WATER AND SANITATION

FOR HEALTH PROJECT

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Telephone: (703) 243-8200 le ,,x No. WUI 64552

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SANITATIONFEASIBILITY STUDY FOR

KANYE VILLAGE, BOTSWANA

WASH FIELD REPORT NO. 95

JUL.Y 1983

* . ''

i-Prepared For:

USAID Mission to the Republic of Botswana S4TOrder of Technical Direction No. 95Uy...-,Eni-nei

mer Sto.l

WATER AND SANITATION r3R HEALTH PROJECT Iddnkh 19dllso.-

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COORDINATION AND

INFORMATION CENTER

Operated by The CDM Asso(iates

Sponsored by the U. S.Agency for International Developnient

1611 N. Kent Street, Room 1002 Arlington, Virginia 22209 USA

Telephone: (703) 243-8200

Telex No. WUI 64552

Cable Address \VASHAID

* . I a

July 22, 1983

Mr. Paul Guedet, Director USAID Miss-ion Gaborone, Botswana

Attention: Mr. Stafford Baker

Dear Mr. Guedet:

On behalf of the WASH Project I am pleased to provide you with 10 (ten) copies of a report on A Sanitation Feasibility Study for Kanye Village, Botswana.

This is the final report by Joseph Gadek, P.E. and Hildegarda Vanlankveld and is based on their trip to Botswana from 3 May to 9 June, 1983.

This assistance is the result of a request by the Mission on 8 March, 1982. The work was undertaken by the WASH Project on 7 May, 1982 by means of Order of Technical

Direction No. 95, authorized by the USAID Office of Health in Washington.

If you have any questions or comments regarding the findings or recommendations contained in this report we will be happy to discuss them.

Sincerely,

J'mes L' Bever-y--Actilig Director' WASH Project

cc. Mr. Victor W.R. Wehman, Jr., P.E., R.S. AID WASH Project Manager S&T/H/WS

DBW:cdej

Isti.t,ScincRsexhTinla Tecnolg 5,.i Unvri of NorthO

Carolina atCael il

Georia Istitte o Tec'S

nooyEgnernSei-mlentain

WASH FIELD REPORT NO. 95

SANITATION FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR KANYE VILLAGE, BOTSWANA

Prepared for the USAID Mission to the Republic of Botswana under Order of Technical No. 95

Prepared by:

Joseph Gadek, P.E. and

Hildegarda M. Vanlankveld

July 1983

Water and Sanitation for 4ealth Project

Contract No. AID/OSPE-C-0080, 3rojec+ No. 931-1176

is sponsored by the Office of Health, Bureau for Science and Technology

U.S. Agency for Internatirnal Development

Washington, OC 20523

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY........................................... iv 1. INTRODUCTION.................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2. KANYE VILLAGE qETTING, DEMOGRAPHY, SANITATION FACILITIES,

WATER SUPPLY, AND PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT ........................... 2

2.1 Setting ...... . ........................................... 2

2.2 Population and Growth ........ ...... ......................... 2

2.3 Existing Sanitation Facilities ........o........... . 8

2.3.1 Pit Latrines ................ . ......... 8

2.3.2 Septic Tanks ........................................... 10 2.3.3 Sludge Disposal ........................................ 10 2.3.4 Kanye Hospital Wastewater Disposal Scheme .............. 10 2.3.5 Seepapitso Secondary School Excreta Disposal Scheme .... 10 2.3.6 Solid Waste Disposal ................ .................. 11

2.4 Water Supply................................................... 11

2.5 Geology and Soil Types ....................................... 11

3. INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS RESPONSIBLE FOR SANITATION IN KANYE VILLAGE ................................. ........ .... 15

3.1 Central Government and District Council ....................... 15

3.1.1 Central Government3.1.2 District Council....................................... . 1517

3.2 Tribal Administration ......................................... 17

3.3 Land Board ....................................................

18

3.4 Committees ........................................ .. 0 . .. 18

3.4.1 District Developmient Committee ......................... 183.4.2 District Health Committee .......... 0.00............ 19 3.4.3 Village Development Committee (VDC).................... 19 3.4.4 Village Health Committee (VHC)....................... 19

3.5 Village Extension Workers ..... o................... o....... .... 20

3.5.1 Family Welfare Educators (FWE) ........................ 20 3.5.2 Community Development Officers (CDO)................. 20

3.5.3 Adult Education Team.................................. 20

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Chapter Page

3.6 Other Ogranizations ........................................... 21

3.6.1 Rural Industries Innovation Center (RIIC).............. 21 3.6.2 Women's Organization .................................. . 21 3.6.3 Youth Organization ..................................... 21 3.6.4 Parent-Teacher Organization ............................ 21 3.6.5 Churches ............................................... 21

4. NEEDS ASSESSMENT .................... ............... ............... 22

4.1 Methodology ................................ se................. 22

4.2 Perceived Community Problems and Needs ........................ 23

4.3 Local Resources ............................................... 25

4.4 Adaptability to Innovation .................................... 26

5. EXCRETA DISPOSAL OPTIONS FOR KANYE VILLAGE ......................... 27

5.1 Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines (VIP) ......................... 27

5.1.1 Latrines Elsewhere in Botswana ......................... 27 5.1.2 Geological Implications of Pit Latrines ................ 28

5.2 Septic Tanks.................................................. 29

5.3 Waterborne Collection and Central Treatment Option ............ 31

5.4 No Action Option .............................................. 32

5.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Proposed Options .............. 32

5.5.1 Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine ........................ 33

5.5.2 Septic Tanks ........................................... 33 5.5.3 Waterborne Collection and Central Treatment ............ 33 5.5.4 No Action .............................................. 34

5.6 Selected Alternative .......................................... 34

5.7 Associated Costs of Selected Alternative and Action Plan ...... 34

5.8 Rehabilitation of Existing On-Site Excreta Disposal Facilities .................................................. 38

6. INSTITUTIONAL NETWORK REQUIREMENTS ................................. 40

6.1 Central Government ............................................ 40

-ii

Chapter Page

6.2 District Council and Village .................................. 41

6.2.1 District Council .................... . . . . . . . . . 41 6.2.2 District Development Committee ......................... 41 6.2.3 District Health Planning Committee..................... 41 6.2.4 Village Development Committee .......................... 41 6.2.5 Village Health Committee............................... 42 6.2.6 Family Welfare Educators (FWE) .......... ............ 42 6.2.7 Community Development Officers ......................... 42 6.2.8 Adult Education Team ........................ ........... 42 6.2.9 Rural Industries Innovation Center ..................... 43

6.3 Social Network Support Requirements ........................... 43

7. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................... 44

REFERENCES ..................... ............ ................. 47

APPENDICES

A. Order of Technical Direction.......................................... 49

B. Officials Interviewed .............................................. 57

C. Relevant Maps ...................................................... 59

D. 1981 CENSUS..................... ........ ee............ . ......... 60

E. Kanye Sanication Study Household Survey May, 1983 .................. 62

F. Kanye Water Supply Data 1981-1982 .................................. 68

G. The Implementation of Urban and Rural Sanitation Programmes in Botswana by James G. Wilson ...................................... 69

H. Water and Sanitation for Health Project Report:Kanye

Infiltration Tests ................................................ 73

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Government of Bostwana requested that a sanitation feasibility study be carried out in the "major village" of Kanye in order to address the problem of lack of adequate excreta disposal facilities. In conducting this investigation

the study team learned that the community itself perceives the need for such facilities but up until now has faced two constraints in t, provision of adequate sanitation facilities on a community-wide basis:

1. Lack of technical and administrative guidance in undertaking communitywide solutions to the problem.

2. Insufficient funds in the majority of Kainyt households to pay for even low-cost, on-site excreta disposal systems.

At the present time it is estimated 1hat only 32 percent of the households inKanye are served by either pit latrines or septic tanks. These existing facilities have all been built by individuals with ro outside help and many of them need improvements and/or modifications.

It is recommended that the necessary funds be made available immediately to undertake the construction of so;,e 2,000 ventilated improved pit (VIP)latrines in Kanye (see chapter 5 for a discussion of funding).

Adequate funding will overcome the financial problem but the technical and administrative aspects may well pose even more difficult problems and may well be more critical to its success. The Government of Botswana needs to demonstrate its support for rural sanit.3tion programs by providing not only

funding but also the necessary training of manpower. The principal trainingneed is in the area of community health education and mobilization as well as technical expertise. The technical aspects of the propnsed program are important because lack of technical expertise has hindered past efforts to improve sanitation. The socio-economic factors of such a program need more attention in order to develop a project that can be sustained over time.

