WORK AND RETIREMENTWORK AND RETIREMENT

Freud: Love and work are necessary for happiness,health and adjustment• Sixty-two percent of all workers now in the labor Sixty-two percent of all workers now in the labor

force had no career plan when they started their force had no career plan when they started their first job.first job.

• The majority of current college students do not The majority of current college students do not have clearly defined career goals, as evidenced have clearly defined career goals, as evidenced by widespread “major hopping”.by widespread “major hopping”.

• Most university graduates will not be working in Most university graduates will not be working in jobs directly related to their majors five years after jobs directly related to their majors five years after graduation.graduation.

WORK AND RETIREMENT (Cont’d)WORK AND RETIREMENT (Cont’d)

• The median duration of first-job holding among young The median duration of first-job holding among young adults is less than one year.adults is less than one year.

• Young adults tend to stabilize in an occupation in their Young adults tend to stabilize in an occupation in their mid to late 20s, primarily because of financial or family mid to late 20s, primarily because of financial or family obligations rather than because they have found an obligations rather than because they have found an occupation they really like.occupation they really like.

• Sixty-four percent of workers in one survey stated that if Sixty-four percent of workers in one survey stated that if they could start over, they would choose another career. they could start over, they would choose another career. Over 50 percent said that they ended up in their jobs Over 50 percent said that they ended up in their jobs either through the advice of others or by chance.either through the advice of others or by chance.

• The majority of workers feel they could have been more The majority of workers feel they could have been more satisfied and productive if they had known how to make satisfied and productive if they had known how to make better career decisionsbetter career decisions..

Age Differentiated Approach:Age Differentiated Approach:• 18-30: Education18-30: Education• 30-65: Work30-65: Work• 65+: Retirement65+: Retirement

Age Integrated Approach: All 3 for all 3Age Integrated Approach: All 3 for all 3• Education: More years for young due to Education: More years for young due to

technological advancestechnological advances• Need for “Work Breaks” – Work term programs Need for “Work Breaks” – Work term programs

very usefulvery useful• Education Not Only for the Young: Education Not Only for the Young:

Elderhostel Programs in N. America Elderhostel Programs in N. America Older Students in Universities Older Students in Universities SOTA at MUNSOTA at MUN

Continuing Education Programs: Life-LongContinuing Education Programs: Life-LongUpgradingUpgrading• doctors, mechanics, university professors, doctors, mechanics, university professors,

civil servants, teachers, secretaries, civil servants, teachers, secretaries, lawyers, etc.lawyers, etc.

Continuing Education: Formal and Informal Continuing Education: Formal and Informal

Family influences on career choiceFamily influences on career choice• Aspiration level: Aspiration level:

• how high you reach correlates with SES (stronger how high you reach correlates with SES (stronger for men)for men)

• Men: fathers to sons influenceMen: fathers to sons influence• low SES: obedience to and compliance with low SES: obedience to and compliance with

authorityauthority• high SES: initiative, independencehigh SES: initiative, independence

• Women: Women: • high SES: sciencehigh SES: science• low SES: office worklow SES: office work• if mom employed more likely to have careerif mom employed more likely to have career• if dad encouraging more likely to have career, post-if dad encouraging more likely to have career, post-

secondary studiessecondary studies

Vocational Choice and Personality: Vocational Choice and Personality: Holland – 6 Types:Holland – 6 Types:• Realistic: physical, aggressive, good motor coordination, Realistic: physical, aggressive, good motor coordination,

not particularly verbal, prefers concrete problems, not particularly verbal, prefers concrete problems, conventional valuesconventional values

• Intellectual/Investigative: task-oriented, intraceptive, Intellectual/Investigative: task-oriented, intraceptive, asocial, likes ambiguous tasks, unconventional valuesasocial, likes ambiguous tasks, unconventional values

• Social: sociable, responsible, verbal and interpersonal Social: sociable, responsible, verbal and interpersonal skills, humanistic, feeling-orientedskills, humanistic, feeling-oriented

• Conventional: conformist, likes structured activities, Conventional: conformist, likes structured activities, needs structure, extraceptive, materialistic, identifies with needs structure, extraceptive, materialistic, identifies with powerpower

• Enterprising: verbal skills, extraceptive, ambiguous Enterprising: verbal skills, extraceptive, ambiguous tasks, status, power and leadershiptasks, status, power and leadership

