2 3

alaska edition

vulcan

4 5

alaska edition

vulcan

7

Vulcan is curated and edited by Maketa Mabane

with content provided by alaska Volcano Observatory

(aVO) and united States Geological Services.

8 9

elevation: 4275 ft latitude: 54.13308° Nlongitude:165.98555° W

official name: Akutan Peaktype: Stratovolcanolatest activity: 12.18.1992

Akutan is one of the most volcanically active

islands in the eastern Aleutian arc.

akutan peak

10 11

TYPE:

akutan VOlcanO iS a composite stratovolcano with a circular summit calde-

ra about 2 km across and 60 to 365 m deep(Byers and Barth, 1953; Romick and

others, 1990; Motyka and others, 1981) and an active intracaldera cinder cone. the

caldera rim reaches a maximum altitude of 1303 m at akutan Peak, the remnant

of a pre-caldera cone now filled with a lava plug. the caldera is breached to the

north. caldera subsidence accompanied or followed eruptions from a series of

rim vents. the vestige of a larger caldera, of probable late Pleistocene age and

at least in part older than the cone of akutan Peak, extends 1.5 km southwest of

akutan Peak and is terminated to the north by the younger caldera. Small gla-

ciers fill the older crater and lie within the southwest and southeast margins of

the younger caldera.

“the active intracaldera cinder cone is over 200 m high, about 1 km in diameter, and

located in the northeast quarter of the caldera. three small sulfur-lined craters occu-

py its summit and several fumarole zones are present along its south and southwest

flank

Caldera

Pleistocene Age

Stratovolcano

A caldera is a large, usually circular depression at the

summit of a volcano formed when magma is withdrawn or

erupted from a shallow underground magma reservoir. The

removal of large volumes of magma may result in loss of

structural support for the overlying rock, thereby leading to

collapse of the ground and formation of a large depression.

Calderas are different from craters, which are smaller, circu-

lar depressions created primarily by explosive excavation of

rock during eruptions.

The most recent episode of glaciation, the Pleistocene epoch,

is commonly referred to as the Ice Age and began approxi-

mately 1.6 million years ago. During that time there were

a number of advances and retreats of the glaciers, which

are termed glacial and interglacial stages, respectively. The

glaciers of Greenland and Antarctica are remnants of the last

glacial advance.

A stratovolcano is a tall, conical volcano composed of one

layer of hardened lava, tephra, and volcanic ash. These

volcanoes are characterized by a steep profile and periodic,

explosive eruptions. The lava that flows from them is highly

viscous, and cools and hardens before spreading very far. The

source magma of this rock is classified as acidic, or high in

silica to intermediate (rhyolite, dacite, or andesite.

or basalt).Many stratovolcanoes exceed a height of 2500 m.

DEFINITIONS

12 13

the lava flows and pyroclastic deposits of akutan volcano are no older than

Pleistocene as Romick and others (1990) report ages of 1.1 +/- 0.1 to 1.8 +/- 0.8 Ma

for the oldest of these rocks. the caldera-forming eruption occurred about 5,200

yBP and was the source of small volume andesitic pyroclastic-flow deposits in val-

leys on the north, south, and east sides of the volcano. Young basaltic lava flows,

some of which were erupted in 1929, cover the caldera floor south and north of the

cinder cone and extend several hundred m downslope through the crater rim gap.

Flows extruded in 1947 blanket the central portion of the northwest end of the island

at lava Point, where about 4 square kilometers of jagged aa basalt occurs adjacent

to several cinder cones. the entire island is mantled by an ash layer that thickens

toward akutan Peak; landslide and mud flow deposits . have concentrated this ejecta

in the valleys north and northeast of the caldera and a maximum fill depth of 7 m

occurs at Wooly cove.

Recent eruptions produced only small amounts of fine volcanic ash that fell pri-

marily on the upper flanks of the volcano. Small amounts of ash fell on the akutan

Harbor area during eruptions in 1911, 1948, 1987, and 1989. Plumes of volcanic

ash are the primary hazard associated with eruptions of akutan Volcano and are a

major hazard to all aircraft using the airfield at Dutch Harbor or approaching.

akutan island. Eruptions similar to historical akutan eruptions should be antic-

ipated in the future. although unlikely, eruptions larger than those of historical

14 15

time could generate significant amounts of volcanic ash, fallout, pyroclastic flows, and

lahars that would be hazardous to life and property on all sectors of the volcano and

other parts of the island, but especially in the major valleys that head on the volcano

flanks. During a large eruption, an ash cloud could be produced that may be hazardous

to aircraft using the airfield at cold Bay and the airspace downwind from the volcano. in

the event of a large eruption, volcanic ash fallout could be relatively thick over parts of

akutan island and volcanic bombs could strike areas more than 10 kilometers from the

volcano.

a lava flow in 1978 traveled through a narrow breach in the north caldera rim to within

2 km of the coast. a small lake occupies part of the caldera floor. two volcanic centers

are located on the nW flank: lava Peak is of Pleistocene age; and, a cinder cone lower

on the flank which produced a lava flow in 1852 that extended the shoreline of the island

and forms lava Point. an older, mostly buried caldera seems to have formed in Pleisto-

cene or Holocene time, while the current caldera formed in a VEi-5 eruption c. 340 aD.

the volcano erupted most recently in 1992, but there is still fumarolic activity at the base

of lava Point and there are hot springs north-East of the caldera.

eruptions and activity

Intense seismicity was felt by Akutan residents on the evening

of 10-11 March 1996. The swarm of 80 earthquakes lasted for 11

hours. The largest earthquake was magnitude 5.1. On 13th March,

1996 Earthquakes

felt-earthquakes began occurring at a rate of greater than 1/

minute. The largest earthquakes were felt as far away as Dutch

Harbor/Unalaska 50 km SW of Akutan. On 14th March, earth-

quakes were strong enough to ring the bell in the Russian Ortho-

dox Church, during a second swarm of 120 earthquakes. In total,

more than 3000 earthquakes occurred beneath the island. Exten-

sive ground cracking resulted, but no eruption occurred.

Small steam and ash eruption occurred at Akutan volcano in

April and December 1992.

1992 Eruptions

1991 Eruptions

Summit ash emissions began in September, with a plume to

4500 m altitude. Ashfall was reporded at Akutan village.

16 17

Small ash eruptions were reported in September and October.

Heights of plumes were 1500 m above the summit.

1990 Eruptions

1989 Eruptions

In March 1989 an air shock wave was felt by a pilot flying over

the western shore of Akutan.

1988 Eruptions

Ash emissions occurred at Akutan volcano between March and

June 1988. Most observations were by pilots.

1987 Eruptions

On 22nd June 1987 a summit glow was seen by a fisherman in

the Bering Sea. Two days later, a pilot reported ash emissions to

1300 m altitude from a large cinder cone in the summit crater.

1986 Eruptions

In June, numerous ash emissions to an altitude of 3.5 km were

visible from Akutan village.

1980 Eruptions

On the 3rd July a recent lava flow that had moved through a

breach in the NW caldera wall was observed.

1978 Eruption

In 1978 lava flowed through a gap in the caldera and came

within 1 km of the sea in the north. Strombolian eruptions

occurred at the summit.

1977 Eruptions

Eruptions began in May, with light brown ash emissions every 15

minutes. Incandescence was noted in some eruptions.

1974 Eruptions

In February, ash was emitted hundreds of feet into the air, and

lava flowed down the flank.

18 19

1973 Eruptions

Akutan volcano erupted ash and steam for several months, with

the mountain snow-free.

1946-48 Eruptions Lava flows occurred at the volcano caldera.

1924 Eruption

A lava flow occurred on the floor of the caldera.

Eruptions in the 1850’s

A cinder cone and two lava flows were erupted north of Lava

Peak. The lava flows formed two lobes which flowed into the sea,

forming Lava Point.

1912

1911

1908

1907

1896

1892

1887

1883

1867

1865

1852

1848

1845

1838

1790

Other Eruptions

20 21

22 23

24 25

akutan iS a WOnDERFul destination for ecotourism. Hiking on the island is

diverse wildflowers and berries abound on the hills and mountains. there is a ther-

mal hot springs within hiking distance of the village. Hardy souls have climbed all

the way to the crater of akutan volcano, which is about seven miles west of the vil-

lage. the volcano is active, with steady steam emissions and an occasional dusting

of volcanic ash. there are no bears on the island, although you can see an occasional

fox, and akutan and the surrounding islands teem with birds and sea life. the whis-

kered auklet is found on the nearby Baby islands, one of only two places it exists in

the world. Fishing is excellent in the waters around akutan, and some of the largest

halibut in the world have been caught in akutan Pass at the west side of the island.

akutan is located on akutan island in the eastern aleutians, one of the krenitzin

islands of the Fox island group. it is 35 miles east of unalaska, and 766 air miles

southwest of anchorage. akutan began in 1878 as a fur storage and trading port for

the Western Fur & trading company. the company’s agent established a commer-

cial cod fishing and processing business that quickly attracted nearby aleuts to the

community. it was the only whaling station in the aleutians from 1912 to 1942. the

u.S. Government evacuated akutan residents to the ketchikan area in June 1942.

the village was re-established after the war. akutan is primarily a non-native fishing

community, although it is home to a traditional aleut village.

cultureAkutan Peak

26 27

commercial fishing and fish processing dominate akutan’s cash-based economy.

trident Seafoods operates a major bottomfish plant west of the city. Deep Sea Fish-

eries also has a permanent processing vessel in the bay. nine residents hold com-

mercial fishing permits. Subsistence hunting and fishing activities are minimal be-

cause the majority of residents are employed. the majority of the population lives

in group quarters facilities.