The 2,000 or so VIP latrines could be built very quickly by a contractor, the trade off being higher cost for a shorter time frame. However, community

participation in construction and the resulting health education will provide

sustained benefits over the long term. This project, if properly undertaken,monitored, and evaluated, could served as a model in the other "major villages" throughout Botswana which are also in need of an "affordable" solution to the excreta disposal problems facing them toda"f.

-iv

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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

On behalf of the USAID Mission in Botswana the Water and Sanitation for Health (WASH) Project was approached by the AID Office of Health in April 1982 to provide a team to study the feasibility of providing sanitation facilities in Kanye Village. The request for assistance originated with the Botswana

Ministry of Local Government and Lands (MLGL) through the Senior Public health Engineer. After considerable and time-consuming effort to define the scope of work (see order of Technical Direction No. 95, Appendix A) a two-person WASH team was dispatched to Botswana to provide the services eventually agreed upon. Originally the task was viewed as primarily an engineering assignment

but gradually it evolved into a socio-engineering one. The team consisted of an environmental engineer and a sociologist.

The Ministry of Local Government and Lands (MLGL) has recently become increasingly aware of the need to address the problems of inadequate excreta disposal facilities in rural areas of Botswana. Most efforts in the sanitation sector to date have focused upon urban population centers until 1980 when the Environmental Sanitation and Protection Project (ESPP) initiated a program of rural sanitation in two of the eleven districts in Botswana. This study in Kanye Village is an extention of the effort to commit manpower and resources in rural areas in order to improve basic human services.

-1

Chapter 2

KANYE VILLAGE SETTING, DEMOGRAPHY, SANITATION FACILITIES, WATER SUPPLY, AND PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

2.1 Setting

Kanye village is the distri.ct center for Southern District, one of the 11 districts in Botswana. Southern District occupies an area of 26, 875 km which

is approximately five percent of the total land area of Botswana. Kanye is reached by a tarmac road (via Lobatse) and is within two hours from Gaborone,

the distance being approximately 130 km (see preceding map).

2.2 Population and Growth

Kanye Village does not fit the stereotype image of a village because of its

large population. It is therefore designated a "major village" and is one of 26 such vil~ag.s in Botswana. The 1981 Population and Housing Census conducted

by the Central Statistical Office shows the population of Kanye "Village" tohave been 20,215 people with 3,721 households in 1981. The population of allif Scuthern Dist, ct was 119,653 at the time of this census. The 1971 censusfor Kanye was 10,654 peopie. This represents a 90 percent increase in population over the past ten years, Appendix D lists the census breakdown for Kanye

Village as ptiblished by the Central Statistical Office, Gaborone.

Table 1 lists t,._2 ropulation distribution and densities for Kanye village.These were compiled using the 1:6,000 scale base map which the Central

Statistical Office up 1981 conduct census Kanyedrew in to the in Village.Twenty-one enumeration areas (EA) were defined and the EA's tnemselves were divided into sub-enumeration areas.

Referring to Figure 1, Kanye Village Orientation, which is an enlargement of a 1979 1:50,COO scale aerial photograph, enumeration areas 1 through 8 are tothe south of the major road in the photograph (Lobatse-Jwineng road) while areas 9 to 21 are to the northern side of this road. The photograph was blown up to two and one-half times giving Figure 1 a scale of 1:20,000.* This is only intended to give a general orientation of the village.

The population densities listed in Table 1 should only be used as a guide for

planning. From these figures it can be seen that enumeration areas 11, 12, and 13 have the highest population densities. These correspond to the first

settled sections of the village north of the Lobatse-Jwaneng road. his tableis helpful in assessing the relative population densities of the village, but given the nature of the large areas involved, it should not be used on anabsolute basis. For any given enumeratioi area one will find higher densityclusters within that area when compared to the density cited in Table 1.

*See Appendix C for a listing of relevant mapping for Kanye.

-2

http:distri.ct

TABLE 1. KANYE VILLAGE POPULATION DENSITIES

Enumeration Area No. & Household No. Ward Population

EA 001

003-130 Mokodi 478 131-246 Sebego Mokgatle 448

926

EA 002

247-493 Sebego Mokgatle 921 Senneld

EA 003

709-792 Dikgole 299

793-864 Ntshonyane 256

865-904 Kgabo 143

905-955 Ruele 182

880

EA 004

494-535 675-680 Sebego 186

536-549 681-694 108

550-558 35

695-70455-7 Sennelo 345559-63"7

705-708 16

956-1000 174

638-674 144

1008

EA 005

1001-1029 Lenau 116

1030-1051 Modutlwa 88

1052-1078 Tsopye 107

1079-1142 Tsopye 255

1143-1196 Mmalekwa 215

1197-1.214 71

1215-1224 40

1225-1257 Masire 131

1258-1282 Tsopye 100

1123

* Area not determined due to undefined bouridaries

-3-

Populacion Area in Density Hectares People/Hectare

32.7 14.6 *

22.0 13.6 27.0 9.5 10.5 13.6 22.1 8.2

27.0 6.9

13.1 8.2

3.6 9.7

60.5 5.7

13.3 1.2 *

15.8 7.3 17.4 5.1 6.5 16.5

63.8 4.0 31.6 6.8 14.1 5.0 9.1 4.4 5.0 26,2 5.5 18.2

Area No. & Area in Density

Household No. Ward Population Hectares People/Hc-tare

EA 006

1283-1369 Modutlwa 325 33.3 9.8

1370-1373 - 15 *

1374-1387 Kwatleng 52 12.8 4.1

1388-1497 Legotswana 413 63.0 6.6 1498-1517 Masire 75 4.1 17.0

1518-1567 Matlhare 187 33.2 5.6

1067

EA 007

1568-1600 Sekokotla 134 8.4 16.0 1601-1663 Mogojane 256 18.1 14.1 1664-1731 Kgosietsile 276 18.7 14.8 1732-1783 Pelekekavi 212 14.0 15.1

1784-1805 89 6.4 13.9

1806-1814 37 2.6 14.2

1815-1843 118 7.5 15.7

1122

EA 008

1844-1889 Modise 144 16.7 8.6 1890-1962 Kwatleng 228 22.9 10.0

1963-1982 Kwatleng 62 9.1 6.8 1893-1996 - 44 4.6 9.6

1997-2016 - 63 9.4 6.7

2017-2037 Daniel 65 8.4 7.7 2038-2056 Daniel 59 * 2057-2102 144 10.0 14.4

809

EA 009

2103-2144 Taukobong 141 * 2145-2154 " 34 6.3 5.4 2155-2180 Pelekckayi. 87 * 2181-2189 30 3.2 9.4 21.90-2195 - 20 4.8 4.2

2196-2273 Keaiketse 262 18.2 14.4 2274-2387 Dimukwane 382 *

956 EA 010

2388-2598 Mmangwato 873

EA 011

2599-2687 KamodigBome 364 12.8 28.4 2688-2826 NkwangGofamodinm 581 * -

945

-4

Area No. & Household No. Ward Population

Area in Hectares

Density People/Hecta,

EA 012

2827-2953 2954-3019 3193-3279

Morutlina Makaba Makonya

553 288 379

16.2 8.6 9.3

34.1 33.5 40.1

1220

EA 013

3020-3125 3126-3174 3175-3192

Maisakama Magotlhwane

498 230

11.2 6.6

44.5 34.8

36.8-3674 _

Noto 85

267 2.5

21.1 34.0

12.7

1080

EA 014

3280-3486 Moutlwaditse

3782-3809

Dina]edi Chibana 735 82.0 9.0

100 16.4 6.1

835

EA 015

3487-3489

3490-3617 Tsima 14 10.6 1.3

Dinaledi

3675-3714 3715-3781

Makwe

Motlhala

598 187 314

2. . 14.1 40.1

25.9 1.3.2 7.8

1.113

EA 016

3810-3980 Moabi

Modukanele

3981-4090 Tsima

Searobe 636 29.0 21.9

Sebonego

Keboyi Sengwaketse 409 26.8 15.2

1045

EA 017

4091-4115 4116-4178

4179-4235

Seopre Morobana

Seja

95 240

6.1 10.9

15.6 22.0

Lobeko

4236-4249

4250-4279

4or'a

Gabotlhoko Mooka

217 53

11.0 2.2

19.7 24.1

Marupinp 114 7.4 15.4

719

-5

Area No. & Household No. Ward

EA 013

4280-4293 -

4294-4361 -4362-4459 Sebako

4460-4521 I

EA 019

4522-4595 Kgobe Sebako

4596-4622 Kentsi 4623-4643 Losetiho 4644-4654 -4655-4687 Losetiho 4688-4723 -

EA 020

5017-5097 Kgatleng 5098-5260 "

EA 021

4724-4814 Sebako Keiretse

4815-5C'16 Kontle

Mmeke Mogojwa

Molefi Ketlogetswe

TOTAL

Population

54

260

376

2-8

928

251

92

71

37

112

122

685

327

659

986

303

673

976

20,217

Area in Density Hectares People/Hectare

20.5

25.7

13.0

2.6

_

14.6

18.3

16.4 7.8

13.1 6.2

11.1 16.6

15.3 11.8

5.4 6.0

10.1 7.3

25.3 12.9

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Estimates of the present population of Kanye range from 22,000 to 25,000. A projection of the population trend between 1971 (10,664) and 1981 (21,215)would result in a predicted 1983 population of approximately 24,000 and a predicted 1991 population of 38,000.