• Artistic: intraceptive, asocial, emotional, individualistic, Artistic: intraceptive, asocial, emotional, individualistic, expressiveexpressive

Most people mix of 2 or 3 typesMost people mix of 2 or 3 types

Women mostly social, artistic, conventionalWomen mostly social, artistic, conventional

Stages in Career Development: SuperStages in Career Development: Super

1.1. Crystallization: early adolescent (identity)Crystallization: early adolescent (identity)2.2. Specification: late adolescence, early adulthood Specification: late adolescence, early adulthood

(training) (training) 3.3. Implementation: young adulthood, specific Implementation: young adulthood, specific

steps (trying out jobs)steps (trying out jobs)4.4. Establishment: mid-20’s launch career path Establishment: mid-20’s launch career path

(selecting one occupation and staying)(selecting one occupation and staying)

Stages in Career Development: Super (Cont’d)Stages in Career Development: Super (Cont’d)

5.5. Consolidation: mid 30’s big pushConsolidation: mid 30’s big push6.6. Maintenance: mid 40’s (in reality, big push Maintenance: mid 40’s (in reality, big push

continues)continues)7.7. Deceleration: late 50’s (individual differences)Deceleration: late 50’s (individual differences)8.8. Retirement: 65Retirement: 65

OutdatedOutdated

Ginzberg: more accurate todayGinzberg: more accurate today• Two patterns:Two patterns:

• stablestableshifting:shifting: women women

economy swingeconomy swing personalpersonal

Raynor: type of career track:Raynor: type of career track:• Noncontingent: Low nACH (need for achievement)Noncontingent: Low nACH (need for achievement) (jobs)(jobs)

• Contingent:Contingent: 1. Fixed steps: medium nACH1. Fixed steps: medium nACH(careers)(careers) 2. Sky’s the limit: high nACH2. Sky’s the limit: high nACH

Vocational Tests – Strong-Campbell Vocational Tests – Strong-Campbell

MUN Counselling CentreMUN Counselling Centre

Work and Gender:Work and Gender:

Pre-industrial: home based, self-employedPre-industrial: home based, self-employedIndustrial era: men and women divergent pathsIndustrial era: men and women divergent paths

Men:Men:• breadwinner rolebreadwinner role• aggressivenessaggressiveness• socialization:socialization: toystoys

combatcombatfear of failurefear of failure

Women:Women:• homemaker, wife/mother roleshomemaker, wife/mother roles• nurturant, supportivenurturant, supportive• socialization:socialization: toystoys

fear of successfear of success

Women’s Career Paths:Women’s Career Paths:• Most of the research on career development Most of the research on career development

done with mendone with men• Women’s career paths differ significantlyWomen’s career paths differ significantly

Some of the reasons:Some of the reasons:• Males socialized to be instrumental, goal-Males socialized to be instrumental, goal-

oriented, achievement-orientedoriented, achievement-oriented• Females socialized to be expressive, nurturing Females socialized to be expressive, nurturing

and dependent: relationship roles are centraland dependent: relationship roles are central• As wives, women’s career is seen as secondary As wives, women’s career is seen as secondary

to the husband’sto the husband’s

Women’s Career Paths (Cont’d)Women’s Career Paths (Cont’d)• As mothers, women seen as primary caretakers, As mothers, women seen as primary caretakers,

ultimately responsibleultimately responsible• In general, when work/family conflict arises, men In general, when work/family conflict arises, men

tend to put career first, women tend to put family tend to put career first, women tend to put family firstfirst

• The most demanding career-building years The most demanding career-building years coincide with the most demanding childbearing coincide with the most demanding childbearing and childrearing yearsand childrearing years

• The type of work women do also results in The type of work women do also results in radically different experiences: occupational radically different experiences: occupational segregationsegregation

• Traditionally feminine work (secretary, school Traditionally feminine work (secretary, school teacher, nurse, clerk): this is more socially teacher, nurse, clerk): this is more socially approved, can be done on a part-time basis, approved, can be done on a part-time basis, lower paid, more adaptable to family demandslower paid, more adaptable to family demands

Women’s Career Paths (Cont’d)Women’s Career Paths (Cont’d)• Traditionally male-dominated work (engineering, Traditionally male-dominated work (engineering,

finance, law, construction, economics, finance, law, construction, economics, mathematics): women in these jobs are seen as mathematics): women in these jobs are seen as selfish, manipulative, untrustworthy, hard to work selfish, manipulative, untrustworthy, hard to work with (Heilman et al., 2004). Affects their with (Heilman et al., 2004). Affects their evaluations and career outcomes negatively.evaluations and career outcomes negatively.