Boats and amphibious aircraft are the only means of transportation into akutan.

cargo is delivered weekly by freighter from Seattle. akutan has no airstrip, however,

a seaplane base is available. Daily air service is available from nearby alaska.

akutan lies in the maritime climate zone. temperatures range from 22 to 55. Pre-

cipitation averages 27.5 inches per year. Storms are frequent in the winter and fog

is common in the summer.

cyrus Read

Wolfgang Brinck

Kurt Schmidt participating in the rock toss tradition.

28 29

akutan has a deep and protective bay and is actually 40 miles closer to the “crab

fishing grounds” than Dutch Harbor. although akutan has no landing strip, has

only 100 or so fulltime residents, and has no paved roads–only wooden boardwalks,

is still one of the busiest fishing ports in the country, and has one of the largest pro-

cessors–trident Seafoods–about 1/4 mile away from the village of akutan. For this

reason, and it’s remoteness,it was featured on Deadilest catch.

First formed in 1878 as a fur trading post, akutan village was also one of the first in-

troduced to the crab fishing industries in the 1940’s and was home to several floating

processors at that time. in 1942, when the Japanese attacked unalaska, all residents

were evacuated and thus had to re-establish themselves as a village in 1944. Finally

in 1979, it was incorporated as the “city” of akutan.

akutan is not only home to some of the busiest fishing ports, but also superstition.

there is a tradition of throwing rocks onto a rock pile, if the rock stays on top, then

you are fine and healthy. However; if the rock falls off, then you will die within the

next year.

30 31Akutan Village

32 33

34 35

Elevation: 8261 ft Latitude: 55.4173° NLongitude: 161.8937° W

Official Name: Pavlof VolcanoType: StratovolcanoLatest Activity: August 15, 2007

The most active volcano of the Aleutian arc

PaVlOF iS a cOMPOSitE cone volcano located in the southwestern region

of alaska about 600 kilometers southwest of anchorage. at its summit Pavlof

reaches an elevation of 8,262 ft. the volcano consists of andestic magma, that

contains an intermediate content of gases. Emission of lava and ash has occurred

during the volcanoes eruptive stage. Other geologic events are also related to the

volcanic activity at Pavlof. Seismic activity, mudflows, and flooding have also oc-

curred due to Pavlof’s eruptive process. Pavlof has been in a period of eruptive

pause during the previous six weeks. Even during these pauses the threat of vi-

olent volcanic activity is always present. Fortunately the volcano is located in a

fairly remote region and does not pose a great threat to many people.

Mount Pavlof is a largely snow-covered, cone-shaped mountain with a high ridge

extending to the southwest towards little Pavlof. the volcano is approximately

7 km in diameter and has active vents on the north and east sides close to the

summit (Mcnutt and others, 1991). it is situated high on the northeastern flank

of Emmons lake caldera along a northeast-trending alignment of vents that in-

cludes little Pavlof, Pavlof Sister, and several intracaldera cones. the composite

volcano is relatively undissected and is probably Holocene in age. Pavlof lies with-

in the Shumagin seismic gap

type:

Pavlof

36 37

Pavlof eruptions are typically strombolian to vulcanian in character and consist

of rhythmic ejection of incandescent bombs and ash to heights of 200-300 me-

ters above the summit; spatter-fed lava flows emanate from the summit vents on

occasion. Short-lived volatile-rich vulcanian ash columns reaching to heights of

10 kilometers or more have been noted, usually at the beginning of an eruption.

Eruptions tend to be either magmatic or phreatomagmatic and Mcnutt found a

correlation between seismic activity and type of eruption. Strong volcanic tremor

accompanied major Strombolian magmatic eruptions, whereas episodes of ex-

plosion quakes, with little to no volcanic tremor, were diagnostic of minor phre-

atomagmatic events. the largest historical eruption of Pavlof occurred on De-

cember 6-7, 1911 at the end of a five year period of activity. a fissure vent opened

along the north flank, large blocks were ejected, and lava flows issued from the

fissure. a recent vigorous eruptive period began mid-april, 1986 and continued

through august, 1988. Frequent steam and ash emission, explosions, and strong

tremors accompanied summit lava fountaining that fed several agglutinate lava

flows, which in turn produced a number of both hot and cold, extensive mud-

flows.During the early course of the eruption, the eruptive vent shifted from the

north to the east side of the summit.

Strombolian eruptions are rela-

tively low-level volcanic eruptions,

named after the Sicilian volcano

Stromboli, where such eruptions

consist of ejection of incandescent

cinder, lapilli and lava bombs to

altitudes of tens to hundreds of

meters. They are small to medium

in volume, with sporadic violence.

They are mildly explosive at

discrete but fairly regular intervals

of seconds to minutes.

Strombolian Eruptions

Mount Pavlof is the most active volcano in the aleutian vol-

canic arc with almost 40 relatively well-documented erup-

tions dating back to 1790. it is so consistently active that a

question sometimes arises as to what constitutes a separate

eruption. Some Pavlof eruptions have been short-lived (1-2

days duration) and similar eruptions in the past may have

occurred unnoticed in the sparsely populated region.

DEFINITIONS

38 39

A Vulcanian eruption is a short,

violent, relatively small explosion

of viscous magma .This type of

eruption results from the frag-

mentation and explosion of a plug

of lava in a volcanic conduit, or

from the rupture of a lava dome

(viscous lava that piles up over a

vent). Vulcanian eruptions create

powerful explosions in which

material can travel faster than

800mph and rise several kilome-

ters into the air. They produce

tephra, ash clouds, and pyroclastic

density currents.

Vulcanian Eruptions

the most recent eruptive episode at Mount Pavlof began about September 11, 1996

and continued into early 1997. the eruptive activity was strombolian in character and

similar to most Pavlof eruptions. intermittent explosive activity and lava fountaining

were recorded from two closely-spaced vents high on the northwest summit of the

volcano. incandescent spatter, spatter-fed flows, and small lahars moved down the

northwest flank of the volcano for the next four months melting a narrow channel

through snow and ice. Occasional elongate plumes that rose to a maximum of 10

kilometers above sea level (generally less than 6 kilometers) and extended up to sev-

eral hundred kilometers downwind were detected on satellite images and reported

by pilots. these clouds consisted chiefly of vapor and gas with minor amounts of

ash. light ash fall was reported on several occasions from nearby communities.

Mount Pavlof is composed of basaltic andesite flows and pyroclastic rocks that over-

lap similar rocks from nearby little Pavlof. the flows are moderately phyric with

about 25% phenocrysts, mostly plagioclase with minor olivine and clinopyroxene.

the agglutinate flows of 1987 are of similar andesitic composition.

the volcano is 7km in diameter and has two active vents, one located on the north-

ern side and the other on the eastern side (Miller et al, 1998) and the overall outline

of the volcano appears cone shaped.

Pavlof has been erupting since 1790 and has experienced more then forty periods

of small to moderate activity since this time (Decker & Decker, 1998) with the latest

eruption occurring from September 1996 to January 1997 (Wallace et al, 2000).

the type of eruptions normally seen from Pavlof consist of Strombolian and Vulca-

nian eruptions where the main components are bombs and ash that normally reach

heights of around 200 to 300m (Miller et al, 1998).

the largest eruption in Pavlof’s history occurred in 1911 when a fissure opened

expelling large lava flows, together with these flows large blocks were expelled from

the volcano. in more recent times a period of high activity was noted from 1986

through to 1988 where large volumes of ash and steam were expelled together with

lava flows and also lava fountains.

Phreatomagmatic eruptions

are defined as juvenile forming

eruptions as a result of interaction

between water and magma. They

are different from magmatic and

phreatic eruptions. The products

of phreatomagmatic eruptions

contain juvenile clasts, unlike

phreatic eruptions, and are the

result of interaction between mag-

ma and water, unlike magmatic

eruptions.It is very common for a

large explosive eruption to have

magmatic and phreatomagmatic

components.

Phreatomagmatic

DEFINITIONS

DEFINITIONS

40 41

During the night, an intense thermal anomaly (ta) was visible in satellite images

(advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer-aVHRR), and seismic activity contin-

ued to increase in both number and duration of events per hour, clear signs that the

unrest was escalating. On the morning of august 15, based on observations of the

ta and increasing seismicity, aVO elevated the aviation color code/Volcano alert

level to ORanGE/WatcH and announced that an eruption was expected. With the

upgrade in color code, aVO began 24-hour surveillance of the volcano. later in the

day, aVO received eyewitness accounts from mariners of incandescent blocks roll-

ing down the eastern-southeastern flank of the volcano during the previous night,

beginning around midnight. Pilots reported a thin, low-level ash plume extending

a few kilometers southwest from the summit. after receiving these reports, aVO

established that the volcano was in eruption. aerial photographs taken on august 15

show lava fountaining from a vent located about 650 ft below the summit.