Clearly the last ten years have shown considerable growth in Kanye. It would be a difficult task to estimate the 1991 or 2000 population any more accurately than that given above. This task will not be undertaken here. It is important to note two recent events which might have an influence on the future growth rate of Kanye. The first was the completion in 1979 of the Lobatse to Jwaneng tarmac road serving the Jwaneng diamond mine which passes through

Kanye. Second, in 1982 the Botswana Power Corporation completed work on connecting Kanye to the national electrical grid. In light of these developments one would expect that migration into Kanye will most likely not slow down in the near future.

2.3 Existing Sanitation Facilities

2.3.1 Pit Latrines

The most common improved form of excreta disposal at present used in Kanye village is the pit latrine. It has only been through government built housing,

which is a very low percentage of the overall housing in Kanye, that there has been any "organized" program of pit latrine constructin to date. Most of these government quarters built for the Southern District Council have been built by

the Ministry of Works and include either pit latrines or septic tanks as part of the housing construction. Other than this, all other pit latrine construction in Kanye has been done on an individual basis with little or no guidance from the District Council or the Central Government.

The following three sources of information are used in this section to attempt to estimate the number of latrines:

1. The 1981 Census information from "Summary Statistics on Small Areas" (see Appendix D);

2. Information gathered from local health workers related to this topic; and

3. The Household Sanitation Survey conducted in relation to this study.

It is not certain at this time exactly how many households have either pit latrines or septic tanks. The best data for estimating this information are apparently those in the 1981 Census. The household sanitation survey and the information gathered verbally from the District Council health workers appear to be less reliable overall, because the household survey covered only one percent of the households in Kanye and did not include data from any of the health workers responsible for monitoring excreta disposal facilities. The 1981 Census indicated that 1,049 households had pit latrines and another 143 households had septic tanks. According to these figures, then, only 32 percentof the Kanye households in 1981 had some form of excreta disposal facilities.

-8

With an estimated 68 percent of the households not served by any form of excreta disposal in 1981 the assumption is made that this 68 percent also applies to the unserved proportion of the existing 1983 households. Also, the assumption is made that household growth from 1981 to 1983 followed the same rate of approximately 2.3 percent annually (from 2,974 households in 1971 to

3,731 in 1981). Thus, in 1983 there would be a total of 3,900 households in

Kanye Village. Of these 3,900 households, then, there are an estimated 2,650

(68 percent) with no form of excreta disposal facility.

Looking at the above analysis, the total number of households for 1983 is a reasonable projection from the 1981 Census. However, the attempt at estimating

the number of households without excreta disposal facilities is founded on two

basic assumptions which might be wrong. first theThe is that 1981 census information pertaining to household sanitation facilities is indeed correct

and the second that the percentage of households without excreta disposal in 1981 is the same as that of those without in 1983. This is the best information available at present and can only be verified or disproved if the

District Council does a full scale household count of pit latrines and septic

tanks in the near future.

The census data need some interpretation. For example, for the purpose of this study, the "other" category will be grouped with the "none" category. This interpretation leads to the conclusion that 1,049 households of 3,731out

households had latrines This 28pit in 1981. represents percent of the households in the village.

In a recent meeting with the health workers employed by the Southern District Council it was estimated that from 30 percent to 40 percent of the households in Kanye had some type of improved sanitation facilit ;, ')uring the course of

this study a household sanitation survey was conducted in which questionnaires were filled out for 46 households in three wards of the village. This represents only one percent of the households. The results showed that 39 percent

of the sample population had pit latrines. See Appendix E for results of the survey.

Another method was attempted to count pit latrines but proved to be of little assistance. Aerial photographs of Kanye taken in October 1979 at a 1:15,000

scale were blown up to 1:5,000 scale with the hope that pit latrine structures

would be identifiable. With the use of a magnifying glass they could be identified but not with the certainty which was needed to make this method worthwhile.

Therefore, with the three present sources of information, it appears that anywhere from 25 percent to 40 percent of the households in Kanye have pit

latrines. There is no substitute, however, for a survey of the entire village

to obtain proper baseline information. This could be conducted by the District council using the 1:5,000 Department of Town and Regional Planning maps.

Finally, it should be noted that in conducting the very limited household survey it was observed in general that the latrines visited were being

maintained fairly well that casesbut in all there was no screening on the vent pipe. With a small amount of supervision and advice all vent pipes could

be improved and screening added to reduce potential disease transmission by

flies.

-9

2.3.2 Septic Tanks

According to the 1981 census figures, again, the nu,,iber of households with flush toilets (and therefore with septic tanks) are reported to be 143. This conflicts with what the Assistant Health Inspector at the Kanye clinic reports. He is responsible for supervising the District Council's vacuum tanker which empties sludge from septic tanks in Kanye. He estimates that there are 40 septic tanks throughjut the village. Inconducting the household survey two septic tank systems were sampled and neither had been emptied as yet. Possibly his estimate of 40 includes only those which have been emptied

and there may be more that remain unemptied and, therefore, uncounted. Again,it appears to be essential to have a thorough inventory done village-wide in order to ascertain the level of sanitation facilities which exist.

2.3.3 Sludge Disposal

Within the last several years the Ministry of Local Government and Lands funded the setting up of a sludge disposal area to the southeast of Kanye just

off the road to Mmathethe. It is an area of about 2.5 hectares whch is fenced in with a ditch dug around the inside perimeter. The vacuum tanker is emptied on this land by spreading the "solids." There are not many inhabitants around this site and therefore there doesn't appear to be any health problemassociated with this septage disposal procedure except, perhaps, for one point. Some of the fencing is missing (up to 50 meters) and should be immediately replaced so that people and animals can be kept out.

2.3.4 Kanye Hospital Wastewater Disposal Scheme

The Kanye Hospital which is run by the Seventh Day Adventist Church is one of the largest hospitals in Botswana. A recent expansion and rehabilitation project at the hospital has included an excreta disposal element. Under this scheme the waterborne excreta flows by gravity to a large septic tank (threeday design detention) followed by a three cell biodisk biological process and finally chlorination. The effluent is then pumped up to the hospital grounds to irrigate trees and grass. This disposal scheme began operation only in June 1983.

2.3.5 Seepapitso Secondary School Excreta Disposal Scheme

The Ministry of Education has recently appropriated monies to the Seepap1LZ, Secondary School in Kanye for the rehabilitation and upgrading of infrastructure within the school's boundaries. Approximately Pula 200,000.00 ($1 = Pula 0.95) have been allocated to the rehabilitation of the existing excreta disposal facilities. The new faciities will consist of an anaerobic tank (oneday detention); three stabilization ponds with a 51 day detention time; and finally disposal of the effluent utilizing percolation trenches located approximately 600 meters away from the stabilization ponds.

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http:200,000.00

2.3.6 Solid Waste Disposal

Two refuse "wagons" which are pulled by tractors collect solid waste from around the village. They dispose of the refuse at a site, set up again by the Ministry of Local Government and Lands, which is about 2 kilometers outside of the town off of the road leading to Jwaneng. This area is about 2.5 hectares and is fenced off but again some of the fencing is missing. There should be some analysis done as to whether it would be economically worthwhile to recycle the amount of aluminum *which goes into the refuse site in the form of drink cans.

