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AMA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY instructional modules in ENGLO3

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Lesson 1THE NATURE OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

I. Learning Objectives:After completing the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. describe the nature of oral communication;

2. explain the importance of communication; and

3. demonstrate different non-verbal cues.

II. Introduction:

The Nature of Oral Communication

At its most basic level, oral communication is the spoken interaction between two ormore people. However, what we intend to teach you is that the interaction is far morecomplex than it seems. Oral communication is composed of multiple elements which, whentaken as a whole, result in the success or failure of the interaction. Communication is theprocess of sharing our ideas, thoughts, and feelings with other people and having thoseideas, thoughts, and feelings understood by the people we are talking with. When wecommunicate we speak, listen, and observe. Not everyone is an effective communicator.

The way we communicate is a learned style. As children we learn from watching ourparents and other adults communicate. As an adult we can learn to improve the way wecommunicate by observing others who communicate effectively, learning new skills, andpracticing those skills.

In order to function successfully academically and professionally, you need to learneffective oral communication skills. For many, conversational speech comes naturally.However, in more formal speech, effective communication skills are essential. A poorlyconducted interview, sales presentation, or legal argument could have ramifications thataffect many more people than yourself.

By becoming an effective communicator you will be able to conduct yourself in avariety of personal, professional, and academic environments with confidence. Oralcommunication is a unique and learned rhetorical skill that requires you to understand whatyou say and how you say it. Unlike conversational speech, speech in more formalenvironments does not come naturally. What you will learn is how to critically think abouthow you present yourself as a speaker in all occasions and then how to function in a varietyof speaking environments.

The ability to effectively communicate at work, home, and in life is probably one ofthe most important sets of skills a person needs. What would our life and world be likewithout communication? We cannot get along without it. It is also not easy, and we all haveprobably had experiences where our communication failed or ran into a barrier. So, if we canunderstand the communication process better and improve it, we will become a moreeffective and successful communicator.

III. Discussion:


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A. What is Communication?

Communication is a learned skill. Most people are born with the physical ability totalk, but we must learn to speak well and communicate effectively. Speaking, listening, andour ability to understand verbal and nonverbal meanings are skills we develop in various

ways. We learn basic communication skills by observing other people and modeling ourbehaviors based on what we see. We also are taught some communication skills directlythrough education, and by practicing those skills and having them evaluated.

Communication as an academic discipline relates to all the ways we communicate,so it embraces a large body of study and knowledge. The communication discipline includesboth verbal and nonverbal messages. The field of communication focuses on how peopleuse messages to generate meanings within and across various contexts, cultures, channels,and media. The field promotes the effective and ethical practice of human communication.

B. Why is Communication Important?

Oral communication has long been our main method for communicating with one

another. It is estimated that 75% of a persons day is spent communicating in some way. Amajority of your communication time may be spent speaking and listening, while a minorityof that time is spent reading and writing. These communication actions reflect skills whichfoster personal, academic, and professional success.

Employers have ranked communication abilities first among the desirable personalqualities of future employees (1998). In a report on fastest growing careers, the U.S.Department of Labor states that communication skills will be in demand across occupationswell into the next century. In a national survey of 1000 human resource managers, oralcommunication skills are identified as valuable for both obtaining employment andsuccessful job performance. Executives with Fortune 500 companies indicate that collegestudents need better communication skills, as well as the ability to work in teams and with

people from diverse backgrounds. Case studies of high-wage companies also state thatessential skills for future workers include problem solving, working in groups, and the abilityto communicate effectively. When 1000 faculty members from a cross section of disciplineswere asked to identify basic competencies for every college graduate, skills incommunicating topped the list. Even an economics professor states that, . . . we are livingin a communications revolution comparable to the invention of printing . . . In an age ofincreasing talk, it is wiser talk we need most. Communication studies might well be central tocolleges and universities in the 21st century.

Today, communication and its study are especially relevant. In the 21st century,contemporary society is increasingly diverse and communication is more complex. Manyalso are stressing the role of communication and citizenship in a civil and democraticsociety. Frequently, the communication discipline is referred to as the engaged discipline,

as a result of teachers and students participation in service learning projects andresearchers concern for community-based research on critical social issues.

What was once seen as the field of speech and rhetoric is now the discipline ofcommunication that includes communication in the workplace, in families, in mass media,and in advertising, to name a few. Contemporary students of communication draw ontheories and practices common in the fields of anthropology, psychology, sociology,linguistics, semiotics, and rhetoric. Students in broadcast communication make use of workin computer engineering for web development and streaming audio and video.Communication as a discipline now includes interpersonal, small group, organizational,intercultural and international, public, mass, and mediated communication. The study ofcommunication considers how people communicate as individuals, in society, and in variouscultures.