• Discontinuity: typically, women have many Discontinuity: typically, women have many interruptions for childbearing and childrearing interruptions for childbearing and childrearing and for caring for older family membersand for caring for older family members

Consequences:Consequences:• slower advancement (or stalling), lower income, slower advancement (or stalling), lower income,

lower pensionlower pension• seen as not serious about their workseen as not serious about their work

Women’s Career Paths (Cont’d)Women’s Career Paths (Cont’d)• Women in science and engineering: few role Women in science and engineering: few role

models, androcentric subculture. Discrimination models, androcentric subculture. Discrimination is subtle, but present (hiring and promotions). is subtle, but present (hiring and promotions). Need critical mass for change. Russia: 75% Need critical mass for change. Russia: 75% physicians, 50% engineers are womenphysicians, 50% engineers are women

• Women’s management style: consensus, Women’s management style: consensus, personal approach. Men’s: top down, more personal approach. Men’s: top down, more impersonal. Women mostly stuck at middle-impersonal. Women mostly stuck at middle-management levelmanagement level

• Burnout: feeling of loss of control, can’t cope, Burnout: feeling of loss of control, can’t cope, often depressed, illnesses, emotional outbursts, often depressed, illnesses, emotional outbursts, more common in “female” professions such as more common in “female” professions such as nursing, teaching, social work. Frustration, nursing, teaching, social work. Frustration, overload, little control over policyoverload, little control over policy

Women’s Career Paths Women’s Career Paths

Discrimination:Discrimination:• hiringhiring• salarysalary• promotionpromotion

• In general, women earn less than men In general, women earn less than men even with higher educational levels and for even with higher educational levels and for the same or comparable work. (about 70 the same or comparable work. (about 70 cents per dollar)cents per dollar)

• Biggest barrier: family/career conflictBiggest barrier: family/career conflict

Women’s Career Paths Women’s Career Paths • For all these reasons, women are not For all these reasons, women are not

promoted the same way as men, even if they promoted the same way as men, even if they perform better.perform better.

• This has been called “the glass ceiling”, This has been called “the glass ceiling”, because it is not a readily visible type of because it is not a readily visible type of discrimination, the way to the higher discrimination, the way to the higher echelons looks clear, but most women bang echelons looks clear, but most women bang their heads on the glass ceiling.their heads on the glass ceiling.

• Some researchers have referred to a “stone Some researchers have referred to a “stone floor” to which so many women are chained floor” to which so many women are chained to, without rising even to the glass ceiling.to, without rising even to the glass ceiling.

• By contrast, men who leapfrog their way past By contrast, men who leapfrog their way past more competent women are said to be riding more competent women are said to be riding the “glass elevator”.the “glass elevator”.

80s and 90s:80s and 90s:• small changes in men: small changes in men:

• some increase in domestic participationsome increase in domestic participation

• large changes in women:large changes in women:• large numbers in the workforcelarge numbers in the workforce• entering traditionally male jobsentering traditionally male jobs• increased higher educationincreased higher education

Motherhood and Career:Motherhood and Career:

Some variables:Some variables:• personalitypersonality• socializationsocialization• level of energy, healthlevel of energy, health• type of jobtype of job• number of childrennumber of children• husband, family supporthusband, family support

Choices:Choices:• stay home: loss of power, money, benefitsstay home: loss of power, money, benefits• part-time: marginalized plus the abovepart-time: marginalized plus the above• mommy track: dittomommy track: ditto• full-time: poor child care, guilt, double shiftfull-time: poor child care, guilt, double shift

Some women don’t marry and/or don’t haveSome women don’t marry and/or don’t havechildrenchildren• 90+% of men top management jobs are fathers90+% of men top management jobs are fathers• 60% of women in top management jobs are 60% of women in top management jobs are

mothersmothers

Androcentric career clock and work demandsAndrocentric career clock and work demandsassume a wife at home to take care of assume a wife at home to take care of everything elseeverything else

