Valley, St Leonards,Silverhill, Hastings Old Town and Hollington. Ore, Silverhill and Hollington

were once villages that have since become part of the Hastings conurbation areaduring rapid growth.The original part St Leonards was laid out in the early 19thcentury as a new town: a place of elegant houses designed for the well-off; italso included a central public garden, a hotel, an archery, assembly rooms and achurch. Today's St Leonards has extended well beyond that original design,although the original town still exists within it.

IV.1 Ore Valley

Ore, a former village,is a suburb of the urban areaof the town and borough ofHastings in East Sussex. Itis located to the north-eastof the town on the main roadto Rye (the coastal A259road). Its name may haveoriginated from the Old

English word for "stream-bank". It is the largestsuburb of Hastings.

The parish church in the village centre is Christ Church, and the villagealso features a Seventh-day Adventist Church, a Salvation Army unit and aMethodist church. Whilst commonly known as "Clifton Road Methodist", thischurch is actually named after St Helen. In the part of Ore known as St Helensstands a second Anglican church dedicated to St Helen. The church was built in1868, and its predecessor, an ancient church dating from the reign of Edward III,now stands in ruins nearby. Hastings Cemetery is also located in the St Helensarea of Ore.

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Ore also contains a small shopping centre. Hillcrest school is in the nearbyRed Lake district of Ore.

Ore Valley lies to the west of Ore Village, and is the site of Ore railwaystation and the former Broomgrove power station. It is also the site of a

proposed major redevelopment and housing project. Ore Valley is also home tothe Ore Valley Campus of Sussex Coast College Hastings on Parker Road.

IV.2 St Leonards-on-Sea

St Leonards-on-Sea (or for short, St Leonards) is part of Hastings, EastSussex, England, lying immediately to the west of the centre. The original partof the settlement was laid out in the early 19th century as a new town: a place ofelegant houses designed for the well-off; it also included a central public garden,

a hotel, an archery, assembly rooms and a church. Today's St Leonards hasextended well beyond that original design, although the original town still existswithin it.

The land that is now StLeonards was once owned bythe Levett family, an ancientSussex gentry family of

Norman origin who owned theadjacent manor of Hollington,and subsequently by theirdescendants, the Eversfields,who rose to prominence fromtheir iron foundries and

widespread property holdings during Tudor times. Eversfields served as sheriffsof Surrey and Sussex in the 16th and 17th centuries and were later baronets

before the family became extinct.

James Burton, a successful London architect who had developed large

areas of Bloomsbury and the houses around Regent's Park, purchased land fromthe Eversfield estate in order to put into being his concept of a seaside resort.The land was part of Gensing Farm; and included a small wooded valley leadingdown to the sea. Work on the plan started in early 1826. It included a house forhimself (West Villa: now 57 Marina); service areas were provided, such asshops and laundering (Mercatoria andLavatoria, as well as public buildings forentertainment and the picturesque siting of villas amongst the wooded slopesand water of the central gardens, to be paid for by subscription.

In addition he persuaded the Turnpike Commissioners to have the road

leading to St Leonards included in the scheme, and arranged for the roadthrough Silverhill to be built so as to give access. Before he died in 1837 St

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Leonards (Royal Victoria) Hotel, the South Colonnade, an archway marking thetown boundary with Hastings, and tall seafront houses (as far as 71 Marina) hadalso been completed. His grave is marked by a pyramid in the churchyardabove St Leonard's Church. In 1850 his son Decimus (18001881) started thesecond phase of building, by acquiring more land and extending the

development westward. He lived in the town for the remainder of his life.Decimus Burton became a Commissioner of the new town in 1833. He

leased a triangle of land bounded by Mercatoria, St John's Church, Maze Hilland Kenilworth Road. Here he built The Cottage (now St Leonards Lodge),Maze Hill House (demolished), The Mount (13 houses), The Uplands (6), TheLawn (10), and six semi-detached houses which later became a school (later partof the College but now closed for redevelopment). Later, in Upper Maze Hill he

built Baston Lodge, Tower House and Clone House (now Healey House). Hegave some land in Mercatoria for a National School, and completed his father's

seafront terrace by building 72 to 82 Marina. Modern (2006) photographs give aflavour of this developmen.

The popularity of St Leonards, however, was not lost upon the town ofHastings. It had already begun to expand westwards, through Pelham Place andWellington Square, and further building began. The Eversfield Estate, fromwhom the Burtons had bought land, saw the potential and it too began to sell offmore space, having obtained an Act of Parliament opening the way forspeculative builders beyond the Burton boundaries. As a result the area between

the two towns began to fill with properties. In 1875 the two towns merged intothe County Borough of Hastings, and by then the total seafront had reachedsome three miles (4.8 km). Soon after that, the Warrior Square and Upper StLeonards areas were being developed.

By now the railways had arrived: the London, Brighton and South CoastRailway reached West Marina in 1845, although it was not until 1852 that thestation later named St Leonards Warrior Square was opened by the SouthEastern Railway.