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C. Types of CommunicationRead on to find out about the different types of communication...

If I am to speak ten minutes, I need a week for preparation; if fifteen minutes, three days; if

half an hour, two days; if an hour, I am ready now. ~ Woodrow Wilson

Communication is a process that involves exchange of information, thoughts, ideasand emotions. Communication is a process that involves a sender who encodes and sendsthe message, which is then carried via the communication channel to the receiver where thereceiver decodes the message, processes the information and sends an appropriate replyvia the same communication channel.

Types of Communication

Communication can occur via various processes and methods, channel used and the styleof communication there can be various types of communication.

Types of Communication Based on Communication Channels

Based on the channels used for communicating, the process of communication can bebroadly classified as verbal communication and non-verbal communication. Verbalcommunication includes written and oral communication whereas the non-verbalcommunication includes body language, facial expressions and visuals diagrams or picturesused for communication.

Verbal Communication

Verbal communication is further divided into written and oral communication. Theoral communication refers to the spoken words in the communication process. Oralcommunication can either be face-to-face communication or a conversation over thephone or on the voice chat over the Internet. Spoken conversations or dialogs areinfluenced by voice modulation, pitch, volume and even the speed and clarity ofspeaking. The other type of verbal communication is written communication. Writtencommunication can be either via snail mail, or email. The effectiveness of writtencommunication depends on the style of writing, vocabulary used, grammar, clarityand precision of language.

Nonverbal Communication

Non-verbal communication includes the overall body language of the person who isspeaking, which will include the body posture, the hand gestures, and overall body


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movements. The facial expressions also play a major role while communication sincethe expressions on a persons face say a lot about his/her mood. On the other handgestures like a handshake, a smile or a hug can independently convey emotions.Non verbal communication can also be in the form of pictorial representations,signboards, or even photographs, sketches and paintings.

Types of Communication Based on Style and Purpose

Based on the style of communication, there can be two broad categories of communication,which are formal and informal communication that have their own set of characteristicfeatures.

Formal Communication

Formal communication includes all the instances where communication has to occurin a set formal format. Typically this can include all sorts of business communicationor corporate communication. The style of communication in this form is very formaland official. Official conferences, meetings and written memos and corporate lettersare used for communication. Formal communication can also occur between twostrangers when they meet for the first time. Hence formal communication isstraightforward, official and always precise and has a stringent and rigid tone to it.

Informal Communication

Informal communication includes instances of free unrestrained communicationbetween people who share a casual rapport with each other. Informal communicationrequires two people to have a similar wavelength and hence occurs between friendsand family. Informal communication does not have any rigid rules and guidelines.

Informal conversations need not necessarily have boundaries of time, place or evensubjects for that matter since we all know that friendly chats with our loved ones cansimply go on and on.

Types of Nonverbal CommunicationAccording to experts, a substantial portion of our communication is nonverbal. Every day, werespond to thousands on nonverbal cues and behaviors including postures, facialexpression, eye gaze, gestures, and tone of voice. From our handshakes to our hairstyles,nonverbal details reveal who we are and impact how we relate to other people.

Scientific research on nonverbal communication and behavior began with the 1872publication of Charles Darwins The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals . Since

that time, there has been an abundance of research on the types, effects, and expression ofunspoken communication and behavior. While these signals are often so subtle that we arenot consciously aware of them, research has identified several different types of nonverbalcommunication.

1. Facial Expression

Facial expressions are responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal communication.Consider how much information can be conveyed with a smile or a frown. While nonverbalcommunication and behavior can vary dramatically between cultures, the facial expressionsfor happiness, sadness, anger, and fear are similar throughout the world.

2. Gestures


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Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate meaning withoutwords. Common gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate numberamounts. Other gestures are arbitrary and related to culture.

3. Para-linguistics

Para-linguistics refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language. Thisincludes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection, and pitch. Consider the powerfuleffect that tone of voice can have on the meaning of a sentence. When said in a strong toneof voice, listeners might interpret approval and enthusiasm. The same words said in ahesitant tone of voice might convey disapproval and a lack of interest.

4. Body Language and Posture

Posture and movement can also convey a great deal on information. Research on body

language has grown significantly since the 1970s, but popular media have focused on theover-interpretation of defensive postures, arm-crossing, and leg-crossing, especially afterthe publication of Julius Fasts book Body Language. While these nonverbal behaviors canindicate feelings and attitudes, research suggests that body language is far more subtle andless definitive that previously believed.