On august 16, strong seismic signals recorded at a single station, located 5.3 mi

southeast of the summit, heralded the passage of lahars down the south flank; more

than 41 lahar events would be recorded by this station over the next 29 days. Satel-

lite observations of a strong thermal anomaly and nighttime incandescence at the

Start Date: 08.15.2007

Stop Date: 09.13.2007

Volcanic Explosivity(VEI): 2

Eruptive Characteristics:

central vent eruption

Explosive eruption

lava flow

Mudflow

summit reported by local residents were indications of vigorous lava eruption at the

summit vent. the seismic network recorded long periods of volcanic tremor with

repetitive explosions that indicated nearly continuous Strombolian eruption. in ad-

dition to the generation of lahars, this activity produced low-level ash clouds, and a

spatter-fed lava flow that descended the southeastern flank. By august 18, aVO per-

sonnel in the field reported that vigorous eruption of lava at the summit continued.

using a Forward looking infrared (FliR) camera, they determined that a 20- to

50-m-wide, 65- to 165 ft-wide) 600 c (1,112 F) lava flow extended 565 m (1,850 ft)

from the vent down the southeast flank [see figs. 29 and 30 in original text]. thermal

data collected the next day indicated that the outer part of this flow was about 140c

(284 F) and had cooled considerably. the vent crater for the last eruption of Pavlof,

in 1996, was located on the upper northwestern side of the summit. For this erup-

tion, the active vent migrated to the upper southeastern side, about 200 m (650 ft)

below the summit.

Seismicity at Pavlof was elevated and steady throughout the remainder of august

and then began waxing and waning for the first week of September. a strong ta

was present in satellite images, even through clouds, during this time. During the

second week of September, the seismicity began showing signs of a steady decrease

[see fig. 34 in original text], and by September 13, seismicity decreased to low levels

and only a minor steam plume was visible above the volcano.

eruptions and activity

42 43

Ash, a blocky lava flow, and multiple lahars were generated by this eruption. Mixed ash

and steam clouds produced during the most energetic eruptive period, mid-August to

mid-September, reached altitudes of 5-6 km (about 20,000 ft) ASL. The plumes were

diffuse, drifted primarily to the southeast over the North Pacific Ocean, and many could

not be detected in satellite imagery. No ash reportedly fell on nearby communities and

there were no significant impacts to aviation. AVO deployed a DRUM aerosol impactor

(particle collector) in Sand Point, 90 km (56 mi) east of Pavlof, and collected fine ash.

Although no visible ash fallout was observed during aerosol sampling, these results demon-

strate that volcanic ash was present in respirable size fractions downwind of the volcano

even during periods of low ash emissions

Analyzed samples from the lava flow are basaltic andesite in composition (53% SiO2),

which is similar to the products of previous Pavlof eruptions.Lahars were produced by

interaction of hot blocks and spatter from the lava flow with snow and ice on the south-

eastern flank. The lahars inundated an area over 2 km2 (0.78 mi2) and formed a debris

fan that extended 3.6 km (2.2 mi) from the base of the volcano into Pavlof Bay .

“

”— Steven Mcnutt

Plumes

SIO2

A volcanic plume is a mixture of particles and gas emitted

by an eruption. Plumes may reach heights of 80 km in

large eruptions. The plume is generated by fragmentation of

magma.

The plume has 3 phases.

Jet Phase is dominated by upward momentum.

Convective Phase is where the plume rises by convection.

Umbrella Phase is where the plume spreads out.

Silicon dioxide

(Chemical Compound)

Silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is a chemical com-

pound that is an oxide of silicon with the chemical formula

SiO2. It has been known for its hardness since ancient times.

DEFINITIONS

44 45

46 47

Start Date: 01.2001

Eruption is UNCERTAIN

Volcanic Explosivity (VEI): 1

Eruptive Characteristics:

central vent eruption

Hydrothermal activity

Steam

McGimsey and others (2004) summarize 2001 steaming and other activity at Pav-

lof as follows: “Principal/teacher, John concilius, has a good view of Pavlof from

his home in nelson lagoon. On January 20, 2001 he observed through binoculars

steaming from multiple locations near the summit, but none actually at the top of

the volcano. He reported that the steam was white and not discolored, and, that the

snow near the summit was clean with no evidence of melting.

He concluded by stating that this was the most steaming he had seen at the volcano

during the past several years and that other villagers considered the steaming to be

unusual.aVO remote sensing specialist Dave Schneider analyzed advanced Very

High Resolution Radiometer (aVHRR) satellite images taken from January 18 to

22, 2001 and found no evidence of increased thermal activity at the volcano and no

unusual seismicity was noted. no further reports of steaming were forthcoming.

this may have been a meteorological phenomenon.While working in cold Bay in

early June, Martin laFevers, Seismic Data Manager at uaFGi, observed and pho-

tographed the summit of Pavlof during a weather break; it appeared to be covered

with ash. a local pilot reported seeing ‘something other than steam’ at the summit.

again, there was no indication of anomalous seismicity.

Start Date: 09.11.1996

Stop Date: 01.03.1997

Volcanic Explosivity (VEI): 2

Eruptive Characteristics:

central vent eruption

Explosive eruption

lava flow

Mudflow

Pavlof Volcano, historically the most active volcano in the Wrangell-aleutian volca-

nic arc, began a vigorous strombolian eruption in mid-September, 1996. the erup-

tion, which continued into early 1997, occurred only two months after a 6-station

seismic network was established near the volcano.

a nW observer in cold Bay noted steam and incandescent ejecta above the volcano

at about 0830 aDt on September 16. analysis of seismic data and satellite images

suggest that the eruption likely began at a very low level by September 11. Over the

next few weeks, nearby residents observed intermittent strombolian eruptions from

near the summit of the volcano. Pilots reported incandescent bombs the size of pick

up trucks accompanied by minor ash clouds alternating with steam plumes rising

from a few hundred meters to approximately 2 km above the volcano.

Photographs from overflights on September 23 and aVO video from September 27-

30 showed lava fountains emanating from two vents. One vent was located on the

east edge of an ~150-m diameter crater that indented the northwest summit of the

volcano. a second, more active locus of fountaining was perched on the west edge of

this crater 100-150 m below the summit. the two loci of fountaining were about 100

m apart and were generally not synchronous in activity. the east vent was less vig-

orous overall, producing intermittent puffs of gray to dark gray ash and steam tens

of meters high. the west vent was the source of intermittent bursts of incandescent

spatter up to 300 m high.

48 49

By September 23, a small spatter cone was forming at the west vent and a collar of

spatter, spatter-fed flows, and small lahars extended about 500 meters down the 30

degree northwest flank below the summit crater. a lava flow formed by the coales-

cence and remobilization of heavy spatterfall and direct spill over from the west

vent plunged down the steep flank, melting a narrow channel through seasonal

snow and glacial ice. By September 29, the lava flow had reached the base of the

cone, about 3.5 km from its source, and was beginning to widen into a lobate fan.

Dark lahar deposits extended beyond the toe of this lava flow across the gently slop-

ing ground northwest of the volcano, coming within about 40 m of aVO’s seismic

station PV6. By late October, a second lava flow issued from the east vent and on

December 2, when videotaped by alaska State troopers, this flow was the more

active of the two and had nearly reached the base of the cone in the saddle between

Pavlof and Pavlof Sister.

Eruptive activity became intermittent during the month of December. Seismicity

decreased abruptly early on December 4 and ash was not visible above the regional

cloud cover that obscured the summit of Pavlof for several days. Brief episodes of

heightened seismicity occurred on December 10 (accompanied by at least one pi-

lot report of ash) and December 27. the last reliable observation of ash emission

occurred on January 3, although pilots and observers in cold Bay reported possible

minor ash in the steam plume over the volcano on a few occasions through Febru-

ary 6. collapse of unstable agglutinate and hot fragmental debris on the steep upper

cone may well account for some of these small ash plumes.

During the first two weeks of the eruption, occasional elongate clouds containing

minor amounts of ash were detected on nOaa aVHRR satellite images. During the

third week, both pilot reports and satellite image analysis documented larger but still

diffuse ash clouds trailing as far as 175 km downwind, but they rarely reached more

than ~6 km above the sea level. these clouds varied in length from a few tens to

several hundred km and were observed intermittently, weather permitting, through

late December. On november 4, accompanying some of the strongest seismicity of

the eruption, a plume was visible in Bands 4-5 extending 350 km northeast of the

volcano.

in addition to elongate plumes, thermal anomalies associated with high tempera-

ture material were also recorded near the volcano’s active vents and along the two

main lava flow paths. the number of saturated pixels on aVHRR images varied

from 1 - 15 indicating areas of up to about 18 km2 above 37 degrees c (a.l. Roach,

oral communication, 1997). the last significant thermal anomaly was recorded in

late December, however “warm” pixels were noted during daily analysis of aVHRR

data into mid-February. Pilot reports and observations from cold Bay confirm con-

tinued warm ground around the summit of the volcano as inferred from areas of

snow-melt.

as in the 1986 eruption, the 1996 activity produced rubbly, fragmental lava flows

that extend in two main lobes down the northwest flank of the volcano. Early in the

eruption, these flows occupied, at least in part, channels cut into the seasonal snow

and glacial ice on the volcano’s flank. Melting of this snow and ice produced water

50 51

and rock mixtures of unknown consistency that flowed out onto the more gently

sloping terrain northwest (and possibly northeast) of the volcano. as of this writ-

ing, we do not know how far these lahars traveled or what impact they had on the

cathedral River and other drainages around Pavlof. Very light ashfall was reported

in king cove on the night of October 5-6, Sand Point on October 19, and nelson

lagoon on October 28.