2.4 Water Supply

The Kanye area is semi-arid, with the Kgalagadi Desert bordering the Southern District to the west. Rainfall averages only approximately 450 mm per annumwith the majority of this rainfall coming between October and March. There are no perennial rivers in this part of the country.

sourceThe water supply serving the village consists of seven boreholes. Five

of these boreholes are locatcd about 6 km outside of town at an area known as Kgwakwe. The remaining two boreholes are located within the vfllage boundaries and until recently one other functioned within the village but was taken out of operation due to high levels of nitrate contamination. One of the two still operating within the village (No. 3449) has been identified as having excessive nitrate levels but still operates. See Appendix F for additional water supply data.

The source and distribution system at present appear to be inadequate for theexisting population Kanye. Department Water isof The of Affairs presentlyreviewing the water supply system for Kanye village and has assigned an engineer to begin work on a design for the rehabilitation and upgrading of the

entire system. The Department of Geological Survey has Kanye in its work program within the coming 12 months in terms of locating additional sources of groundwater.

Boreholes No. 820 and No. 3449 are the two borehole sources which had somepercolation testing performed since they seem to be "sensitive" beiqq that they are within the village and unprotected. Borehole No. 820 has a relatively

impermeable ground surface above it which helps to protect it from surface contamination. Borehole No. 3449 which is near Lake Bathoen has very permeable soil surrounding it (see Table 2).

2.5 Geology and Soil Types

The geology surrounding Kanye Village is composed of sandstone conglomerates,

dolomite and chert, and felsite; with intrusive rocks of dolerite and leucogranite.* Kanye is situated on a hilltop and generally has a very rocky soil

*The Department of Geological Survey (under the Ministry of Mineral Resources and Water Affairs) located in Lobatse has the relevant geological maps

available at 1:125,000 scale for the Kanye area.

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Table 2

Percolation Test Summary*

Pit No. Permeability (k)(m/day) Remarks

1 7.8 x 10- 2 Soil Calss 3i

2 1.5 Soil Class 4h

3 11.0 Soil Class 3fh

4 01? Borehole #820

5 6.2 Borehole #3449

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with numerous rock outcroppings throughout the village. These conditions have

made the excavation for latrine substructures very difficult in the past andhave discouraged people in many areas from constructing them. One of the

constantly mentioned needs of the community was for a compressor to assist inthe penetration of some of the rock layers. Other areas of the village arerocky but no real massive layers of rock are reached. Thus, it is possible todig with a pick and shovel, but it is very laborious work.

Within the immediate area of Kanye Village there are six different soil types as classified by the Land Utilization Division of the Ministry of Agriculture.Figure 2, Soil classifications for Kanye Area, shows on a 1:60,000 scale thesoil types distribution for the areas surrounding Kanye village which pertain

to this study. The classification used in a modification of the U.S. Department of Agriculture'sfive

soil typing system. This system operates on a one-toscale with one being the best for agricultural considerations and five the worst. The heading of "Limitations" obviously pertains to limitations foragriculture but does shed some light on concerns with on-site disposal of excreta.

A local consultant was engaged to provide soil percolation testing for the 3i,3fh, and 4h soil classifications (see Appendix H). Also one percolation test was done in the vicinity of each of the two operating boreholes which arewithin the boundaries of the village. Of the six soil classes in the area,i.e. 3i , 3fh, 4h, 5dehr, 5dhr, and 5r, only the first three are of majorsignificance since the majority of the population lives within their boundaries. The last three classifications are mainly the tops of hills and steepslopes which are normally unsettled. Constant-head permeability tests were run

for areas which were thought to represent the classes of 3i , 3fh, and 4h. Theresults are shown in Table I. The 3i soil class was extremely impermeable. The test for the 4th soil class was performed at a location which was indicated on

the soils map to have been 4h, but in actuality it was somewhat impermeable at one meter. it is believed that the testing the class itself wasof 4h notactually carried out. The results of testing the soil4h class would probablybe fairly similar to the results of the 3fh class. On an area basis the 3fhand 4h soil 'asses comprise approximately 70 percent of Kanye's inhabited a rea.

Of the six soil classifications listed in Figure 2 only the 3i, 3fh, and 4hsoil classes were tested for permeability since the mdjority of the population

inhabits areas within the confines of these three. As can be seen from Table 2

the 3i soil is virtually impermeable whereas soil class 3fh is very permeable.Test Pit No. 2 was chosen in order to evaluate the 4h soil class, but it maynot have accomplished that goal. At a one meter depth in an area which the map

indicated representing the 4h soil class there was a slight change in the soiltexture as compared to that at the surface. From the soil classificationdescriptions as cited in Figure 2 it would be expected that the 3fh and 4hsoil classifications would have permeabilities more similar than those recorded in Table 2. The true 4h soil class most probably was not actuallyrepresented by Test Pit No. 2.

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FIGURE 2 N

SOIL CLASSIFICATIONS FOR KANYE AREA TO JWANENO

.411~

L~ J>~8\

Scale 1:60,000 LEGEND

'CLASS LIMITATIONS

. 31 PERMEABILITY

3 F H LOW WATER HOLDING CAPACITY

4 H VERY LOW wATER HCLI NO CAPACIrY?

5OEHR 51Y. 0YNEssDEPTH, EROSION. Pok

8 LLW WATER HOLPONG CAPACITY

5 PHR SOIL DEPTH, FCKYNE.SS, & LOW W!ATER HOLPIh5 (l,,4r/7IY

5! 570NYNESS P A'OCK NFSS

*Soil Percolation Test Sites

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-ITO L13T

CHARACTERISTICS

LOAMY HARD WIEN DRY

lOAMY SAND GREATER THAN 50cm DEEP

LOAMY S,1?.0, STON. SUBSOIL SWEI.L PRA IND

iLi:.YVERY STEEP SLOPES

HIlLY VFRY STEEP "LOPES

IHAI,'Y 7-:.-,E ROCK CUTCROPS 9 TONES

http:FCKYNE.SS

Chapter 3

INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS RESPONSIBLE FOR SANITATION IN KANYE VILLAGE

3.1 Central Government and District Council

There are two levels of government above the village level with responsibility for the general welfare of the village population. First, there is the Central Government based in Gaborone which, through its various ministries, provides manpower and resources to undertake development projects throughout the country. Each district has a District Commissioner (DC) representing the Central Government and responsible for administering and monitoring centrally sponsored development projects.

Closer to the village level is the ment plans with a budget provided Lands (MLGL). The District Council ment projects.

District by t:ie administers

Council Ministry

and

which organizes developof Local Government and

monitors certain develop

3.1.1 Central Governmnent

At present the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Local Government and Lands are the primary ministries of the Central Government responsible for formulating policy and carrying out programs related to improved sanitation. While the Department of Water Affairs under the Ministry of Mineral Resources and Water Affairs should be involved, it is not. To be fair to the Department of Water Affairs there now exists an Interministerial Committee for Water and Sanitation which at least at a policy level is beginning to r~ake inroads towards integrating the two concerns, i.e. water and sanitation.

Ministry of Health (MOH)

The Ministry of Health is responsible for the general health of the population. Supported by other ministries in the provision of primary health care, the MOH influences and advises the Ministry of Agriculture in nutritional concerns as well as advising the Ministry of Local Government and Lands (MLGL)

in the provision of good housing and proper sanitation for both urban and rural areas. The MOH liaison with the Department of Water Affairs is to assure that both rural and urban populations are supplied with an adequate and clean water supply. The MOH has a health education unit which produces a radio program addressing issues such as health education, housing, sanitation, water supply, nutrition, family planning, and many other aspects of primary health care.

The Ministry runs and supervises health services such as clinics, health posts, health centers, and district and regional hospitals. The National Institutc of Health in Gaborone trains the manpower necessary to staff health facilities throughout the country.

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In serving the rural MLGL

population the MOH has a joint responsibility with thesince the local District Councils are under the MLGL. These DistrictCouncils are responsible for running health posts and clinics and have healthextension workers under their authority. As a result of this joint responsibility for health care, interministerial committees. have been formed betweenMOH and MLGL to coordinate their activities more efficiently. These generallymeet every three months to resolve administrative and policy concerns. A fewof these committees are the Rural Extension Coordinating Committee whichcoordinates the activities of the village extension teams, the DroughtContingency Committee, theand Environmental Sanitation and Water Supply

Committee.

Within the MOH there are specific units responsible for promoting, supervising, advising, and evaluating the various programs such as health education, maternal and child health care, nutrition, and communicable disease control.