5. Proxemics

People often refer to their need for personal space, which is also an important type ofnonverbal communication. The amount of distance we need and the amount of space weperceive as belonging to us is influenced by a number of factors including social norms,

situational factors, personality characteristics, and level of familiarity. For example, theamount of personal space needed when having a casual conversation with another personusually varies between 18 inches to four feet. On the other hand, the personal distanceneeded when speaking to a crowd of people is around 10 to 12 feet.

6. Eye Gaze

Looking, staring, and blinking can also be important nonverbal behaviors. When peopleencounter people or things that they like, the rate of blinking increases and pupils dilate.Looking at another person can indicate a range of emotions, including hostility, interest, andattraction.

7.Haptics

Communicating through touch is another important nonverbal behavior. There has been asubstantial amount of research on the importance of touch in infancy and early childhood.Harry Harlows classic monkey study demonstrated how the deprivation of touch and contactimpedes development. Baby monkeys raised by wire mothers experienced permanentdeficits in behavior and social interaction.

8. Dress and Appearance


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1. SENDER The communicator or sender is the person who is sending the

message. There are two factors that will determine how effective thecommunicator will be. The first factor is the communicators attitude. Itmust be positive. The second factor is the communicators selection ofmeaningful symbols, or selecting the right symbols depending on your

audience and the right environment. Talk about a few wrong examples.Question: Name some of the ways we communicate.Anticipated Responses: Talking, speaking Writing Pictures,symbols, diagrams, charts, etc.

2. MESSAGE A communication in writing, in speech, or by signals

3. RECEIVER The receiver is simply the person receiving the message,

making sense of it, or understanding and translating it into meaning.Now think about this for a moment: the receiver is also a communicator.


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How can that be? (When receiver responds, he is then thecommunicator.) Communication is only successful when the reaction ofthe receiver is that which the communicator intended. Effectivecommunication takes place with shared meaning and understanding.

4. FEEDBACK Feedback is that reaction I just mentioned. It can be a verbal

or nonverbal reaction or response. It can be external feedback(something we see) or internal feedback (something we cant see), like


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Teaching Tip: Students will sometimes forget to mention nonverbal communication.A learning styles inventory could help students identify how they receive or learn informationin a certain way: verbal, visual, kinesthetic/tactile self-examination. Its the feedback thatallows the communicator to adjust his message and be more effective. Without feedback,there would be no way of knowing if meaning had been shared or if understanding had takenplace. Discuss that communication is a two-way process. The information goes out to aperson on the other end. There is a sender and a receiver. Simply put, effectivecommunication is getting your message across to the receiver. It is the sendersresponsibility to make sure that the receiver gets the message and that the messagereceived is the one sent. Communicating is not an isolated series of one skill, it involvesseveral skills. For example, speaking involves not only getting your message across but also

being able to listen and understand what others are saying (active listening) and observingthe verbal and nonverbal clues in order to monitor the effectiveness of your message.

IV. Exercises:

Present to the students a sample dialogue. Let them identify the elements involved inthe communication and the specific stages used in the given sample.

V. References/Additional Readings

1. Tan, Arsenia B. Public Speaking and Speech Improvement for Filipinos(National Book Store, Inc. 1997)


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Lesson No.3ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES:ATTHEENDOFTHETOPIC, THESTUDENTSSHOULDBEABLETO:

1. IDENTIFYTHEDIFFERENTELEMENTSOFSPEAKING;2. IDENTIFYTHEDIFFERENTELEMENTSOFLISTENING; AND3. CITESOMEINSTANCESTOSHOWTHEAPPLICATIONOFTHEELEMENTSINACTUALSPEAKINGAND

LISTENINGSITUATIONS.

II. INTRODUCTIONWhatever communication task you undertake asking these six simple questions

before you start will give your communication a better chance of success and make the taskeasier.