More from neal and McGimsey (1997): “On October 3, based on observed plume

heights, the Faa issued a notice to airmen (nOtaM) restricting flight below ~7 km

and within 10 nautical miles of Pavlof. Higher levels of seismicity and more ener-

getic ash plumes began on October 15 and in response, the Faa increased the alti-

tude of restricted air space to approximately 8 km and the size of the restricted zone

to a 25 mile radius around Pavlof. the Faa continued to enforce this restriction

until January 27, 1997. although Pavlof ash plumes reached altitudes of 30,000 feet

or more on a few occasions, there were no serious disruptions in the north Pacific

airways. there were, however, impacts on local air traffic. On november 4, a united

States coast Guard (uScG) c-130 operating at low level over the Bering Sea was

struck by lightning. the flight crew also reported a “smoky” smell in the cockpit

and a fine dust throughout the plane. Subsequent discussion with the uScG failed

to positively identify the source of this material. However, based on nWS forecast

winds during the time of this report, it appears unlikely that primary ejecta from

Pavlof could have been the culprit; rather, it is possible that low level winds remobi-

lized fine ash from the ground.

A lahar is a type of mudflow or

debris flow composed of a slurry of

pyroclastic material, rocky debris,

and water. The material flows

down from a volcano, typically

along a river valley. Lahars are ex-

tremely destructive: they can flow

tens of meters per second, be 460

ft deep, and destroy any structures

in their path.

Lahar

Start Date: 01.05.1990

Stop Date: 03.05.1990

Volcanic Explosivity (VEI): 2

Eruptive Characteristics:

central vent eruption

Explosive eruption

Pavlof Volcano has been quiet since August 1988. On Jan-

uary 5 and 6, 1990, Marsha Brown of the FAA flight ser-

vice at Cold Bay observed traces of steam rising up to 100

m above the NE summit vent that was trailing to the NE.

The top of the volcano was dark due to the melting of snow

around the summit vent. The volcano has been pure white

with snow for the winter up to this time. On March 5, sev-

eral eruption plumes were observed.

“

”— Steven Mcnutt

DEFINITIONS

52 53

Start Date: 04.16.1986

Stop Date: 08.13.1988

Volcanic Explosivity (VEI): 3

Lava Volume: 7.8 x 106 m3

Eruptive characteristics:

central vent eruption

Flank vent

Explosive eruption

Pyroclastic flow

lava flow

lahars

the visual observations of the 1986 eruptions, both aerial and on the ground,

provide information generally lacking from previous historic eruptions. the

physical characteristics of of the 1986 eruption are probably similar to other

historic summit eruptions, although the 1986 activity was more explosive and

of longer duration.

the 1986 activity was chiefly Strombolian, characterized by sporadic emissions

of dark ash to heights of up to 5 km; one exceptionally strong (probably Vul-

canian) eruptive event sent an ash column to over 15 km on 18-19 april. the

initial phase of the eruption appears to have involved the summit vent on the

north side of the volcano which has been the site of all Pavlof eruptions since the

mid-1960s. this eruptive phase lasted from 16 to 26 april and included a hot

rootless agglutinate flow that extended down the northwest flank of the volcano.

the deposit was actively degassing steam along its entire length in late June. it

had an estimated volume of about 4x10^6 cubic meters and, at an elevation of

760 meters, was 20-30 meters thick and 40-50 meters wide. the deposit was

clast-supported and fines-depleted, consisting entirely of glassy, slightly vesicu-

lar andesitic basalt (SiO2 = 53.5%) bombs and irregular masses of spatter with

a maximum diameter of about 1.2 meters. it was probably emplaced during the

initial and relatively violent vent-clearing phases

of the eruption on 16-28 april. associated hot lahars caused melting of snow and

ice and extensive flooding in the cathedral River drainage north of the volcano.

Heavy ash fall occurred north and west of the volcano during the april activity;

2-3 mm of ash fell on the nearby communities of cold Bay, 35 km to the west,

and king cove, 48 km to the southwest, but caused no damage.

Eruptive activity began again in late May and was highlighted by sporadic, but vig-

orous Strombolian eruptive activity and by the formation of a new vent high on the

east flank of the volcano. comparison of aerial photography indicated that this is the

first major change in the vent geometry of Pavlof since the early 1960s. the period

of activity was characterized by repeated small bursts of ash and cinder to a few hun-

dred meters above the vent and spatter tossed a few tens of meters all accompanied

by explosive, thunderlike reports. the explosions characterizing the Strombolian

eruption occurred at intervals of 5-15 seconds during the half dozen times the new

vent was observed between 14 June and 30 June, suggesting a moderately rapid rate

of magma rise in the conduit. Only minor ash emission was observed associated

with the explosive ejection of incandescent bombs from the new vent. activity from

the old north vent during this time consisted of steam emission with little or no ash.

the nature of the material in the flow at this elevation and the physical character-

istics of the spatter rampart at the vent strongly suggest that much of the lower

part of the flow may have resulted from similar pyroclastic flow activity following

partial collapse of the oversteepened spatter rampart. throughout the course of the

eruption, the steep spatter rampart may have periodically become unstable and col-

lapsed, either in whole or part, forming hot, disaggregated pyroclastic flows cascad-

ing down the chute. Where ice and snow were overrun by the hot debris, mudflows

were generated that continued to travel down and fan out on the volcano’s lower

A pyroclastic flow is a fast-mov-

ing current of hot gas and rock

(known as tephra), which reaches

speeds moving away from a volca-

no of up to 450 mph.The gas can

reach temperatures of about 1,830

°F. Pyroclastic flows normally hug

the ground and travel downhill, or

spread laterally under gravity.

Pyroclastic Flow

DEFINITIONS

54 55

slopes. in support of this hypothesis, a pyroclastic flow was observed on 19 June

moving down the same chute from about 1400 m elevation to about 900 m; the

upper 1100 m of the volcano was cloud-covered at this time.

an alternative scenario is that the pyroclastic flow observed on 19 June resulted

from a ‘boil-over’ of the magma column at the vent following a larger-than-usual

explosion. although no seismic evidence for such an explosion was observed, the

obscuring cloud cover prevents an exact explanation for the origin o fthe observed

pyroclastic flow.

the april-august eruption is similar to, but somewhat stronger than most of the

other Pavlof eruptions of this century (Simkin et al., 1981; Mcnutt 1987a) in terms

of its Strombolian character. the duration of the eruption, as indicated by lava foun-

tain activity and spatter ejection, however, appeared to be much longer than for most

modern eruptions. this eruption also altered the physiography of the summit area

by forming a new vent. in contrast to most recent eruptions (i.e., 1973-1983) that

occurred in the fall of the year, the 1986 eruption was concentrated in the spring

and summer.”

Start Date: 11.11.1983

Stop Date: 12.181983

Volcanic Explosivity (VEI): 3

Area of Activity: nE FlankEruptive activity was first observed from Sand Point late on

14 november and pilots observed tephra columns the next

afternoon. On 19 november a small vapor cloud rose approx-

imately a hundred meters above the vent. Bad weather pre-

vented observations until 26 november when Pavlof was vis-

ible until mid-afternoon from cold Bay. During the morning,

a vapor plume containing a little ash rose to 4.5 km altitude.

at intervals of approximately 30 minutes, puffs of dark ash

were emitted. the intervals became shorter, and by 1500 ash

emission was nearly continuous.

its amplitude gradually increased, and tremor began to sat-

urate the seismograph at 1100 on 14 november. tremor was

strongest between midnight and 1200 on 15 november, and

continued to saturate the seismograph until 2100 on 15 no-

vember when its amplitude began to decrease.

1982 Jul 15

1981 Sep 25

1980 Nov 8

1980 Jul 6

1975 Sep 13

1974 Sep 1

1974 Mar 12

1973 Nov 12

1966 Mar 15

1958 May 17

1953 Nov 25

1951 Oct 3

1950 Jul 31

1936 - 1948,

1929 Mar 1

1924 Jan 17

1922 Dec 24

1914 Jul 6

1906 - 1911

1901

1894

1892

1880,

1866 Mar 14

1852

1846 Aug 15

Other Eruptions

56 57

the main challenge of climbing this peak is its remoteness and the consequent

difficulty of access. the peak is a 30 mi journey from the north side of cold Bay.

the climb itself is a straightforward snow climb, and the ski descent is recom-

mended

the volcano is below the path of hundreds of daily international flight paths,

and an explosive eruption could interrupt those operations, said Steve Mcnutt, a

volcano seismologist with the observatory. Volcanic ash can enter an engine and

make it seize up, he said.

Pavlof Bay is an inlet in alaska located on the southwestern edge of the alaska

Peninsula. it is on the peninsula’s south coast, is about 50 miles long, and lies

directly north of the Pavlof islands. the 8,261-foot volcano Mount Pavlof is on

its western shore.Pavlof is about nine miles from Pavlof Bay, a popular fishing

ground. Pavlof Bay, on the southern side of the alaska Peninsula, supported one

of the world’s largest pandalid shrimp fisheries until 1979, and about 70% of the

catches consisted of the northern shrimp.

the English name for the island comes from Pitka Pavalof, a creole of Rus-

sian-native. in 1893, Pitka Pavalof and Sergei Gologoff cherosky, creoles of Rus-

sian-native descent, found gold on Birch creek in interior alaska. learning of

CulturePavlof Bay

58 59

the discovery, prospectors jumped their claims and argued that the claims were

invalid because the men were natives. the discovery attracted more non-natives

to the Yukon River and the town of circle was founded are a group of culturally

similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the arctic regions of Greenland, canada,

the united States, and Russia. inuit is a plural noun; the singular is inuk. the

inuit languages are classified in the aleut family.

uSGS

The mountain burst with a loud ‘cannonade’ at this site [east-

ern slope of the mountain, where a pre-existing lava flow was]

in August, 1846. Smoke poured out in clouds from a fissure, ash

fell, and flames appeared. Flames also shot up from the summit.

