Anticipation as a Main Principle of Neural Function and Mastering of Driving

Timo Järvilehto, Veli-Matti Nurkkala, Kyösti Koskela, and Jonna Kalermo

Kajaani University of Applied Sciences, Kajaani, Finland

Many forms of human behavior happen with such a speed that it is difficult to understand how neurons which are basically quite slow information processors (as compared with a computer, for example) could manage in carrying out the presumed tasks

The problem: How is skilled driving possible?

Possible answer: anticipation!

- especially in teaching driving anticipation is stressed

But what does anticipation mean and how doesit develop?

Anticipation is usual in everyday life

• opening door

• catching a ball

• coming to a meeting

• approaching traffic lights

However, cognitive neuroscience has not been much interested in anticipation

Reason: stimulus-processing –approach

• everything starts with stimulus presentation• only events after the stimulus interesting (”information processing”)

Role of anticipation stressed sometimes, but only as

• “preparation” or waiting for the stimulus processingmakes sensory and motor processing more efficient influences different parts of the stimulus-processing-response chain

or • as an ”inner model” (representation of ”goal”) with which the incoming

information is compared

• if anticipation means that there is an inner model waiting for ”processing” of environmental events, how is fast action possible?

- presumed sequence of events:

stimulusprocessing comparison with inner modelselection of

motor program realization of movement

• takes a lot of time, the action of the subject always lags the environmental event

Systemic model of anticipation

Anticipation

• not a factor related to the expectation of the stimuli or modifying their processing

• main principle of the organization of the nervous system

- determines the features of the environment that can be joined to

the process which leads to the results of behavior: “stimulus” is a

result of anticipation

- nervous system actively organized with all necessary bodily and

environmental constituents for action results

Development of anticipatory systems in masteringdriving

• anticipatory systems start to develop already during phylogenesis

structure of the newborn organism anticipates the

features of the environment that can be used in the

maintenance of its life process

• every organism anticipates something about its environment

it has a structure into which only certain parts of the

environment may be fitted

Further anticipatory systems are created during learning and training

leads to formation of potential neural systems that may be selected directly by environmental events

Thus, anticipated result primes potential neuralsystems directed towards the accomplishment of the result

these systems may be selected directly by

environmental events during the execution of

the task

How is then anticipation realized by the nervous system?

Systemic approach: the theory of the organism-environmentsystem

Skilled action is created in an organism-environment system• consists of brain, body and all relevant environmental parts• result of action as organizing principle• anticipation is based on altenative possibilities for realization of result

Information processing is not the basic principle of nervousfunctioning• nervous system makes possible the dynamic organization of the organism-

environment system and the results of action• neurons as living units getting organized in systems realizing results of

action

The organism-environment system

Is driving a motor or sensory process?

• driving is a process that involves always the whole organism-environment system, leading to specific results of behavior

• there is nothing “motor” in the motor cortex, or “sensory” in the sensory cortices.

‘motor’ and ‘sensory’ are anatomical, not functional

concepts

neurons do not carry out psychological operations

• perception of traffic signs is not a linear process proceeding from the sign to the percept, but rather a circle involving both sensory and motor organs (e.g. head and eye movements)

• perceptual process does not start with the stimulus, but the stimulus is rather the end of this process

• jig-saw puzzle: stimulus is as little in a causal relation to the percept as the last piece of the puzzle is to the constructed picture

• e.g. , braking with the red traffic light is the result of anticipatory organization preceding the appearance of the red light

Teaching driving

• learning to master driving consists essentially of development of anticipatory organization of the organism-environment system for skilled sequences of results

sensory and motor components integrated

anticipatory systems created in real traffic

• such systems may be formed also in a simulated driving situation

“mental” training, partial formation of neural systems

necessary in the real driving

Task of the teacher

• determination of the developmental possibilities of

the trainee

• finding out his personal style in cooperation with the

trainer

• creation of the cooperative organization in which the learning resources of the trainee may be realized

Teaching driving is not a process of transmission

a process of organizing the pre-existing skills of the trainee in a larger social organization: trainer (and all other relevant people) and the trainee (norms, safety)

gets more differentiated and narrower with continuing training

finally the trainee is able to master the skill also without support of the associated people

Conclusions

• Development of mastering driving skill is deeply social process directed towards creation of an integrative social organization that makes anticipation and safe driving possible

• The brain also an important part , but

learning process not confined to the brain only

presupposes also many other necessary components

- body, environmental possibilities, teacher, other social

relations, norms, etc.

• In the training of driving it is not essential to try to carry out the required movements quicker and quicker one should concentrate on creating the anticipatory organization under

varying circumstances taking into account also social relations

as the constituents of the anticipatory organization are created in

relation to the final result to be achieved (i.e. safe driving), the training

should be be related to the whole act (e.g. driving home) as it will be

present under real conditions

• Use of a simulator is very useful for training action especially in dangerous situations (accidents, bad weather conditions, etc.)

These are the principles on which our experimental study of driving is based

Our recent experimental attempts are next described by

Veli-Matti Nurkkala and Jonna Kalermo

Thank you!