1. Why? (Purpose)

2. Who? (Receiver)

3. Where and When? (Place and Context)4. What? (Subject)5. How? (Tone and Style)

III. DISCUSSIONA. Elements of Speaking:

Body language

Voice quality

Intention

Manner: directness, sincerity

Dress and clothing (style, color, appropriateness for situation)

Visual aids, animation

Eye contact

Emotional content, energy, strength

Self-concept

Concept of others

Listening, hearing the underlying message

Speaking from the heart

Energy

Setting, time, place, timing

How the messenger holds the message

Sensitivity

Rhythm and pacing

Attitude and confidence

Rapport

Agenda

Purpose of communication - knowing what you want to communicate

Clarity

Silence, centering, looking

B. Elements of Listening:

Attentiveness to speaker

Eye contact

Intention be fully awake and aware Openness: to other person and your own


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Paying attention

Listening to yourself

Feedback

Body language

Change in pattern

Expectations about person speaking, about their message, about theiragenda

III. EXERCISES

1. What is non-verbal communication? Give examples.

2. List 11 techniques for improving your listening skills. Discuss each.

3. Analyze your own listening habits. What are your strengths andweaknesses? Decide on a plan for improving your listening skills. Write amemo or email message to your professor including your analysis andimprovement plan.


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Lesson No.4BARRIERS TO GOOD COMMUNICATION

I. LEARNING OBJECTIVESAt the end of the topic, the students should be able to:

1. identify the different barriers to good communication;2. give some situations that show how the different barriers can affect communication;

3. tell experiences where they personally experienced the different barriers and how

they overcome them.

II. INTRODUCTION

Have you ever been talking to someone and they misunderstand what you were

saying? Why do you think that happens? (Give learners the opportunity to share theirexperiences.) At any point in the communication process a barrier can occur. Barriers keepus from understanding others ideas and thoughts. Barriers can appear at any point of thecommunication loop.

There are two types of barriersinternal and external. Examples of internal barriersare fatigue, poor listening skills, attitude toward the sender or the information, lack of interestin the message, fear, mistrust, past experiences, negative attitude, problems at home, lackof common experiences, and emotions. Examples of external barriers include noise,distractions, e-mail not working, bad phone connections, time of day, sender used too manytechnical words for the audience, and environment. Barriers keep the message from gettingthrough.

When communicating, watch out for barriers. Monitor the actions of the receiver.

Watch her body language; check to make sure the message the receiver received is the onesentask questions and listen.

III. DISCUSSIONHere are the 7 top barriers.

A. Physical barriersPhysical barriers in the workplace include:

marked out territories, empires and fiefdoms into which strangers arenot allowed

closed office doors, barrier screens, separate areas for people ofdifferent status

large working areas or working in one unit that is physically separatefrom others.

Research shows that one of the most important factors in building cohesiveteams is proximity. As long as people still have a personal space that they can calltheir own, nearness to others aids communication because it helps us get to knowone another.

B. Perceptual barriersThe problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world

differently. If we didn't, we would have no need to communicate: something likeextrasensory perception would take its place.

The following anecdote is a reminder of how our thoughts, assumptions andperceptions shape our own realities:


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A traveler was walking down a road when he met a man from the next town."Excuse me," he said. "I am hoping to stay in the next town tonight. Can you tell mewhat the townspeople are like?"

"Well," said the townsman, "how did you find the people in the last town youvisited?"

"Oh, they were an irascible bunch. Kept to themselves . Took me for a fool.Over-charged me for what I got. Gave me very poor service" .

"Well, then," said the townsman, "you'll find them pretty much the same here."

C. Emotional barriersOne of the chief barriers to open and free communications is the emotional barrier. It

is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust and suspicion. The roots of our emotional mistrust ofothers lie in our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful what we said toothers.

"Mind your P's and Q's"; "Don't speak until you're spoken to"; "Children should beseen and not heard". As a result many people hold back from communicating their thoughtsand feelings to others.

They feel vulnerable. While some caution may be wise in certain relationships,excessive fear of what others might think of us can stunt our development as effectivecommunicators and our ability to form meaningful relationships.

D. Cultural barriersWhen we join a group and wish to remain in it, sooner or later we need to adopt the

behavior patterns of the group. These are the behaviors that the group accepts as signs ofbelonging.

The group rewards such behavior through acts of recognition, approval andinclusion. In groups which are happy to accept you, and where you are happy to conform,there is a mutuality of interest and a high level of win-win contact.

Where, however, there are barriers to your membership of a group, a high level ofgame-playing replaces good communication.Controlling Ethno-centrism and Stereotyping: The process of understanding and

accepting other people from other cultures is often hampered by two barriers -- Ethno-centrism and Stereotyping. These two barriers are overcome by developing tolerance, apowerful and effective aid to communication.

Ethno-centrism: The belief in the superiority of ones culture is knows as ethno-centrism. It causes us to judge others by our own values.

Stereotypes: Our perceptions of other cultures sometimes cause us to formstereotypes about groups of peoples. A stereotype is an oversimplified perception of abehavioral pattern or characteristics applied to entire groups. For example, the Swiss are

hardworking; Germans are formal and reserved; Americans loud and impatient; Asianshumble and inscrutable.