A northwest wind dispersed both the smoke and the ash that ob-

scured from the inhabitants of Pavlof the islands at the mouth

of the bay. The ash was carried to the village of Pavlof, where it

was necessary to place a covering over the fish that were hung up.

Smoke and ash were carried to Unga Island (about 85 kilometers

to the east), where people also protected drying fish from ash by

covering it with matting.

“

”- Steven Mcnutt

60 61

62 63

64 65chris WaythomasLahar deposits after eruption in 2007

Shishaldin

Elevation: 9373.3ft

Latitude: 54.75° N

Longitude: 163.97° W

Official Name: Shishaldin

Type: Stratovolcano

Latest Activity: 2008

The highest volcano in the Aleutian Islands.

66 67

Mount Shishaldin is a moderately active volcano on unimak island in the aleu-

tian islands chain of alaska. it is the highest mountain peak of the aleutian

islands. the most symmetrical cone-shaped glacier-clad large mountain on earth,

the volcano’s topographic contour lines is nearly perfect circles above 6,500 feet.

the lower north and south slopes are somewhat steeper than the lower eastern

and western slopes. the volcano is the westernmost of three large stratovolcanoes

along an east–west line in the eastern half of unimak island. the aleuts named

the volcano Sisquk, meaning “mountain which points the way when i am lost.”

the upper 2,000 meters is almost entirely covered by glacial snow and ice. in all,

Shishaldin’s glacial shield covers about 35 square miles. it is flanked to the north-

west by 24 monogenetic parasitic cones, an area blanketed by massive a lava flows.

the Shishaldin cone is less than 10,000 years old and is constructed on a glacially

eroded remnant of an ancestral soma and shield. Remnants of the older ances-

tral volcano are exposed on the west and northeast sides at 1,500–1,800 meters

elevation. the Shishaldin edifice contains about 300 cubic kilometers of material.

a very steady steam plume rises from its small summit crater which is about 500

feet across and slightly breached along the north rim. this volcano has had many

recorded eruptions during the 19th and 20th centuries, and a couple reports of

volcanic activity in the area during the 18th century may have referred to Shishaldin

as well. therefore the volcano’s entire recorded history is spotted with reports of

activity. aVO has 24 confirmed eruptions at Shishaldin, making it the volcano with

the third most confirmed eruptions (after akutan and Pavlof). However, Shishal-

din has the most eruptions (this means confirmed anD possible eruptions) in

alaska, but half of the eruptions are unconfirmed, with the most recent one being

in 2008. Mount Shishaldin’s most recent eruptions were in 1995–96 and 1999.

Since the 1999 eruption, it has maintained seismic activity, typically having very

low-magnitude volcanic earthquakes (most are below magnitude 1) every 1–2 min-

utes. During this period of non-eruptive seismic activity, it has been puffing steam,

with puffs also occurring about every 1–2 minutes. there were reports in 2004 of

small quantities of ash being emitted with the steam.

the alaska Volcano Observatory monitors the volcano for more hazardous activity

with seismometers and satellite images. Visual observations are rare, because of

the remote location of the volcano

type:

68 69

eruptions and activity

2008 Activity

An ash plume rising to 3 km altitude was visible at the volcano

on 12th February.

The 1999 eruption was the largest known at the volcano in the

20th century. Starting in late June 1998, a swarm of low-frequen-

cy events was detected beneath the volcano. Observations of un-

usual activity at Shishaldin volcano be gan with a report by the

US Coast Guard of steam and ash plumes “puffing” at 10-min

intervals to about 30 m above the vent on 5th November 1998.

On 17th April 1999 Strombolian eruptions were detected using

Forward Looking Infrared Radiometer on board an aircraft.

The main phase of the eruption was sub-Plinian and changing

Strombolian eruptions after 80 minutes. The eruption ended on

24th April 1999.

2004 Seismic Unrest

In early May tremor was observed at the volcano for the first time

since the 1999 eruption, and continued until June. In July the

crater rim was warmer than the surrounding area.

1999 Eruption

diaster preparedness

Although the Shishaldin Volcano is not very explosive, possess-

ing basaltic lava, which is extremely dense. When erupting,

the volcano can spew ash 20 kilometers into the air, making

any air traffic potentially lethal. Ash clouds can destroy plane

engines and other electronics, and ash clouds can drift and

affect other, further, nations. Eruptions can also melt polar ice-

caps, causing massive flooding, as well as lahars, which are

mudslides made of volcanic fragments. Pyroclastic flows are

also common. They are strong and incredibly hot surges of

semi solid material and they destroy everything in their path.

Lava flows are also common.

Although local towns are generally out of the volcano’s some-

times destructive path, precautions are taken by the Federal

Aviation Adminstration (FAA) and the USGS to prevent po-

tential danger to air travelers.

2008

1999

1995

1993

1986-87

1979

1975

1967

1963

1953

1951

1946-47,

1932

1929

1901

1898

1883

1842

1838

1830

1824

Other Eruptions

70 71

the Shishaldin Volcano affects the environment in both positive and negative

ways. Harmful gases are emitted into the air during eruptions and stay in the air

for long periods of time. Shishaldin can cause large pyrocalstic flows but, luckily,

it is far enough away from any major towns to prevent any catastrophic damage.

Few people visit the mountain and there are no towns near enough to be harmed

unimak island is the largest island in the aleutian islands chain of the u.S.

state of alaska. it is the easternmost island in the aleutians and, with an area of

1,571.41 mi(4,069.9 km), the ninth largest island in the united States and the

134th largest island in the world. it is home to Mount Shishaldin, one of the ten

most active volcanoes in the world. according to the united States census Bu-

reau, there were 64 people living on unimak as of the 2000 census, all of them

in the city of False Pass at the eastern end of the island. cape lutke is a headland

on the island.

an interesting physical feature is Fisher caldera, a volcanic crater in the

west-central part of unimak. Some characteristics include many volcanic cones

and undrained lakes. it is named for Bernard Fisher, a u.S. Geological Survey

CultureShishaldin Volcano

72 73

geologist who was killed in umnak Pass. as a faunal extension of the alaska

Peninsula, unimak has a relatively diverse assemblage of terrestrial mammals,

including brown bears and caribou. West of unimak, the largest native mam-

mal in the aleutians is the red fox.

Scotch cap lighthouse was built in 1903 and was manned by the u. S. coast

Guard. On april 1, 1946, during the 1946 aleutian islands earthquake, the

lighthouse was struck by a tsunami. Even though the lighthouse was 98 feet

(30 m) above the sea, the lighthouse slid into the sea, killing five coast Guard

personnel

False Pass (isanaxin aleut) is a city in aleutians East Borough, alaska, united

States. isanax is the aleut name for present day isanotski Strait and means

gap, hole, rent, or tear in the aleut language which was rendered as isanotski

(or issanakskie, isanotskoi, isanakh etc.) in transliterated Russian. the first of

the aleutian islands and it connects the northern Gulf of alaska with the Ber-

ing Sea. this strait was used for safe passage for millennia by aleuts and later

by the Russians during their occupation of the area. the strait is used today by

most vessels less than 200 feet in length traveling to and from northern alaska

and points in southwest and southeast alaska and the “lower 48” states.

False Pass is an early English name for isanotski Strait on which the city of

False Pass is located. the strait was called “False Pass” by early american sail-

ing ship captains because it was thought to be impassable for their deep draft

vessels at the northern end. a salmon cannery was built on the unimak island

side of the strait in 1919 which provided the nucleus for the modern settle-

ment. a u.S. post office with the name of False Pass was established in 1921

which gave official status to the community.commercial fishing for salmon,

cod, halibut and crab continues to be the core of the community’s lifestyle and

economy. the city population was 35 at the 2010 census is near the eastern end

of unimak island, in the aleutian islands chain. Part of the city (10.075 sq mi)

is actually on the westernmost tip of the mainland alaska Peninsula, across the

isanotski Strait, although that section is nearly unpopulated. the city boundar-

ies include the abandoned villages of Morzhovoi and ikatan.

as of the census of 2000, there were 64 people, 22 households, and 13 fam-

ilies residing in the city. the population density was 2.4 people per square

mile. there were 40 housing units at an average density of 1.5 per square

mile. the racial makeup of the city was 62.50% native american, 26.56%

White, 1.56% from other races, and 9.38% from two or more races. 1.56% of

the population were Hispanic or latino of any race.

Boats and aircraft are the only way to get to False Pass. aircraft use False Pass

airport. the first period and the one that lasts the longest, is the aleut Period.

the aleut peoples arrived in this area, probably from Siberia across the “Ber-

ing land Bridge” some 10,000 years ago. they dominated this area until the

arrival of the Russian explorers in 1741. the aleuts lived in this area in relative

stability and abundance for a continuous period longer than most other peo-

74 75

ples on earth inhabited their homelands. this is an amazing testimony to their

skills and cultural coherence.

the second period is the period of immigrants, starting when the Russians

arrived to exploit the Sea Otter and other fur bearing animals and establish

outposts here. the Russians arrived in 1741 with Vitus Bering and stayed

until alaska was purchased by the americans from the Russian crown for 7.2

million dollars on april 4, 1867. the third period begins to focus on the first

externally-based economy for the area, the fishing of cod. the codfish indus-

try was established mostly by immigrants and visitors from Seattle and San

Francisco. Many immigrants, mostly from Scandinavia came here and settled

in areas where cod was readily available on nearby fishing grounds.

the fourth period signals the arrival of the canned salmon processsors,

primarily from the Seattle area of Washington. this begins the actual history

of False Pass as a community, with the establishment of a salmon cannery on

the site in 1919 by P.E. Harris co.Bridging the time period of codfishing and

salmon fishing is the fur trapping period. Many local men fished during the

summer season when salmon and cod were available and trapped for fur-bear-

ing animals during the winter months. During some years they made more

trapping than fishing.the final period and the one we are still in, is the Mod-

ern Period, which is characterized by a diversified fisheries economy oriented

towards the export and globalized market.