Ministry of Local Government and Lands (MLGL)

The Ministry of Local Government and Lands (MLGL) is responsible for thecoordination of development activities throughout the country. MLGL isbeginning to assume the primary role of planning and implementing excretadisposal programs. This is being coordinated through the office of the SeniorPublic Health Engineer within MLGL. Why the MLGL has taken the primary role inthe excreta disposal sector as opposed to the andMOH why the Senior PublicHealth Engineer is within MLGL and not MOH is probably because the MLGL ismore traditionally oriented towards public works type of projects than is MOH.

Through MLGL several urban sanitation programs have been and continue to becarried out throughout Botswana. A pilot rural sanitation project, theEnvironmental Sanitation and Protection Project (ESPP), was sponsored by USAIDin six villages in Southern District and Kgatleng District whereby low-costventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines were constructed and health educationwas promoted. This project is being expanded, now under UNICEF funding, andappears that rural sanitation is being looked at it

more seriously by MLGL.

In the urban areas the MLGL operates in conjunction with the Self Help HousingAgency (SHHA) to assure that home-owners borrowing through forSHHA housingconstruction install proper means of excreta disposal. In the "site andservice" areas of Gaborone MLGL proper sanitation facilities are required foreach building. If this is not done as the first order of business then theremainder of the loan through SHHA for the house structure itself will bewithdrawn. The loan for the double-pit latrire in this case is paid back overa 25-year period including a monthly charge v,hich covers the cost of emptyingthe latrine periodically (every one to two years). See Appendix G for further details.

At the ruralpresent time all urban and sanitation projects are coordinatedand supervised by the Senior Public Health Engineer, with assistance from theMLGL counterpart, sociologist, village based WelfareFamily Educators,Assistant Community Development Officers, Districtand Health Officers. TheMinistry faces shortages of qualified sanitarians both at the ministerial and district levels.

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With the proper training facilities the MLGL would eventually like to staff each district council with a District Sanitation Coordinator and District Sanitation Foreman as well as have a Village Sanitation Coordinator and Village Sanitation Assistants appointed by the village leadership in areas where construction of excreta disposal facilities is planned. At present, there is no one in Kanye Village to spearhead a sanitation campaign. A newly hired graduate of the National Institute of Health is now working in Kanyeunder the District Council but he needs direction at this point from his superiors getting him involved in sanitation issues. (See Chapter 4 of the ESPP "handbook for District Sanitation Coordinators" for full details on staffing recommendations in the district for carrying out a successful sanitation program.)

3.1.2 District Council

There are 11 districts in Botswana each of which has its own district council. Kanye Village is the district center for Southern District. District councils are elected and appointed political bodies that have statutory responsibility for primary education, public health services, feeder roads, and the maintenance of rural water supplies.

The District Council submits an annual budget request to the central government and is granted its operating funds for that year based upon need as well as the overall national budget constraints. With these funds the District Council is responsible for implementing development projects as well as monitoring them.

As can be seen there are then overlapping responsibilities between District Council Government and Lentral Government. The Central Governmental ministries carry out certain development projects as does the district council government.

There is an elected Council Secretary who is responsible for the overall management and monitoring of district council projects, The District Commissioner (DC) is in a parallel role managing and monitoring centrally funded projects. The DC is the senior government official in the district and chairs the District Development Committee (DDC) which is an advisory body coordinating the planning, implementation, and monitoring of all central and local government development programs.

3.2 Tribal Administration

In addition to the formal government structure comprised of central and district council elements, there is the traditional tribal structure in Botswana which is a very important element in any development activity. The tribal administration includes the chiefs, sub-chiefs, and village headmen. The primary task of the tribal administration is the overseeing of customary law. Eighty percent of all criminal and civil cases throughout the country are handled according to this law (National Development Plan, 1975-1985, page 84).

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The Bangwaketse Tribe is the predominent tribe in Southern District. The Paramount Chief of the Bangwaketse is Seepapitso who commands much respect and is able to influence political leaders in matters concerning community development. The tribal administration headquarters for the Bangwaketse tribe is also located in Kanye Village.

The tribal authorities work hand-in-hand with the District Commissioner andthe District Council in attempting to identify the needs of the communities throughout the District and in mobilizing the people to carry out self helpprojects. Within District the tribal authority isthe Council represented byseveral councillors. Through local "kgotla" meetings called by the headmen,sub-chiefs, or the Paramount Chief himself the people in the village or ward of the village are able to verbalize their problems and concerns for development and attempt to come up with possible solutions to the problems. This is one of the processes by which the government stays in touch with the people's

needs. The importance that the tribal organization plays in assisting successful community development programs should not be underestimated.

In several kgotla meetings in Kanye the people have stated their desire to participate in an excreta disposal project they feel that need thebut theytechnical and financial assistance of the government (see below, Chapter 4).

3.3 Land Board

There is a Land Board in each district. It is a statutory body responsible for land allocation and settlement of land disputes in the tribal areas. In consultation with the Paramount Chief and village headmen the Land Board holds tribal land in trust and allocates it for residential, commercial, industrial,

and grazing areas under customary and common law. They can cancel the right to use land or impose restrictions on the use of land. The District Council and MLGL have the right to provide policy directions to the Land Board but must consult with them when making such changes in policy. The Land Board is an essential element for any successful sanitation program particula rly in how it

allocates future land in environmentally sensitive areas such as those in close proximity borehole supply With theto water sources. population pressures mounting in major villages such as Kanye the importance of the role of the Land Board and Tribal Authority in allocating plots will become more and more critical to rational environmental planning.

3.4 Committees

3.4.1 District Development Committee

This is a very important committee in terms of overall district planning and involvement of the heads of departments within District Council goverment.Members from the private sector are also included. These are people who could be very effective in assisting implementation of a sanitation project. TheDistrict Development committee has sub-committees such as the District Health Planning Committee, the Education Committee, the Production Committee, etc.

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3.4.2 District Health Committee

This committee is comprised of members of the Regional Health Team such as the Regional Medical Officer, Regional Health Inspector, Regional Public Health Nurse, Regional Social Welfare Officer, Regional Nutritional Officer, Regional

TB Control Coordinator, District Council Clinic Senior Nursing Sister, District Council Planning Officer, District Council Development Officer, Transport Officer from Works Department, and Works Department Foreman.

At present this committee has not as yet initiated any excreta oisposal sanitation projects. Most of these members are posted in Lobatse which is the center for Health Region 6. Their time is often spent in other committee meetings or travelling throughout Region 6 to monitor health programs. This committee plans and monitors all of the Southern District health related projects. How this committee can be improved in terms of identifying village level sanitation projects is discussed in Chapter 6.

3.4.3 Village Development Committee (VDC)

The VDCs are the most active and informative committees in Kanye. There are eight VDCs in Kanye with nine members or fewer in each committee. The members are elected at a kgotla meeting for a term of two years. Interms of community

mobilization and initiation of self-help projects this committee is very influential. Before any project is initiated in the village the VDC will speak with the tribal headmen who will call a kgotla meeting which will then discuss the activity and either approve or disapprove it. The Senior District Community Development Officer provides guidance to the VDCs.

3.4.4 Village Health Committee (VHC)

Like the VDC, the Village Health Committee (VHC) is elected at a kgotla. The VHC includes members of the village extension workers group who are described below in section 3.5. The extention workers within the VHC are the FamilyWelfare Educator (FWE), the Assistant Community Development Officer (ACDO), and the Agricultural Demonstrator (AD).

The VHC in Kanye Village does not seem to he as strong as it should be, consequently it appears to be falling short of its responsibility of improving household health within the village. In relation to suggestions concerning the construction of ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines in Kanye the VHC said that they have often approached the District Council in regard to getting support in the form of a compressor to help in breaking rock which is a problem in the area but so far no support has resulted.

The VDC and VHC are the two primary committees at the grass roots level which will have to be in complete cooperation in any given ward in Kanye if a successful self-help element of an excreta disposal project is to be undertaken.

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,.5 Village Extension Workers

The Village Extension Team (VET) are a group of worlers under the direction ofthe District Council who get out to the villages. They are involved in variousaspects of developmepc and health is, . Those mem')ers of this extension teamwho are most closely linked to health activities and who would be essential tothe success of an improved sanitation project are the Family Welfare Educators(FWEs), the Community Development Officers CDOs), and the Adult Education Team.