E. Language barriersLanguage that describes what we want to say in our terms may present barriers to

others who are not familiar with our expressions, buzz-words and jargon. When we couchour communication in such language, it is a way of excluding others. In a global marketplace the greatest compliment we can pay another person is to talk in their language.

One of the more chilling memories of the Cold War was the threat by the Sovietleader Nikita Khruschev saying to the Americans at the United Nations: "We will bury you!"This was taken to mean a threat of nuclear annihilation.

However, a more accurate reading of Khruschev's words would have been: "We will

overtake you!" meaning economic superiority. It was not just the language, but the fear and


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suspicion that the West had of the Soviet Union that led to the more alarmist and sinisterinterpretation.

F. Gender barriers

There are distinct differences between the speech patterns in a man and those in awoman. A woman speaks between 22,000 and 25,000 words a day whereas a man speaksbetween 7,000 and 10,000. In childhood, girls speak earlier than boys and at the age ofthree, have a vocabulary twice that of boys.

The reason for this lies in the wiring of a man's and woman's brains. When a mantalks, his speech is located in the left side of the brain but in no specific area. When awoman talks, the speech is located in both hemispheres and in two specific locations.

This means that a man talks in a linear, logical and compartmentalized way, featuresof left-brain thinking; whereas a woman talks more freely mixing logic and emotion, featuresof both sides of the brain. It also explains why women talk for much longer than men eachday.

G. Interpersonal barriersHow we order the space around us tells us something about ourselves and our

objectives. There are four space zones for social interaction.1. Intimate Zone 1 to 1.5 feet.2. Personal Zone 1.5 to 4 feet.3. Social Zone 4 to 12 feet.4. Public Zone 12 or more feet.

There are six levels at which people can distance themselves from one another:1. Withdrawal is an absence of interpersonal contact. It is bothrefusals to be in touch and time alone.2. Rituals are meaningless, repetitive routines devoid of real

contact.3. Pastimes fill up time with others in social but superficialactivities.4. Working activities are those tasks which follow the rules andprocedures of contact but no more.5. Games are subtle, manipulative interactions which are aboutwinning and losing. They include "rackets" and "stamps".6. Closeness is the aim of interpersonal contact where there is ahigh level of honesty and acceptance of yourself and others.

Working on improving your communications is a broad-brush activity. You have tochange your thoughts, your feelings, and your physical connections. That way, you can

break down the barriers that get in your way and start building relationships that really work.

IV. EXERCIES

1. Recall a time when you experienced a problem as a result of poor communication.What were the causes of and possible remedies for the problem?

2. Give an example of the language barrier you faced recently.3. Name some common stereo-types about your culture.

4. How can technical jargon or faulty translations effect communication.5. Give definitions of the following words:


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(a) ethno-centrism(b) listening barrier(c) stereotyping


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LESSON 5THE SPEAKING PROCESS

I. Learning Objectives:Given a series of demonstrations, the students should be able to:

1. identify the articulators or body parts involved in the speaking process;2. describe how the articulators or body organs of speech function in the speaking

process;3. produce sounds in proper manner and place of articulation and gain conscious

control over the organs of speech to improve speaking habits.

II. Introduction

The voice has a very significant role in communicating thought. How often have youheard or uttered comments after listening to a speaker? Her voice was shrill and rasping Iwanted to leave the room in the middle of her speech. She seemed shy. She hardlyopened her mouth when she talked. Did you understand what she was saying?

Such characteristics of voices make it different for the speakers to convey their thoughts tothe listeners. However, much can be done to improve their own ability to produce pleasantvocal tones.

III. Discussion:THE ORGANS OF SPEECH

There are no speech organs per se. The organs used in speech are used primarily forbreathing and eating. When man learned to talk, these organs became easily adapted to asecondary function- speaking.

Organs of SpeechLL Lips

TT Teeth

TRAlveolar ridge, convex part of the mouth,immediately behind the teeth

HHard palate, concave part of the roof of themouth

S Soft palate in lowered position

U Uvula, the loose hanging end of the soft palate

P Pharynx

BLBlade of the tongue, including the tip, the partopposite the teeth ridge

FFront of the tongue, the part opposite the hardpalate

BBack of the tongue, the part opposite the softpalate

EEpiglottis; this is drawn over the windpipe whenswallowing

W Windpipe

FP Food passage

V Vocal cords or vocal lips

Larynx The upper extremity of the windpipe (Adamsapple) which contains and protects the vocal


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cords

During the speaking process, the organs of speech are coordinately and integratedlyinvolved in breathing, phonation, resonation, and articulation.