76 77

78 79

mount cleveland

elevation: 5676 ft

latitude: 52.8222° N

longitude:169.945° W

official name: Shishaldin

type: Stratovolcano

latest activity:July 19, 2011

The island is completely uninhabited

80 81

Mount cleveland is a nearly symmetrical stratovolcano on the western end of

chuginadak island, which is part of the islands of Four Mountains just west of

umnak island in the Fox islands of the aleutian islands of alaska. Mt. cleveland

is 5,676 ft high, and one of the most active of the 75 or more volcanoes in the

larger aleutian arc.

in 1894 a team from the u.S. coast Guard and Geodetic Survey visited the island

and gave Mount cleveland its current name, after President Grover cleveland.

One of the most active volcanoes in the aleutian arc, cleveland has erupted at

least 21 times in the last 230 years. a VEi 3 eruption in 1944 produced the arc’s

only direct volcanic fatality. Most recently Mount cleveland has erupted three

times in 2009, twice in 2010, and once in 2011.the volcano’s remoteness limits

opportunities for its study, and the alask a Volcano Observatory relies heavily on

satellites for monitoring. the volcano is primarily hazardous to aircraft; many of

the flights over the north Pacific approach the vicinity of the volcano, and volca-

nic ash released from eruptions can damage sensitive electronic equipment and

sensors.

Mount cleveland is located 304 mi from the western end of the aleutian arc, a

long volcanic chain extending off the coast of alaska. containing over 75 volca-

noes, this volcanic arc occurs above the subduction zone where the Pacific Plate

plunges under the north american plate. as the plate moves deeper into the

type:

islands of Four Mountains, a volcanic group in the aleutian arc. like all stra-

tovolcanoes, Mount cleveland grew as explosive eruptions, effusive eruptions,

and lahars built it layer by layer into a concave-up shape. it lies southeast of

Mount carlisle and northeast of Herbert island. Mount cleveland forms the

western half of chuginadak island, a broad and uneven bell-shaped landmass,

and is the highest of the four volcanic islands.the island is completely unin-

habited; the nearest settlement is nikolski on umnak island, about 47 miles

eastward.

Mount cleveland is 5.0–5.3 mi wide at its base and roughly 7 cubic miles in

volume. the volcano’s slope increases markedly with height, from 19° at its

lower flanks to 35° near its summit. like many other aleutian volcanoes, cleve-

land’s flanks are especially rough up to 984 ft, covered by multiple overlapping

lava flows and debris fans that form an apron around the mountain. lava flows

are always built on top of debris flows as a result of the snow melt caused by

the emission of heat just before an eruption. the flows are generally short,

under 0.6 mi, and thin, less than 33 ft thick, and are somewhat vegetated.

82 83

DEFINITIONS

a narrow strip of land, bordered

on both sides by water, connecting

two larger bodies of land.

Isthmus

Mt. cleveland’s isthmus

although Mount cleveland is the tallest mountain in

the group, it is rarely completely snowed in because of

its constant activity disrupts snowfall. a lack of extant

erosion shows that Mount cleveland is likely a Holocene

volcano, forming within the last 10,000 years.all known

events have occurred at Mount cleveland’s summit vent,

but there are at least five small andesite to dacite volca-

nic domes on the lower flanks. at times cleveland has

had a summit lava dome. the volcano has no caldera.

the eastern half of chuginadak, to which Mount cleve-

land is connected by a narrow isthmus, consists of sev-

eral low-lying volcanic cones and two prominent peaks

that have been heavily eroded, partly by glaciers. known

as the tana volcanic complex, the two features measure

3,839 ft and 3,586 ft in elevation. a sample of rhyolite

has been recovered from concord Point, the easternmost

point on the island.

84 85

about Cleveland’s early eruptive history as its remoteness makes it a difficult area to in-

vestigate, and discrepancies in names have caused confusion between events there and

those on nearby Carlisle. Even today, not all possible events are confirmed as eruptions by

the Alaska Volcano Observatory, and many are listed as “possible.” In observed history,

Mount Cleveland may have first erupted in 1744; the first confirmed eruption occurred in

1828. The volcano erupted again in (1836, 1893, 1897, 1929, 1932, and 1938 possibly).

The first notable eruption from Mount Cleveland was a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)

3 Vulcanian eruption that occurred between June 10 and June 13, 1944. Lava flows ex-

tended 3 miles from the summit, and an ash plume 19,685 feet high was produced. Large

boulders were reportedly ejected and carried out to sea by eruptive force. The eruption had

the distinction of being the only confirmed direct volcanic fatality in Alaska; a small de-

tachment from the Eleventh Air Force was stationed on the volcano at the time, and one

Sergeant Purchase left his post early in the eruption to take a walk and never returned,

probably killed by mudslides. The island was abandoned for the remainder of the war.[20]

Mount Cleveland erupted more recently in 1951, 1953, 1954 (possibly), 1975 (possibly),

ERUPTIONS AND ACTIVITY

Eruptions from Mount Cleveland are generally vulcanian

and strombolian in nature, characterized by short explosive

ash clouds sometimes accompanied by a’a flows, lava foun-

tains,pyroclastic flows, ash and steam emissions, lava dome

growth, and the ejection of breadcrust bombs. Hot springs

were reportedly found on the volcano in the 1800s, and per-

sistent fumarolic activity was observed in the 1980s and

1990s. Mount Cleveland is a site of persistent steam emissions

and thermal anomalies that represent constant background

activity. During 2011, a summit lava dome formed, by con-

tinuous intrusion of magma at the summit. Late in 2011,

nearly 6 explosions demolished the dome. Little is known

DEFINITIONS

Basaltic lava forming very rough

jagged masses with a light frothy

texture. ‘A’a flows are character-

ized most obviously by very rough

top surfaces, dense interiors, and

sometimes rough bottom surfaces.

A’A

86 87

2011 - 2012 Eruptions

On December 29, 2011, AVO observed a detached, drifting ash

cloud to approximatly 15,000 ft ASL in satellite imagery. The

plume was approximately 50 miles moving east from Cleveland.

Ground-coupled airwaves from the explosion were also detected at

the distant Okmok seismic netowork - placing the time of explo-

sion at 13:12 UTC, December 29. Based on the presence of an ash

cloud, AVO raised the aviation color code back to ORANGE and

the alert level to WATCH.

One month later, on January 30, 2012, satellite data showed an-

other small dome within the summit crater. As of January 30,

2012, the new dome measured about 40 meters in diameter. On

January 31, 2012 AVO raised the aviation color code to ORANGE

and the volcano alert level to WATCH. By February 10, 2012, the

lava dome’s size was estimated at 50 m in diameter, and it had

grown to 60 m by February 17.

1984 through 1987, 1989, 1994, and 1997. The volcano has received more focused at-

tention in recent times due to its increased activity: it erupted in 2001, 2005, three times

in 2006, 2007, three times in 2009, and twice in 2010. Of these, the most significant

eruption was the 2001 eruption, which produced a 12 km (7 mi) high ash plume. This

plume dispersed 120 to 150 km (75 to 93 mi) across Alaska, an unusual distance that

allowed detailed satellite observations to be made.[4][9] Nikolski and the surrounding

region was the site of several hours of ashfall, represented in satellite imagery as areas

of discolored snow.[14] This eruption significantly disrupted air traffic in the area.[4]

On June 19, 2012, a pilot reported an ash-producing explosion on Mount Cleveland. Due

to continuing seismic activity, the volcano was placed on the USGS Volcano Watch List

in the orange or “watch” category the following day. AVO continues to keep Cleveland on

the watch because of a persistent anomaly at the summit. AVO suspects it could be dome

growth. Other minor ash producing explosions occurred on June 26, July 12, and most

recently, August 19. In total the volcano has erupted at least 22 times in the last 230 years.

88 89

tant infrasound and seismic statiosn. Following that explosion, a

fifth dome began extruding, although it was very short lived, and

destroyed by small explosions on May 4th or May 5th.

On June 6, Nikolski residents reported a strong sulfur smell, and

a low-level plume was observed in web camera images. Satellite

images from June 9 and 10 showed deposits of minor amounts of

ash, extending as far as 5000 feet from the summit.

On Tuesday June 19, a pilot report, web camera images, and dis-

tant infrasound data detected an explosive eruption at Cleveland

Volcano. The pilot report estimated the plume height at 35,000

feet. Satellite data suggest that the plume contained a relatively

small amount of ash and was similar to other plumes produced

by Cleveland explosions in the past year.

A small lava dome was observed growing in the summit crater

by June 26; and another small explosion was detected by distant

infrasound and seismic sensors in the wee hours of June 26.

On March 8, 10, and 13, 2012, there were three small, short-dura-

tion explosion at Cleveland; detected by distant infrasound and

seismic sensors. These explosions likely expelled the dome that

had been in the summit crater.