3.5.1 Family Welfare Educators (FWE)

These people are chosen by the community at a kotla ;leeting. They are giventhree months of training by a Public Health Nurse in the areas patientofhealth education, identification of those at high risk for illness, nutrition,family planning, and patient follow-up. There are six FWEs in Kanye. Two workat the hospital and four at the District Council clinic. In addition to theabove cited duties the FWE is also responsible for house-to-house inspectionand making suggestions for improved health. This could include inspection ofhousehold toilets, a task they do not Jo at the present time because there areonly six FWEs to cover the entire village, they have many responsibilities andthey are not instructed as to what to look for in inspecting toilets. Members of the community in Kanye complain that they seldom see the FWEs otherthan when there is an infectious disease threatenirg. On the other hand theFWEs complain of too much paper work, a lack of manpower, and a lack oftransport to explain why they do not get out into the community as they aresupposed to. It is clear that there is a problem and that the FWEs shouldout in the field much more often than they are now. These would be ideal

be

people to promote better health through improved sanitat'on.

3.5.2 Community Development Officers (CDO)

Community Development Officers are a part of the Village Extension Team (VET).They include Agricultural Demonstrators (ADs), Economists,Home YouthOfficers, Social Welfare Officers, and Assistant Community DevelopmentOfficers (ACDO). They are all trained helpto stimulate development throughmobilized community self-help projects. They should be working hand-in-handwith the Family Welfare Educators, the Village Development Committees, and the

Village Health Committees.

At the present time most of the CDOs in Kanye are newly appointed and lack theexperience to initiate development projects. They also could be helpful in the

implementation of a sanitation program.

3.5.3 Adult Education Team

The Adult Education Team is headed by the District Adult Education Officerwhose duty it is to supervise, advise, and assist the literacy assistants andliteracy group leaders. They fall under the Non-Formal Education Departmentwithin the MOH.

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The team's role in general is to provide those who have not had the orportunity to attend formal school with basic reading and writing courses. they collaborate with the health education unit's radio program and mass media campaigns related to health and also with other ministries and departments, in other educational activities. The Non-Formal Education Department was involved in the health campaign through preparation of visual aids for the Environmental Sanitation and Protection Project (ESPP).

3.6 Other Organizations

3.6.1 Rural Industries Innovation Center (RIIC)

Although this privately run organization does not currently get extensively involved in sanitation projects they did express interest in helping to identify low-cost methods of latrine construction. Since RIIC is located in Kanye they might fit very well into a sanitation program.

3.6.2 Women's Organization

Although at this time the Botswana Council of Women is not very active in Kanye it does present potential for directly involving women in any type of sanitation project.

3.6.3 Youth Organization

The Youth Organization is comprised of Girl Guides and Boy Scouts. The leader of the organization has just 'ecently been transferred to Kanye and is now preparing a teaching syllabus. Her syllabus did not include a sanitation skills but she did seem willinz, to include it after some discussion.

3.6.4 Parent-Teacher Organization

This organization is mainly active in the school meals program but might be helpful in the construction of sanitation facilities located at schools for demonstration purposes.

3.6.5 Churches

Churches such as tne Seventh-Day Adventist, Jehovah's Witness, and the London Missionary Society as well as others located in Kanye may present possibilities for organizing a sanitation program.

-2.

Chapter 4

NEEDS ASSESSMENT

4.1 Methodology

The Kanye community needs were assessed through numerous meetings and discussions held with district level officials, tribal leaders, ward and village headmen, village development committees, village health committees,

the District Council health employees, and various members of the community through the tribal kgotla meetings.

When the WASH team arrived in Kanye a meeting was arranged by the District Council Planning Officer for the purpose of informing the concerned district and tribal officials of the stated goal of the Kanye Village Sanitation Study. The WASH team started a dialogue by stating the goals of the study and officials at the meeting stated their perception of community needs in Kanye specifically related to sanitation. It was a very good session and provided the opportunity to set up individual appointments with the various officials.

At the village meetings and at those with individuals and committees questions were centered on the following issues:

- Existing excreta disposal facilities. - Percentage of people with and without such facilities. - Problems with construction of excreta disposal facilities in the past. - Means of desludging and location of sludge disposal. - Preferences in improving the existing facilities and ideas for implementation.

- Locally available resources and skills. - Financial status of the people and their willingness to pay for the

type of improvement recommended. - Hygiene practices of the local residents. - Beliefs and taboos related to the use of toilets arid excreta handling. - The social network. - The history of community organization, commitments, and accomplishments.

- Previous self-help activity successes and failures. - Leadership and decision-making patterns. - Prevalence of diseases. - Receptivity to change. - People's attitude towards government personnel.

Information relating to these issues was primarily obtained from the Village Extention Team (VET), Village Health Committees (VHC), Village DevelopmentCommittees (VDC), and from tribal and government officials. A good deal of information was also gathered after the study team was permitted by the tribal hierarchy to visit three of the many wards within Kanye.*

*It is interesting to note that the WASH team had a difficult time finding out exactly how many wards there are in Kanye; there seemed to be as manydifferent answers as the number of times the question was asked. There are 75 wards listed on the 1981 Census Map.

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The purpose of visiting wards was to determine the environmental sanitationconditions, get responses from Kanye residents to questionnaires, observe soilconditions, and, through a very small sample, get an idea of the percentage ofhouseholds having excreta disposal facilities (either pit latrines or septic

tanks).

Questionnaires were drawn up, and 18 inhouseholds Mafikana Ward, 15 households in Tsopsye Ward (Zone 2), and 13 households in Bagami Ward weresurveyed, mainly concerning sanitation practices. (The sample survey form andthe tabulated results of the survey are contained in Appendix E.)

The salient results of the survey showed:

o That all people living in the houses surveyed were the owners of the houses.

o That 54 percent of the heads of household surveyed were unemployed.

o That 80 percent of the households visited were obtaining their water from ptiblic standpipes.

0 That there were no excreta disposal facilities in 57 percent of the households surveyed.

0 All people interviewed preferred the seat type toilet as opposed to the squatting slab.

o None of the pit latrines visited had screening over the vent pipe.

o All those interviewed with pit latrines said they had additional space on their plot to dig a new pit.

4.2 Perceived Community Problems and Needs

Following is a list of factors mentioned by government and/or tribal membersof the community that they perceived as affecting community health:

- poor sanitation practices; - lack of health education at home; - poor personal hygiene; - illiteracy; - poor environmental and home hygiene; - drought and poor nutrition; - alcoholism; - poor hygiene in bottle feeding; - lack of motivation to go for hospital follow-up care;- inefficient promotion of primary health care as a result lack ofof

coordination; - lack of understanding of the purpose of the health care system

(example: Family Welfare Educators are given clinical curativebecause of manpower shortages and transport problems but they should

work be

helping households in the field).

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The meetings held in Kanye revealed that the tribal leaders, the district officials and the community all share very similar ideas on what the sanitation (i.e. excreta disposal) problems are in the village. They also have a realistic outlook as to the range of possible solutions and do not expect that a waterborne sewerage system is likely for the entire village at this time.

The community generally agrees that everyone should have some form of excreta disposal facility but realizes that because of the lack of technical guidance and help in obtaining the mechanical means of digging in the rocky soil they have been limited to tackling the problem on an individual basis rather than as a community. It is also apparent to the local people that even the low-cost on-site option will require financial assistance.

People living close to the bush areas which are currently being used for defecation complained of increasing odors and flies and when asked about the incidence of diarrhea they stated that it was quite common. Diarrhea is not uncommon in general. In 1976, for example, 23 percent of all outpatients at any given time throughout the country suffered from diseases related to poor sanitation, diarrhea being the primary ailment (National Development Plan 1975-85). Many people seemed to perceive the need for better health through sanitation but are at a loss as to what to do without supervision and guidance.

There is a definite need for complementary health education. This may not be perceived by all in the community, but some officials did point it out. As an example, most people will not allow young children (under eight years old) to use a latrine, even if they have one because they fear the child will fall in the pit or that the child will foul the latrine. The children consequently defecate within the compound and the feces will later be placed in the latrine by the mother. There is a general perception that a child's feces are somehow cleaner than an adult's.

A tribal official argued that providing health education and awareness without aiding people with the means of building pit latrines is pointless. He reiterated the fact that many people realize the problem and see what has to be done to solve the problem but don't know how to because of lack of supervision and financial resources.

At meeting with the Village Development Committee, the most dynamic and resourceful committee in Kanye, it was agreed that some form of improved excreta disposal system is a basic need for the commuity as a whole. The necessary steps were then listed to achieve a solution to this health problem in the order of their perceived importance.

1. The acquisition of a compressor to assist digging and the provision of technical guidance and financial assistance from the government.

2. The promulgation of a village by-law to punish people who fail to provide proper excreta disposal facilities within a designated time once the above assistance is forthcoming.