There are four stages of speech mechanism.

1. BREATHING STAGEThis stage is primarily concerned with maintaining life, is secondarily a force

assisting in vocalization. It consists of two phases: inhalation and exhalation. The principalbodily structures involved in the breathing process are the LUNGSand DIAPRHAGM.

The lungs serve as the reservoir of air. As you inhale, you fill the lungs and as youexhale, the air is going out.

The diaphragm is a large sheet of muscle separating the chest cavity from theabdomen, forms the floor of the chest and the roof of the abdomen. As you inhale, the lungsincrease in volume; at the same time, the diaphragm contracts and flatten. In exhalation, the

chest and the abdomen return to their original positions.

THE HUMAN LUNGS


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THE HUMAN DIAPRHAGM

2. PHONATION STAGEThis takes place when voice is produced in speaking as the expiratory air stream

from the lungs goes up through the trachea or windpipe to the larynx. The larynx which is theprincipal organ of phonation is found at the top of the trachea; its protuberance is known asthe ADAMS APPLE.

Attached to the walls of the larynx are the vocal cords, a pair of bundles of musclesand cartilages, which open and close at various degrees. In silent breathing, these vocalcords open wide and let air in and out without hindrance. In whispering, they open partly, letout large amounts of air, and produce only frictional sounds. In speech, the vocal cordscome together under tension and the controlled air pressure from the lungs cause them tovibrate. These vocal cords make possible the voiceless and voiced sounds of vowels andconsonants and the various pitches of the voice in speaking and singing.


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THE HUMAN LARYNX

Put your fingertips lightly on your throat (where the vocal cords are), then sayahhhhhhhh, mmmmmmmm, ffffffffff, and sssssssss. Which sounds are voiced (causedthe vocal cords to vibrate)? Which sounds are voiceless (do not cause the vocal cords tovibrate)? You will have noticed that ahhhhhhhh, and mmmmmmmm, are voiced whileffffffffff, and sssssssss are voiceless.

3. RESONATION STAGEThe voice produced in the process of phonation is weak. It becomes strong and rich

only when amplified and modified by the human resonators-the upper part of the larynx, thepharynx, the nasal cavity, and the oral cavity. This process of voice amplification and

modification is called resonation.The pharynx is the common passage way for air and food. It is located behind the

nose and mouth and includes the cavity at the back of the tongueThe nose consists of the external and internal portions. It helps in sustaining our

breath while we talk.The mouth serves as an important resonator as well as the center for formation of

specific speech sounds. It is composed of the tongue, lips, teeth, gums, palates and jaws.The efficient use of the resonators together with the force of the expiratory air stream

will enrich and reinforce the voice produced by the vocal cords.
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4. ARTICULATION STAGEThis occurs when the tone produced at the larynx is changed into specific sounds

such as [g], [l], [o], [u]. This is the result of the movement of the articulators. The articulatorsare the lower jaw, the tongue, the lower lip, the velum, the uvula. The points of articulationare the upper lip, the upper teeth, the upper alveolar ridge, the hard palate, and the velum orsift palate.

The opening and closing of the mouth is made by the combined movements of thelips and the jaw


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LESSON 6The Speech Sounds (VOWEL & CONSONANTS SOUNDS OF ENGLISH)

I. Learning Objectives:After completing the lesson, the students should be able:

1. identify the distinctive features of vowels and consonants;2. describe vowels and consonants according to their characteristic features and the

conditions necessary for their production;3. use the IPA, the vowel triangle and the consonant table to facilitate clear and

accurate production of vowels and consonants; and

4. produce vowel sounds, diphthongs and consonant sounds clearly and accurately in

isolation and in context.

II. Introduction:

Speech sounds are those of vowels and consonants. A vowel sound is a speechsound that is produced through an open throat and mouth passage without any hindrance orobstruction. A consonant sound is one that is pronounced with a certain degree ofobstruction and restriction at the lips, inside the mouth and in the throat.

General American English is classified into three namely:

1. vowels (11 English vowels)2. Diphthongs, and (3)3. Consonants (25)

III. Discussion:

The English VowelsA vowel is a permanent element in a syllable. It is formed by allowing the passage of

air from the lungs through the mouth acting as a resonator without any obstruction. Thispassing air causes the opening of the vocal bands, called the glottis, to vibrate. Vowels are,therefore, those sounds which are produced with the vibration of air in the oral cavity.