On April 4, 2012, this new dome, which had grown to about 70 m

in diameter, was destroyed during a short explosive eruption. This

eruption was detected by distant infrasound and seismic stations,

and had an ash cloud height of about 4.5 km. This was the third

lava dome at Cleveland to be erupted and destroyed at Cleveland

since July 2011.

Another explosion occurred on April 19 that generated a small

ash cloud to 4-6 km. Satellite images taken after the eruption

show block and ash deposits extending up to 1 km down the south

flank of the volcano. After this explosion, a fourth lava dome be-

gan growing within the summit crater; this dome was about 25 m

diameter on April 27. This fourth dome was destroyed sometime

prior to May 4, in an explosion too small to be detected by the dis-

90 91

On Saturday, August 4, 2012, at 8:38 AM, a small explosive event

occurred at Cleveland. This event was detected by retrospective

analysis of infrasound data. Satellite images showed a brief, faint

steam plume about 4 hours before the event. Another small ex-

plosion occurred on Friday, August 17, 2012. This explosion was

detected via seismic and infrasound instruments on nearby volca-

noes. No ash cloud was observed in satellite imagery. This explo-

sion was the twentieth at Cleveland since December 25, 2011. An-

other small explosion, this one with low-level ash cloud, occurred

at 6:55 AM on August 19. The ash cloud tracked to the southeast

and dispersed over several hours.

On September 5, 2012, AVO lowered the aviation color code to

YELLOW and the volcano alert level to ADVISORY, based on

lack of eruptive activity since August 20. Cleveland remained

cloudy for much of the rest of September and October.

92 93

2010 Eruptions

In a May 25, 2010 VAN/VONA, AVO warned “thermal anom-

alies observed in satellite data over the past few days suggest that

Cleveland Volcano has entered another period of volcanic unrest.

In the past, the presence of thermal anomalies at the summit has

been followed by moderate ash bursts, sometimes to aircraft flight

levels. Therefore, AVO is raising the Aviation Color Code to YEL-

LOW and the Volcano Alert Level to ADVISORY.

“The lack of a real-time seismic network at Cleveland means

that AVO is unable to track local earthquake activity related to

volcanic unrest. Unrest at Cleveland is frequent, and short-lived

explosions with ash clouds or plumes that could exceed 20,000 ft

above sea level can occur without warning and may go undetected

on satellite imagery.”

On May 31, analysis of satellite imagery from May 30, 2010, re-

On Sunday, November 10, 2012, a small ash cloud from Cleve-

land was detected in satellite views. Satellite images from 11:47

AM through 6:43 PM show the ash cloud, which was last ob-

served about 60 miles south of Dutch Harbor. In response to this

explosion, AVO raised the volcano alert level to WATCH and the

aviation color code to ORANGE.

AVO lowered the volcano alert level to ADVISORY and the avi-

ation color code to YELLOW on November 21, 2012, based on no

further explosions since November 10, 2012, and no evidence of

lava dome growth during that time. Elevated surface tempera-

tures persisted during partly or mostly cloudy views through the

end of November and the first half of December, 2012.

Elevated surface temperatures were again observed in mid-Jan-

uary, 2013. More consistent high temperatures returned in late

January, 2013.

94 95

On Sunday, November 10, 2012, a small ash cloud from Cleve-

land was detected in satellite views. Satellite images from 11:47

AM through 6:43 PM show the ash cloud, which was last ob-

served about 60 miles south of Dutch Harbor. In response to this

explosion, AVO raised the volcano alert level to WATCH and the

aviation color code to ORANGE.

AVO lowered the volcano alert level to ADVISORY and the avi-

ation color code to YELLOW on November 21, 2012, based on no

further explosions since November 10, 2012, and no evidence of

lava dome growth during that time. Elevated surface tempera-

tures persisted during partly or mostly cloudy views through the

end of November and the first half of December, 2012.

Elevated surface temperatures were again observed in mid-Jan-

uary, 2013. More consistent high temperatures returned in late

January, 2013.

vealed “a small ash emission occurred early last night from Cleve-

land. The cloud was visible in a 7:56 pm ADT May 30 (0356

UTC, May 31) satellite image moving to the southwest and it did

not rise above 16,000’ ASL. At the time of the satellite image, the

cloud was detached, and it is estimated that the emission occurred

several hours earlier. The event was a short-lived ash emission

and there are no signs of further activity.”

Satellite images obtained by AVO on May 31 also showed minor

flowage deposits on the upper flank of the volcano. A weak ther-

mal anomaly detected on June 2 suggested continuing low-level

ash emission at Cleveland.

96 97

culture

tHE natiVE alEut naME for Mount cleveland is chuginadak (the name

currently given to the island as a whole), referring to the aleut fire goddess,

thought to reside in the volcano. the volcano’s name is a reference to its con-

stant activity, and shows that it was likely highly active even in the distant past.

aleut oral tradition states that, at one time, the western and eastern halves of

chuginadak were separate islands, and that the isthmus joining them was creat-

ed by volcanic activity sometime in prehistory. the “islands of Four Mountains”

name, the geographic group name for cleveland and its neighbors, was given

to the islands by Russian cartographers in the 19th century. its current name,

Mount cleveland, was given to it by a u.S. coast and Geodetic Survey expedition

in 1894, when it was originally observed by the uSS concord; like the other vol-

canoes in the Four islands group, Mount cleveland was named after prominent

american politicians at the time, cleveland having been named after then-pres-

ident Grover cleveland.

nikolski (chalukax in aleut) is a census-designated place (cDP) on umnak is-

land in aleutians West census area, alaska, united States. the population was

18 at the 2010 census. according to the u.S. census Bureau, the cDP has a

total area of 132.8 square miles, of which, 132.1 square miles of it is land and 0.7

Mount Cleveland

Satellite data indicate that Cleveland volcano erupted briefly this

morning at 07:30 UTC, October 02, 2009, producing an ash

cloud to maximum altitudes of 15,000’ to 20,000’ feet. Thus, the

aviation color code is being increased to Orange, and the volcano

alert level is being increased to Watch.

2009 Eruptions

“

”— aVO Volcanic activity notice

OTHER ERUPTIONS

2005

2001

1994

1987

1986

1985

1985

1984

1975

1944

1938

1932

1897

1893

1828

98 99

every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.3 males.

the median income for a household in the cDP was $38,750, and the median

income for a family was $40,250. Males had a median income of $26,250 versus

$11,875 for females. the per capita income for the cDP was $14,083. there were

23.5% of families and 20.7% of the population living below the poverty line, in-

cluding 13.6% of under eighteens and 55.6% of those over 64.

nikolski is reputed by some to be the oldest continuously-occupied community

in the world. People have been living in nikolski for at least 8,000 years, before

the pyramids were built, the Mayan calendar was invented, or the chinese

language was written.

in 1834, it was the site of sea otter hunting, and was recorded by the Russians

as “Recheshnoe,” which means “river.” in 1920, a boom in fox farming oc-

curred here. the unangan became affluent enough to purchase a relatively

large boat, the “umnak native,” which was wrecked in 1933. a sheep ranch

was established in 1926 as part of the aleutian livestock company. there are

still a few sheep, some fencing remnants and a barn left over as the remnants

of this Sheep Ranch.in June 1942, when the Japanese attacked unalaska and

seized attu and kiska, residents were evacuated to the ketchikan area. locals

were allowed to return in 1944, but the exposure to the outside world brought

about many changes in the traditional lifestyle and community attitudes. in the

1950s, the air Force constructed a White alice radar communication site here,

which provided some jobs.

square miles of it is water.

On a clear day the view from nikolski is dominated by Mount Vsevidof to the

northeast, the highest point on umnak island. Mount cleveland can also be seen

from nikolski, which is the closest inhabitable island to the volcano. the bound-

ary between the alaska time Zone and Hawaii-aleutian time Zone passes just

west of nikolski, along the line of 169°30’W through Samalga Pass. this places

nikolski in the alaska time Zone. However, as nikolski is part of the aleutian

Region School District the settlement effectively observes Hawaii-aleutian time.

as of the census of 2000, there were 39 people, 15 households, and 12 families

residing in the cDP. the population density was 0.3 people per square mile.

there were 28 housing units at an average density of 0.2/sq mile. the racial

makeup of the cDP was 30.77% White and 69.23% native american. there

were 15 households out of which 40.0% had children under the age of 18 liv-

ing with them, 53.3% were married couples living together, 20.0% had a female

householder with no husband present, and 20.0% were non-families. 20.0% of

all households were made up of individuals and none had someone living alone

who was 65 years of age or older. the average household size was 2.60 and the

average family size was 2.92.

in the cDP the population was spread out with 35.9% under the age of 18, 30.8%

from 25 to 44, 23.1% from 45 to 64, and 10.3% who were 65 years of age or older.

the median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 105.3 males. For

100 101

Ashfall falling on Lady Gudny,

off the coast of Nikolski. Photo

credit to Anne Hillman.

102 103

104 105

106 107

Mount Veniaminof

Elevation: 8225 ft

Latitude: 56.1979° N

Longitude: 159.3931° W

Official Name: Veniaminof

Type: Stratovolcano

Latest Activity: 2002

Veniaminof Volcano is one the highest of Alaska.