Construction of the pier began in March 1888, and it was opened by Lordand Lady Brassey on 28 October 1891. Positioned almost opposite the RoyalVictoria Hotel, the shore end had a pavilion constructed of intricate ironwork atthe entrance so that visitors could drive straight to the door and avoid theseafront weather. There was also a tollhouse to the left of the entrance that wasdemolished by a storm on 12 February 1899. The far end of the pier had a

building used for dancing, and later as a roller hockey rink. During the 1920s thepier was modernised and finally cut in half during the Second World War asprotection against invasion. The remains were removed in 1951.

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On the sea front stands an oceanliner shaped art-deco building knownasMarine Court, which uponcompletion in 1937 was the tallest blockof flats in the United Kingdom,comprising some 153 flats and 3restaurants. Despite this claim to fame,entries to a competition to name the

building show that it was notuniversally popular. Now a listed

building, it has recently been bought by the residents after many years of neglectand is in the process of being fully restored.

IV.3 Silverhill

Silverhill is a suburb and Local Government Ward of Hastings, EastSussex. It has a central location within the town, where the A21 meets theB2159 road. The origin of the name Silverhill has been relatively unknown. Ithas been suggested that, from a distance, sunlight reflecting on the leaves oftrees may have given the appearance of a "silver hill", or perhaps the area mightonce have been known as Silvan Hill, meaning wooded hill. The first

documentary record of the name is on Yeakell and Gardner's map of 1783,where it appears as "Salver Hill".

In the early 18th century this was the location of High Ridge Farm, but by1815 its name was known as Silver Hill Farm to avoid confusion with farms of asimilar name on the ridge near Ore. The tenant farmer was John Standen, andthe farm remained with his family until 1842, when it was bought by FrancisSmith. The Silverhill pottery opened in 1838 and provided an important sourceof employment for local people. It consisted of a large open shed with a tiledroof and a round kiln where roof tiles and chimney pots were made.

From the early 1840s the Pottery was owned by Fred Tree, and among hisworkers was an artistic potter named John Pelling who was promoted to foremanin 1846. John bought the pottery works five years later and married Fred'sdaughter, Polly. He became well known for creating a unique style of rustic

pottery with a wood-bark design, and according to a local story this was inspiredby Polly's maiden name. Between 1836 and 1860 the Tivoli Hotel stood at thejunction of Battle Road (B2159) and Sedlescombe Road North, and this high-class establishment was so well-known that its local area was known as "Tivoli".

After founding his new town of St Leonards-on-Sea, James Burton gainedpermission by an Act of Parliament of 1837 to build a turnpike road northwards

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from Maze Hill to avoid the congestion in Hastings. However, when this wasauthorized, the Hastings Council also obtained the necessary Turnpike Act to

build a new road towards London. This road started at Hastings town centre andcontinued through Bohemia into Battle Road, crossing Burton's road at theTivoli Hotel. Battle Road is now the B2159, and the road that goes

through Battle is the A2100.

IV.4 Hollington

Hollington is a suburb and local government ward in the northwestof Hastings, East Sussex. The area lies next to Baldslow, Ashdown, North andConquest, and less than five miles southeast of Battle, East Sussex, the homeof Battle Abbey, which commemorates the victory of William the Conqueror atthe Battle of Hastings in 1066.

Hollington is the site of The Grove School, and once the location of The Grove,the manor house for the lords of the manor of Hollington. The Levett family

built The Grove, and then the property was carried into the Eversfield family bya Levett heiress. The eventual lord of the manor became Thomas Eversfieldof Uckfield, bringing the Eversfield family from their early Sussex beginnings tothe Hastings area, where they would go on to play a prominent role forcenturies.

IV.5 Hastings Old Town

Hastings Old Town isan area in Hastings roughlycorresponding to the extent ofthe town prior to the nineteenthcentury. It lies mainly withinthe eastern-most valley of thecurrent town. The shingle

beach known as The Stade (theold Saxon term meaning"landing place") is home to the

biggest beach-launched fishingfleet in Britain. Many eventstake place every year in the old

town such as the Hastings Old Town Week, Jack In The Green, the Seafood andWine Festival, and the Bonfire Procession. Many of these events are centredon Winkle Island, which is, at the same time, the gathering place of the

renowned Winkle Club.

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The Net Shops are tall black wooden sheds which were built to provide aweather-proof store for the fishing gear made from natural materials to preventthem from rotting in wet weather. The sheds were originally built on posts toallow the sea to go underneath, however more shingle has built up and the seano longer reaches the huts. The beach area on which the Sheds stand built up

after groynes were erected in 1834, however the limited space meant the shedshad to grow upwards, even though some sheds do have cellars.