The relationships of the vowels to one another are known by the device known as theVictor Triangle. The purpose of this triangle is to show the differences among the vowelsounds in English and their relative positions on the tongue.

Describing VowelsVowels are produced with a mostly open oral tract, so place/manner of articulation (a

la consonants) is not useful in describing them.

In English, all vowels are usually voiced.1. Tongue height: high = near the roof of mouth

Opening of mouth coincides more or less with tongue height.

High: [i, I, u, U] leak, lick, luke, look Mid: [e, E, @, 2, O, o] bait, bet, sofa, but, bought, boat

Low: [, a] cat, cot

2. Tongue advancement: tongue further forward or back in mouth

Front: [i, I, e, E, ] seek, sick, sake, sec, sack


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I. Complete the sentence by filling the blank. Write only the answer.

1. We took a _____ (sail, sale) around Hawar Island.2. Fatima responded to Ahmeds _____ (suit, suite, sweet) by agreeing to marry him.3. I love the (knight, night) in the story I have read.4. I like some (serial, cereal) for my breakfast.5. Dont (steal, still, steel) for you to be punished.6. Id like you to (meat, meet) my parents.7. My body has so many (cells, sells).8. There are a lot of (heard, herd) of cattle in the farm.9. You have to study for the coming (board, bored) exam in Engineering.10. If I (where, were) you, I will stop talking.

II. Use the following words in a sentence. Underline these words in the sentence.

1. rain2. reign3. cent4. sent5. read( past tense-read)6. week7. weak8. knew

9. new10. know
http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/course/chapter1/vowels.gif


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IV. Exercises:

Read the following words observing the correct formulation of the vowel soundsindicated in the brackets:

[iy] beat , me, key, seed, chief

Beginning Middle EndEven mean threeEqual reason kneeEasy season agreeEastern leave teaEvil seed seaEvening bead keyEvans deep freeEatery people beeEton green degreeEve least filigree

[I] sit, give, rid, pick, live

It kissIll liveImage giveImprove fillIllegal bigImmanent bitImpure chipIntrovert fit

Contrasting the IY and I (iy) sounds

Seat - sit lead - lid week wick seek sickPeach pitch leave live deal dill feat fitCheap chip deed did keen kin peel pillFeel fill peak pick sheep ship teak tick

The English Consonants:

Describing ConsonantsA consonant is a speech sound used with a vowel or diphthongs to constitute

a syllable. Consonant sounds are those sounds which are produced with the partial or

complete obstruction of the air column by some parts of the speech apparatus.

Three-part description of consonants:1. Voicing do vocal folds vibrate?

voiced vocal folds vibrate[b], [d], [g] [m], [n], [N], [z], [Z], etc.

voiceless vocal folds are open and do no vibrate[p], [t], [k], [s], [S], etc.

2. Place of Articulation where the main obstruction is made (lips, teeth, velum, etc.) Bilabial (bi 2, labium lip): the lips are close together or touching.

[p], [b], [m], [w] (a few people have also voiceless [w] which [w] vs. witch

[w]) Labiodental (dental teeth): the lower lip up is against the upper front teeth.


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[f], [v] Interdental (inter between): the tip of the tongue is between the front teeth

[T] (theta, thick, thigh), [D] (delta, then, thy) Alveolar: the tip of the tongue is at the alveolar ridge (the ridge just behind the

teeth)

[t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r], [R] (flap, vitamin) Palatal: the tongue is near the hard palate (hard part of the roof of the mouth).

[S] (ship), [Z] (visual), [j] (yes).Also affricates: [tS] (change), [dZ] (journal ) (alveolar stop + palatal fricative)

Velar: the tongue approaches the velum (soft part of the roof of the mouth)[k], [g], [N] (walking)

Glottal: the glottis is the point of constriction.[h], [P] (glottal stop)

the place of obstruction of air at some

points in the vocal cords.

used to classify consonants

each place of articulation has an

adjective applied to a consonant

Nouns Adjectives

Lips Labial/

Bilabial

Teeth Dental

Alveolar

ridge

Alveolar

Hard

palate

Palatal

Soft

palate

Velar

Uvula Uvular

Pharynx Pharyngeal

Tip Apical

Blade Laminal

Front Dorsal

Back Dorsal

3. Manner of Articulation degree of the obstruction (narrowing, closure) & closure releasetype

(sudden, slow), etc. Stops: made by completely obstructing (stopping) the flow of air

[p, t, k, ph, th, kh, b, d, g]Voiceless stops are either aspirated (pit [phIt]) or non-aspirated (spit [spIt])

--Fricatives: made by forming a very narrow constriction and forcing air through,


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producing a hissing turbulent sound because of the friction between the airand the sides of the constriction.