3. Health education seminars for VDC, VHC, headmen, and councillors.

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4. An increase in the number of Family Welfare Educators (FWEs) to providebetter health education throughout the village.

5. Increased involvement of the VDC and VHC in planning community health activities.

6. A seminar for traditional healers and utilization of them in dissemination of health information.

4.3 Local Resources

In order to determine what individual household could afford with regard tosanitation facilities the WASH team attempted to secure information related toemployment statistics. No such information is available but the most commonfigures verbally transmitted would indicate that only 20 to 40 percent of theheads of household are formally employed. A large percentage of households owncattle but to enquire as to how many cattle someone owns is considered a faux pas.

Obviously, it is difficult to develop affordability criteria for sanitationfacilities without any type of income data. It can only be stated that at best

the people in Kanye can afford only low-cost facilities.

Based upon the Environmental Sanitation and Protection Project's experience inSouthern District it appears that people in that area can afford only approximately Pula 20 for sanitation facilities ("ESPP Final Report", pages 52, 70).If the real of 190 had beencost Pula passed on to the recipients of thesanitation facilities it was estimated that only three percent of those servedwould actually have been able to afford them. Kanye Village, while somewhatdifferent than the ESPP pilot villages in terms of size, is basically in thesame situation. Based upon the ESPP work and observations made by the WASHteam the affordability level estimated for Kanye Village is approximately Pula 30.

There is a feeling among the residents of Kanye that the "government" shouldprovide sanitation facilities for them. There really seems to be no indicationthat there has ever been any large scale self help project in Kanye.government has provided infrastructure support The

in the form of feeder roads,refuse pickup and piped water, to mention only a few, with minimal involvementof the people in their implementation. Likewise, if a water-borne seweragesystem were to be recommended, it is unlikely that the community wouldparticipate in its construction or maintenance. However, if it is recommendedthat the majority of the community nave individual on-site pit latrines orseptic tank systems then self-help cannot be overlooked in developing therecommended implementation plan.

There are several attitudes and accepted practices which were expressed

related to toilet habits as follows:

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Preferences:

o Sitting type toilet; the squatting type is regarded as incomplete.

o If a pit latrine, a design which offsets the latrine in relation to the pit.

Dislikes:

o Children using the pit latrines

o Anal cleaning with water

o Sharing a facility with neighbors

o Concept of compost pit latrine because of need eventually to handle excreta for further disposal.

4.4 Adaptability to Innovation

It should be noted that many of the people who have constructed their own pit

latrines have done so by copying previously constructed latrines, perhapswith their own modifications. Given the lack of guidance and supervision, many

of the people have done quite a good job. However, many of the examples being

copied are not good examples of well constructed latrines.

Most of the latrines constructed by the Works Department are without screening on the vent pipes. This has, and continues to, set a poor example and theMinistry of Works should send out a reminder to all district offices that this

is not the recommended practice any longer. With the simple addition of somescreening, disease transmission through flies from the latrine can be reduced.

There is a collapsed pit latrine at the Seepapitso Primary School in Kanyewhich is the result of a very heavy superstructure sitting over an unlined pit

followed by some rain. Maybe it is good that it remains there as an example,but most people probably do not understand why it failed and may be put off by

pit latrines because of this example. This superstructure should be removed.

As a final note here, based upon the fact that people have managed to build some pit latrines in Kanye without supervision, it is likely that there wouldbe the community interest necessary for a successful sanitation project.

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Chapter 5

EXCRETA DISPOSAL OPTIONS FOR KANYE VILLAGE

There are several well tested types of on-site excreta disposal systems but the pit latrine and septic tank are the only two options which are acceptableto the people of Kanye. Two other options, the composting toilet and the bucket toilet, were presented to various groups of people during the investigation to try to solve the problem of rocky soil conditions in some parts of the village but these were soundly rejected.

The methane digester is the only other on-site option which was not rejected. However, it was not seriously considered because of the people's unfamiliarity

with it. Most of the people in Kanye use wood as their source of fuel and, as wood becomes more scarce in the future, maybe the methane digester will become more attractive because it provides a fuel source as its by-product. If an excreta disposal project is eventually undertaken in Kanye as the populationincreases then at least one demonstration methane gas latrine unit should be constructed in a highly visible area of the village. There is one methane digester displayed at the Rural Industries Innovation Center in Kanye but most of the people in the village are not aware of this.

5.1 Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines (VIP)

Pit latrines have been the most common improved sanitation technology adoptedin Kanye to date. Those who have constructed pit latrines in Kanye have done so with very minimal supervision or guidance from the Southern District Council or any of the relevant ministries. Generally speaking, however, pit latrines in the past have been constructed reasonably well. Given the fact that there has been a minimum of technical advice and assistance, if any, with regard to design, construction, and the means of building good quality yet low-cost excreta disposal facilities, most of those built in Kanye to date show ingenuity. In general, a great deal of materials and effort go into the superstructure (that portion or the construction above the ground) while the substructure is given less attention simply because of a lack of understanding

of its importance. Also, vent pipes are generally too short, too small in diameter, and almost always lack a screen at the top to prevent the escape of flies from the pit. By observing the latrines, people have seen that there should be a vent pipe but they do not know why there should be one.

5.1.1 Latrines Elsewhere in Botswana

The Environmental Sanitation and Protection Project (ESPP), although not specifically working in Kanye Village, was actively promoting and constructing the Botswana Improved Trench-Latrine (BIT) in three pilot villages in Southern District between 1980 and 1982. Most of the Kanye community is aware of the ESPP efforts and is now hoping that some similar project will be undertaken in Kanye. The ESPP "Handbook for District Sanitation Coordindtors," which is currently in draft form but which should be released shortly in final form, will be the first reference of its kind available to the district councils

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whereby standardized, proven designs (based upon ESPP experience) for

ventilated improved pit latrines becan drawn upon to advise the communitieswithin the district of proper construction techniques for excreta disposalfacilities.

The Handbook alone will not be of significance for Southern District nor toKanye Village unless the central government begins to train more peoplelocally for positions in the sanitation field and makes the financial commitment towards implementation of projects.

5.1.2 Geological Implications of Pit Latrines

The implications of the soil permeabilities for the adoption of ventilatedimproved pit latrines as a viable disposalexcreta option are basicallyfavorable. With the majority of onpeople living soils which are relativelypermeable, although they might be rocky, this case should be the firstconsidered. With a permeable soil, liquids will be dispersed laterally anddownward through the soil. This will leave the pit essentially "dry" and promrce aerobic decomposition thus reducing odor problems. The potential forgroundwater contamination does exist, but, with the main cluster of fiveboreholes used as the domestic water supply for Kanye some five kilometers away from the center of the village, the likelihood of such contamination issmall. The aquifers at the boreholes are at an average depth of about 75meters in a dolomite formation which does not extend as far as the village area.

Although the risk of groundwater contamination is small from pit latrines, itstill should be evaluated more thoroughly by a competent hydrogeologist beforeany large-scale pit latrine construction is undertaken. The Department ofGeological Surveys plans to investigate additional groundwater sources forKanye in the next 12 month work schedule. At that time some investigationcould also done see thebe to if currently utilized borehole cluster atKgwakwe may be linked hydraulically to these permeable soils throughout the village.

The more impermeable clay-bearing soils should also be considered in terms ofthe implications for ventilated improved pit latrines. These soils clog easilyand often the liquid cannot disperse into the soil so it slowly evaporates.Anaerobic decomposition will occur creating foul odors. These types of soils,

however, generally pose less risk of groundwater contamination especially for

aquifers that are as deep as that used for the Kanye water supply.

For those areas of the village where there are problems of excavation becauseof masses of solid rock, the same potential problems with odors will occurbecause of anaerobic conditions. A properly constructed latrine with a ventpipe, however, should circumvent this problem. The hazard of groundwater contamination here would also exist due to the possibility of fissures in therock transmitting excreta directly into an aquifer, but, again, this risk appears to be small.

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In cases where the soil is unconsolidated, a lining will be necessary to avoid collapsing of the pit. Other areas, where clay provides cohesion to the soil, would not require a lining. Each case would require the judgement of someone with experience in soil conditions and in interpreting their probable response.