The old towns Net Shops - approximately 50 black wooden shedsstanding in neat rows on a shingle beach are unique. They were built to provideweather-proof stores for fishing gear made of natural materials which rotted ifwet for a long time. Todays materials are artificial and can be left in the open.Most net shops stand on a piece of beach that appeared suddenly after the first ofthe towns groynes were erected in 1834. The new beach area was small andclose to the sea, so each shop could only have about eight or nine feet square to

build on. But all boats had more nets than could be stored in such limited space,so the sheds had to grow upwards. Some have cellars. Many originally stood on

posts to let the sea go underneath. Fishermen keep spare gear in the shops. Oneis a museum.

Two medieval Anglican churchesAll Saints and St Clement'sand theformer Ebenezer Particular Baptist Chapel of 1817 (now a house) are in the OldTown. St Clement's was used as a filming location for the 2002 TVseries Foyle's War. The former St Nicholas' Church, an unparished mission

chapel built in 1854 to serve the fishermen, was converted into the HastingsFishermen's Museum in 1956.

IV.6 The America Ground

In central Hastings is an area covered by Harold Place, the Queens Hotel,Robertson Terrace, Carlisle Parade, White Rock, Robertson Street, TrinityStreet, and Claremont, this area to the West of the Priory-Stream was outsidethe Hastings Borough boundary and was the result of the sea receding. This land

was settled by squatters who named it "The America Ground" and declaredthemselves independent of Hastings. They built houses shops and warehousesand paid no rent rates or taxes. The borough suggested that lawlessness was rifeand the government should take steps to get rid of the nuisance.

The roots of the America Ground lay in the weather. Back in 1287 a seriesof terrible storms wreaked havoc on Kent and Sussex, submerging forests,shifting the course of rivers and dramatically reshaping their coastlines. Hastingswas badly affected. Once the souths best natural port, the storms blocked the

towns harbour with silt and pebbles, forming a huge shingle bank. This newpiece of land, which comprises the area now bounded by Robertson Street,Trinity Triangle, Carlisle Parade and Harold Place, fell just outside the

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boundaries of Hastings Borough - effectively making it a no-mans land. Thelocals soon realised that they could live on this land free from taxes and rents.Consequently, many moved in, building a thriving but ramshackle community ofshops, houses and workplaces.

By 1822, an estimated 1,000 people lived on the bank, forcing HastingsBorough into action. Taking inspiration from the recent American Revolution,the residents reacted defiantly, declaring themselves independent from Hastingsas the twenty-fourth US state and hoisting the Stars and Stripes flag. Thefamous America Ground was born.

Before being declared the America Ground, Hastings shingle bank was ahive of activity. In her 1919 book Tamarisk Town, novelist Sheila Kaye-Smithdescribed it as having been free to any beggars, gypsies or other undesirables ...a mock city of shacks, huts and tents. The main thoroughfare was a level

stretch called Rope Walk, which largely corresponded with Robertson Street.Due to its flatness it attracted rope-makers who erected upturned boat hullsalong it as makeshift shelters.

While Hastings Borough decried it as a lawless den of iniquity, the factssuggest a fairly well organised community. Research reveals that much land wasoccupied by lodging houses, pig-keepers, carpenters, limekilns, warehouses,tallow factories and small farm holdings. There was also a school and gin

palace, but no church. By the 1820s, the dark clouds that triggered thedeclaration of the America Ground were gathering. Squabbles arose between the

Hastings Corporation and the Earl of Chichester over who officially owned theland. In addition, Hastings was turning into a fashionable resort, attracting newconstruction and affluent middle classes fascinated by the towns quaint poorcommunities. The spirit that fuelled the America Ground was about to be lit, butalso quickly extinguished.

The storm clouds that forced the establishment of the America Groundalso destroyed it. In the early 1820s, Hastings Borough made several attempts toimpose control on the area, prompting the declaration of independence.

However, the problems for the residents grew when it was found that no titledeeds existed for property on the land.

The matter was referred to the Crown Authorities, who called for a CrownCommissioners Inquisition. Two other claimants of ownership also cameforward - Lord Cornwallis, holder of the Priory Estate, and Battle AbbeyEstates. The death knell came on 6th December 1827, when five Commissionersand 12 jurymen met at the George Hotel in Battle. Without consulting with orreferring to the lands residents, they ruled that the Ground should be seized on

behalf of King George IV. By 1834, the Ground was cleared, with many

residents having already moved to St. Leonards. In 1849, a new chapter openedwhen the developer Patrick Robertson leased the Ground area from the Crown.

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The America Ground may have gone but the spirit behind it is stillcelebrated in Hastings today, nearly 200 years on.

Bibliography

Baines FSA, John Manwaring (1963),Historic Hastings, F J Parsons Ltd.

Brooks, Ken (2004). Around Hastings Then and Now. St Leonards-on-Sea

Howarth, David (1993), 1066: The Year of the Conquest, New York: Barnes andNoble

Marchant, Rex (1997),Hastings Past, Phillimore & Co Ltd.

Nairn, Ian, and Pevsner, Nikolaus, The Buildings of England: Sussexhttp://www.orevalley.co.uk/

http://www.ohps.org.uk/fishermens_museum/

http://www.americaground.co.uk/

Documents

Roxana Badea's Atestat