108 109

type:

MOunt VEniaMinOF iS a broad central mountain, 35 km wide at the base,

truncated by a spectacular steep-walled summit caldera 8x11 km in diameter.

the caldera is filled by an ice field that ranges in elevation from approximate-

ly 1750 to 2000 m; ice obscures the south rim of the caldera and covers 220

square km of the south flank of the volcano. alpine glaciers descend from

the caldera through gaps on the west and north sides of the rim and other al-

pine glaciers occupy valleys on the north-, east-, and west-facing slopes of the

mountain. in the western part of the caldera, an active intracaldera cone with

a small summit crater has an elevation of 2156 m, approximately 330 m above

the surrounding ice field. the rim of a larger but more subdued intracaldera

cone protrudes just above the ice surface in the northern part of the caldera;

based on limited exposure and physiographic features, it may have a summit

crater as much as 2.5 km in diameter.

andesitic and dacitic ash-flow tuffs from the caldera-forming eruption occur

in many of the valleys on the north slope of the volcano and

are found as far away as 31 miles from the caldera rim on

both the Bering Sea and Pacific Ocean coasts.

a northwest-trending belt of post-caldera cinder and scoria

cones, including the two intracaldera cones, extends from

near the Bering Sea coast approximately 55 km across the

main volcanic edifice and the aleutian Range divide, well

down the Pacific slope.

110 111

ERUPTIONS AND ACTIVITY

start date: 09.28.2002

stop date: 03.23.2003

volcanic explosivity (VEI): 1

eruptive characteristics:

tephra Plume

Perryville residents next reported ‘plumes of smoke’ between 8 and 10 pm on

October 1. Others reported ‘rumbling’ during the evening, however no clearly

correlative signals were noted on seismograms. One and one half minutes of vid-

eo taken on October 2 or 3, about 2 pm, from the vantage of the Sandy River 28

miles west of the active cone showed several small, dilute, gray-brown clouds ris-

ing about 300-600 ft above the intracaldera cone and drifting a short distance to

the north. In the 1.5 minutes of tape, two distinct ‘puffs’, about 1 minute apart,

rise from the cone and drift downwind. The cone was not unusually snow free,

however, a dark covering of ash was visible on the caldera ice field at the base

of the cone and extending generally north. On October 6, Sandy River Lodge

reported black ash and ‘smoke’ rising 400-500 ft above the cone, explosions, and

ground shaking.

“Cloud-free satellite images of the Veniaminof caldera revealed nothing unusual

until October 2 when AVO acquired a Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrora-

diometer image that captured a localized, gray deposit on the caldera ice field.

The image shows a faint, fan-shaped deposit extending generally east from the

cone to the caldera boundary and perhaps just beyond. When viewed in light of

reports from Perryville and the video from Sandy River, the dark fan likely rep-

resents ash fall from low-level phreatic activity on October 1. No thermal anom-

alies were detected in satellite imagery throughout this period and no incandes-

cence was reported. A compilation of reports from residents and other observers

through the end of the year is presented in table 3. Seismicity and reports of

discolored clouds over the intracaldera cone gradually declined through the fall.

A re-invigorated hydrothermal system beneath the intracaldera cone may ac-

count for these intermittent ejections of diffuse, ash-bearing clouds. It seems un-

likely that this was prompted by a new magmatic intrusion at depth based on

the lack of volcano-tectonic earthquakes. Increased hydrothermal activity may

have been related to what was, according to some long time residents of the

area, one of the rainiest autumns in memory. Although precipitation falling

at the elevation of the intracaldera cone would have been in the form of snow,

precipitation in Cold Bay was approximately 80% above normal for the month

112 113

of October, according to long term climate records maintained by NW (National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

In mid-April, 1995, reports from observers in Perryville and Port Heiden of small

dark plumes over Veniaminof coincided with thermal anomalies near the active

vent recorded on satellite images. This low-level activity was interpreted to result

from interaction of lava with ice and snow causing occasional low-energy ash

bursts and steam generation. Perryville residents heard rumblings and booms

and witnessed minor ash emission on November 15, 1995, as reported in the last

AVO weekly update that included Veniaminof (12-1-95). Summit hot spots were

visible on satellite images of November 2, 8, and 17, 1995.

start date: 04.17.1995

stop date: 11.30.1996

volcanic explosivity (VEI): 1

eruptive characteristics:

tephra Plume

central Eruption

start date: 07.30.1993

stop date: 08.28.1994

volcanic explosivity (VEI): 2

eruptive characteristics:

tephra Plume

central Eruption

Subglacia

Reports of activity at Veniaminof began in early 1993. Pilots reported a steam

plume rising from the volcano on February 18, 1993. Confirmed magmatic ac-

tivity was first sighted on July 30, 1993. Observers in Perryville reported black

clouds rising over the summit beginning at 1430 ADT on July 30, 1993. A white

steam cloud was present at other times. A small eruption plume was observed

on satellite imagery by the NW on July 30, but none were seen in the following

days. On the morning of July 31, Perryville observers saw a gray cloud rising

from the volcano and extending to the south. On August 2, commercial airline

pilots observed intermittent venting of black ash clouds rising nearly 1,000 feet

above the active intracaldera cone. On August 3, U.S. Fish and Wildlife (US-

FWS) personnel reported a steaming pit in the snow at base of the west side of

the intracaldera cinder cone. Pilot reports on August 3 described black ash and

bombs erupting from the summit vent of the intracaldera cone at 30-60 second

intervals to a height of 7,900-9,800 ft above sea level 82,756 ft] above vent. A

minor dusting of very fine ash occurred in Port Heiden after 2000 ADT on

August 3, 1993. Residents of Perryville, Chignik, and Chignik Lake also heard

a “rumbling noise” accompanied by a slight tremor at about 2200 that night.

114 115

Flight restrictions around Veniaminof were put into effect August 4, 1993. On

the morning of August 6, a resident of Port Heiden observed eruptions of ash

and steam at 3-4 minute intervals; these plumes barely rose above the summit of

the volcano. There were no reports of ashfall at other nearby villages. On August

12, a pilot reported ash venting 600-900 m (1,900 - 3,000 ft) above the crater

with the ash cloud carried east-northeast.

Poor weather precluded many observations during the fall. On October 1-2, res-

idents of Port Heiden observed steam and ash emissions over Veniaminof. An

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) image from the late

morning of October 2 – the first clear satellite image in almost two months –

showed a faint northeast-directed plume and a thermal anomaly at the sum-

mit cinder cone. During the night of October 7, residents of Perryville observed

bursts of incandescent material rising approximately 1,000 ft above the sum-

mit. These bursts occurred about once every 10 minutes, were accompanied by

loud rumbling sounds, and appeared to be similar in size to the eruptions in

July and August. On October 14, residents of Perryville observed continued emis-

sion of a gray, steam and ash plume rising about 3,280 ft above the summit.

Though the summit was obscured by haze on October 22, observations from

Perryville indicated a decrease in the level of activity relative to that earlier in

the month. Activity continued intermittently for the remainder of 1993. During

favorable wind and weather conditions, Port Heiden residents noted dark ash

clouds above the volcano and deep rumbling was reported by residents in Port

Heiden and Perryville.

Eruptive activity resumed on 29 November 1984. Perryville residents were awak-

ened by rumbling noises from the volcano. By 0800, a black ash cloud was rising

to about 3.5-4 km altitude. At 1000, a second plume rose to about 4 km, followed

by smaller bursts that were occurring at approximately 5-minute intervals as of

about 1020. Pilots reported an ash plume to about 4.5 km altitude at 1045, very

little activity at 1100, and another ash plume to about 5.4 km at 1115. No incan-

descent material was observed from Perryville or by the pilots.

start date: 11.29.1984

stop date: 12.09.1984

volcanic explosivity (VEI): 2

eruptive characteristics:

tephra Plume

central Eruption

116 117

A pilot who flew over the volcano on the morning of 5 December reported a white

vapor plume, containing only a small amount of ash, rising from two small

pits on the E side of the previously active cone. One of the pits was steaming

more vigorously than the other, and a brownish haze drifted downwind from

the volcano. He observed no incandescent material or recent lava extrusions.

On 6 December, Perryville residents observed large vapor plumes of varying in-

tensity that contained very minor amounts of ash. They saw no incandescent

material, and had heard no rumbling noises during the previous several days.

On 7-8 December the volcano was obscured by weather clouds; however, small

intermittent vapor plumes with no ash were observed from Perryville on the 9th.

No incandescent material was seen. On the 10th and 11th, the volcano was not

visible from Perryville.

OTHER ERUPTIONS

1983

1956

1944

1939

1930

1892

1874

1830

Perryville and Ivanof Bay are the closest towns closest to Veniaminof Volcano.

They are within 25 miles of the volcano. Perryville is located within the Lake

and Peninsula Borough in Alaska. As of the census of 2000, there were 107

people, 33 households, and 23 families residing in the Census Designated Place

(CDP). The population density was 11.6 people per square mile. There were 45

housing units at an average density of 4.9/sq mi

. The racial makeup of the CDP

was 1.87% White, 97.20% Native American, and 0.93% from two or more

races. There were 33 households out of which 51.5% had children under the age

of 18 living with them, 45.5% were married couples living together, 18.2% had

a female householder with no husband present, and 30.3% were non-families.

27.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 3.0% had someone

living alone who was 65 years of age or older. In Ivanof Bay, there were 22 peo-

ple, 9 households, and 7 families residing in the CDP. The population density

was 6.5 people per square mile. There were 12 housing units at an average den-

sity of 3.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 4.55% White

culture

Veniaminof

118 119

120 121

and 95.45% Native American.

There were 9 households out of which 22.2% had children under the age of 18

living with them, 33.3% were married couples living together, and 22.2% were

non-families. The main forms of employment on Perryville is fishing, mainly

for crabs.

122 123

124 125

126 127

128 129