As for the superstructure of the pit latrine, that should depend upon the judgement and finances of those constructing the latrine. They should be cautioned about building too heavy a structure which would cause the pit to cave in. Different designs and demonstration models should be made available to those interested. Of course there is an advantage to using a standardized design because costs could be reduced through mass production and laborers would need to master only one type of construction technique. Before anydesign is standardized, however, it needs to be tested in the community where it is to be constructed to assure its acceptability. The ESPP efforts to date in Sourthern District have identified several socially acceptable pit latrines

which were constructed in the three pilot villages. The work and experiencefrom this project should be utilized in developing a project approach to sanitation in Kanye. The "Handbook for SanitationDistrict Coordinators" presents several standarized designs for low-cost VIP latrines which can be adapted to a program in Kanye.

The problems of sullage disposal in the community do not seem to be significant. With most soils throughout the village fairly well drained and water consumpton relatively low there no oroverall was evidence mention of this as a health problem. The adoption of ventilated pit latrines as a solution to excreta disposal problems would obviously not address sullage

disposal.

5.2 Septic Tanks

The second most common excreta disposal alternative which has been adopted in Kanye to date is the septic tank. According to the 1981 Census as many as 143 households had septic tanks. A reasonable estimate for present-day usage of septic tanks would be 150 households.

Septic tanks are very convenient in terms of putting toilets indoors. If the system is designed, constructed, and maintained well it provides the household with a very good excreta disposal facility. It does use a significant amount of water in achieving the desired health benefit, and in a water scarce area

such as Kanye this factor has to be weighed in selecting among the alternatives.

The most recent figures for the number of private household water connections within Kanye are 625. Therefore, of the 1983 estimated 3,900 households in Kanye, 16 percent of them currently have private water connections. Of these 625 conections, 150 households are estimated to have flush toilets with septic

tanks. This points out the potential for increased use of this form of waterborne excreta disposal in the future.

Since approximately 70 percent of Kanye's population lives in areas designated as soil class 4h or 3fh, which are very permeable soils, the potential forseptic tanks is good based purely on this soils criteria. However, as was

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noted earlier, the soils mapping pertains to surface conditions and the soilmay change with depth. This was found to thebe case in trying to test the 4hsoil. What appeared on the surface to be a 4h soil turned out to be moresimilar to the clay-bearing 3i class. Siting of a septic tank soak pit ordrainfield in a clay-bearing soil such as the 3i class soil in Kanye willresult in problems of clogging and could pose health risks in the area. In locating septic tank excreta disposal facilities in permeable soils such asthe 3fh or 4h class care must be taken to keep the facilities a good distanceaway from a water supply borehole. Borehole Number 820, which is located justto the southern side of the village, is a specific example of anmust be guarded against area which

was the heavy use of septic tanks. One permeability testconducted at Number 820Borehole (testing site 4, see Table 2) and thesurrounding soil was found to be relatively impermeable which helps o protectthe borehold from surface contamination seeping downwards into the aquifer

below.

For future siting of septic in thetanks Kanye District Council should beginto take a more active role together with the District Land Board in overseeingthe proper installation of septic tanks in order to avoid health risks within

the community.

Although during the course of this study not many septic tank facilities werevisited, it is assumed that some of these facilities are having problemsdrainage. The District withCouncil Senior Health Assistant mentioned that thevacuum tanker empties 30 to 40 septic tanks fairly regularly. From observationat the sludge emptying site outside the village it appears that the tanksbeing emptied are being emptied mainly of liquids, indicating soils problems.Although the Council is responsible for regular inspection and maintenance ofall septic tanks in Kanye, again no one knows exactly how many existing septictanks there are in the village, nor where they are located. An inventory needs to be done as mentioned previously.

A fairly simple soil percolation test which can be performed at individualsites being considered for construction of septic tanks is given in a WorldBank publication ("Appropriate Technology for Water Supply and SanitationSanitation Field Manual", Volume 11, - A

page 72). The procedure is to drill (handaugering) at least three 150 millimeter diameter test holes 0 to 5 meters deepacross the proposed drainfield. These are filled with water overnight so thatthe soil becomes saturated. On the following day, they are filled to a depthof 300 millimeters. After 30 and 90 minutes the water levels are measured;soil is considered theto have sufficient percolative capacity if the level ineach hole has dropped 15 millimeters in the one hour period between readings. A generally accepted criterion for septic tanks in relation to populationdensity is that they should not be used if density exceedsthe 200 people perhectare (World Bank, ibid). Referring to Table 1 above it can be seen that themost densely populated area in Kanye does not exceed 50 people per hectare.Based upon this criterion alone, it would appear that there is no problem with

adopting septic tanks.

The factors which will limit the use of septic tanks in Kanye in the futurewill be soil conditions, cost, and water usage.

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5.3 Waterborne Collection and Central Treatment Option

Excreta disposal by means of a waterborne collection system and central biological treatment is generally recommended in medium to high density population areas. When the population density is low the cost per capita, both initial capital cost and ensuing operation and maintenance cost, is rather high when compared to other options. Portions of these systems are designedfor a 20-year period. Projections of populations in somewhat rural areas such as Kanye are difficult enough for the short range but become quite unreliable for a period as long as 20-years. In addition, it is important, and difficult, to predict how many people will be able to afford connection to the system and will want to. If in the future the connection rate to a central excreta disposal system is lower than predicted, which has been the general trend to date, the revenue collected cannot meet the debt servicing and operation and maintenance costs. In such a case either the rates for the existing customers would have to be raised or the government would have to subsidize the facility.

The above is not meant to rule out any consideration of such types of excreta disposal systems for Kanye. Practically speaking, however, it would be a meaningless exercise to design and cost a waterborne collection system with central biological treatment for all of Kanye Village and compare it to an alternative mixture of pit latrines and septic tanks (generally favoring pit

latrines). There does seem, however, to be room for this type of capital

intensive alternative in limited higher density areas of the village.

At the present time the administrative offices of the District Council and of the Central Government, the Kanye Hospital and the Seepapitso Secondary Schoolwould probably be the most likely subscribers to such a system. In the future the proposed Rural Administration Center along the Lobatse-Jwaneng road, the general development planned for "central Kanye," and any industrial development that might occur would probably be the primary subscribers to centralized collection and treatment.

For a centralized treatment option a site must be chosen for the treatment works, i.e. a stabilization pond. The 3i classification of soil located to the south of the Lobatse-Jwaneng road would be ideal for siting a stabilization pond in that the clay base would prevent the waste water from percolatingdownward. However, this site is at least partially within the village area, and convincing people to agree to having a stauilization pond there will cause problems. In the coming years, as central Kanye develops and the populationdensity becomes medium to high, some alternative sub-centralized solution will probably have to be adopted to replace many individual "on-site" systems in these higher density areas.

The final point to be made concerning a community-wide waterborne collection system with centralized treatment is that the water supply for the villagewoiIld also have to be upgraded to deliver the required water for collection of the excreta. At the present time the average consumption of water in Kanye is 20 liters per person per day. A waterborne system would increase water usage

by a factor of five according to past experience in Botswana. The added cost of the upgrading water supply would have to be considered as part of the cost of providing this alternative for excreta disposal.

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5.4 No Action Option

If nothing is done to address the growing problems of excreta disposal inKanye, the rather hapha7ard construction of pit latrines and septic tanks willcontinue. Inthis case it will most probably be the more educated householdersand those who can afford to "experiment" with such a project who will construct excreta disposal facilities. In the meantime the overall health risk tothe community will increase as the population increases, indiscriminatedefecation continues, and the poorer people of the community continue to use the bush.

5.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Proposed Options

5.5.1 Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine

Advantages

1. Construction possible on individual basis with minimal guidance orsupervision. Potential for significant self-help component.

2. Lowest annual costs.

3. Maintenance by users is possible.

4. Achieves same health standards as other options if properly constructed and maintained.

5. Minimal water usage.

6. Fairly low level of municipal involvement required once adequatedirection is given.

7. All types of anal cleaning materials can be used.

Disadvantages

1. Not all potential for groundwater pollution can ruledbe out,

although such pollution does not seem very likely in this case for Kanye.

2. They must be taken out of service when full and another pit constructed unless the Ventilated Improved Double Pit Latrine is adopted.

3. Provision for separate sullage disposal must be made but with waterconsumption averaging 20 l/c/d/ in Kanye this does not pose a major

probl em.

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5.5.2 Septic Tanks

Advantages

1. Convenience of excreta disposal facility within house.

2. Removal of sullage as well.

3. Easily upgraded ti connect to eventual sewerage system.

Disadvantages

1. Relatively high cost.

2. High water usage.

3. Large space requirements for drain fields on property.

4. Fairly high degree of user maintenance required particularly if soils are marginal for septic tank usage.

5. Potential