A. Hochschild coined the term “double-shift”:A. Hochschild coined the term “double-shift”:• women do one work shift outside the home and women do one work shift outside the home and

one insideone inside

Barriers for womenBarriers for women:: • Hiring practices Hiring practices • Promotion practices: glass ceiling or stone floorPromotion practices: glass ceiling or stone floor• No facilities in many male-dominated areasNo facilities in many male-dominated areas• Sexual harassmentSexual harassment• Role conflictRole conflict• Lack of mentorsLack of mentors• ““Queen Bee” syndromeQueen Bee” syndrome• Socialization: fear of success (Horner), man’s work Socialization: fear of success (Horner), man’s work

more importantmore important• Second shift or double shiftSecond shift or double shift• Salary: 70 cents for $1 earned by men for equivalent Salary: 70 cents for $1 earned by men for equivalent

work and less qualifications work and less qualifications

ex.: man with B.A. earns more than woman with M.A.ex.: man with B.A. earns more than woman with M.A.

Dual Career Couples: increasingly commonDual Career Couples: increasingly common

Advantages:Advantages:• mutual understandingmutual understanding• equalityequality• bigger incomebigger income• stimulatingstimulatingConflicts:Conflicts:• time together – sextime together – sex• choreschores• relocationrelocation• role conflict (women)role conflict (women)• child carechild care

Comparison with other industrialized countries:Comparison with other industrialized countries:Canada fares badly though better than U.S.Canada fares badly though better than U.S.

• RETIREMENT: result of longer lifespanRETIREMENT: result of longer lifespan• Earlier: death ended workingEarlier: death ended working• Activity vs. disengagementActivity vs. disengagement• Many work into 80s and 90s: health, SESMany work into 80s and 90s: health, SES• Incentives for early retirement Incentives for early retirement • downsizingdownsizing• second careersecond career• partial retirementpartial retirement• volunteeringvolunteering• leisureleisure• caring for grandkids or elderly parents or caring for grandkids or elderly parents or

sick adult kidssick adult kids

• retirement communities, “RV towns”retirement communities, “RV towns”

Disengagement likely when:Disengagement likely when:• widowedwidowed• poorpoor• loss of hearing, vision, mobilityloss of hearing, vision, mobility• diseasedisease

• Planning for retirement:Planning for retirement:

In middle age (Havinghurst)In middle age (Havinghurst)• hobbieshobbies• second careersecond career• financesfinances• healthhealth

Early retirement likely if:Early retirement likely if:• financially OK and in good healthfinancially OK and in good health• poor and sickpoor and sick

Retirement phases (Atchley)Retirement phases (Atchley)

1.1. Pre-retirement (Havinghurst)Pre-retirement (Havinghurst)

2.2. HoneymoonHoneymoon

3.3. Disenchantment: can lead to re-entry to Disenchantment: can lead to re-entry to job market or due to health and money job market or due to health and money problems cause itproblems cause it

4.4. ReorientationReorientation

5.5. StabilityStability

6.6. Termination: either through illness/death Termination: either through illness/death or reintegration to the work forceor reintegration to the work force

Newest issue in retirement:Newest issue in retirement:• Husbands and wives’ diverging paths, Husbands and wives’ diverging paths,

too much ‘togetherness’too much ‘togetherness’• Also, women usually younger than Also, women usually younger than

husbands, continue to work or re-start husbands, continue to work or re-start work after children grown upwork after children grown up

• Over 65s who can’t afford to retire: Over 65s who can’t afford to retire: dependents, mismanagement of funds, dependents, mismanagement of funds, unexpected catastrophes, etc.unexpected catastrophes, etc.

Reines (professional retirement planner)Reines (professional retirement planner)• Stage 1. 55-70: Stage 1. 55-70: active retirementactive retirement, spend , spend

70% of pre-retirement expenses. Travel 70% of pre-retirement expenses. Travel if possibleif possible

• Stage 2. Stage 2. stablestable: 70-85. Pattern of regular : 70-85. Pattern of regular activities, e.g. bridge on Tuesdays, activities, e.g. bridge on Tuesdays, dancing on Fridays, golf on Mondays. dancing on Fridays, golf on Mondays. Expectations lower, happy. Spend 50% Expectations lower, happy. Spend 50% of pre-retirement incomeof pre-retirement income

• Stage 3: Stage 3: limited retirementlimited retirement: 85+. Major : 85+. Major risks: loss of health and loss of incomerisks: loss of health and loss of income