[f, v, T, D, s, S, z, Z] Affricates: stop immediately followed by a fricative.

[tS, dZ]

Nasals: the velum is lowered, air passes also through the nose.[m, n, N] (All other English consonants are oral)

Liquids: narrow passage, but not narrow enough to cause friction (a la fricatives).[l, r, R]

Glides: almost a vowel, but slightly more constricted. The least constricted type ofconsonant.

[j, w, w]

DESCRIPTION OF CONSONANTS

Consonants Place

/p/ Bilabial

/b/ Bilabial

/t/ Tip-alveolar

/d/ Tip-alveolar

/k/

Back-velar

/g/ Back-velar

/ /Blade/front

palato-alveolar

/ /Blade/front

palato-alveolar

/m/ Bilabial

/n/ Tip-alveolar

/ / Back-velar


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/f/ Labio-dental

/v/ Labio-dental

/ / Tip-dental

/ / Tip-dental

/s/ Blade-alveolar

/z/

Blade-alveolar

/ /Blade/front palato-

alveolar

/ /Blade/front palato-

alveolar

/h/ Glottal

/l/ Tip-alveolar

/r/ Blade-postalveolar

/w/ Bilabialback-velar

/j/ Front-palatal

Since liquids and nasals are produced with a relatively open passage of air flow, theycan be syllabic: bird [br"d], simple [sImpl"], reason [rizn"],


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In the production of these sounds, there are three dimensions of variation to beconsidered;

A. Voicing:

Consonant may be voiced or voiceless. Voiced sounds are those sounds which arepronounced with the vibration of the vocal cords. Voiceless sounds are those sounds whichare pronounced without the vibration of the vocal cords. If you place your fingers on yourlarynx or Adams apple as you pronounce voiced consonants, you will feel the vocal cordsvibrating. If you pronounce voiceless, consonants, there will be no vibration.

The following are the consonant sounds in English. They are classified according tovoicing.

Voiceless Voiced

P pen B Ben n neck

t ten D den ng bring

k cod G good l let

f fine V vine r right

th thigh Dh thy y you

s sue Z zoo w water

sh mission Zh vision hw what

ch chew J Jew

h hot M men


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IV. ACTIVITY:The students will be given set of words. They will practice pronouncing the words by

adapting the correct production of the sound using the International Phonetic Alphabet.

V. REFERENCES:1. Tan, Arsenia B. Public Speaking and Speech Improvement for Filipinos

(National Book Store, Inc. 1997)2. Flores, Carmelita et.al., Effective Speech Communication, Revised Edition.

(National Book Store, Inc. 1990)


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LESSON 7BLENDING, INTONATION PATTERNS AND PHRASING

I. Learning Objectives:After completing the lesson, the students should be able to:

Blend groups of words to show correct rhythm of English;

develop a good sense of intonation in speaking or reading English sentence

patterns by putting the correct intonation pattern;

Phrase a given statement correctly by putting the signal in correct position and

for them to read properly applying correct juncture.

II. Introduction:

BlendingIn blending, at times called linking, words flow along one word seeming to blend to thenext. Thus, in connected speech, words and syllables are not pronounced as separate unitswithin thought groups. One says, Cup of tea / kpbv ti:/ as if it were one word instead of three;Does he know her? /dezinoer/ instead of four.

Read the following, observing proper blending:

A hall hat rackA tall candleAn ardent actorOne or twoDo or dieCream or lemonA calm answerAn army actionA tall manClose the doorHas the ticketThank the authorBread n butterRice n fishHam n eggs

At the partyAt the doorAt eight oclock

Look at the moon.Im in for a change.Tell me now.Serves him right.In a months time.Take it or leave it.Hand in your papers.What of it?

Does it show?Call her up


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III. Discussion:

Intonation Patterns

In English, intonation patterns consist of the pitch levels and the changes in these

levels within an utterance. Through the changes in pitch and voice quality, we can determinethe emotional state or nature of utterance of a speaker.

Successful communicators speak in a variety of tunes. Their voices rise and fall oncertain syllables. For instance, most native speakers of Standard American English wouldsay How are you? with the same rise and fall of the voice at approximately the samesyllables. The rise and fall is called intonation. Intonation is also the combination of tunes onwhich we pronounce the syllables that make up our speech. Speaking, just like singing has atune too, except that there are fewer tunes in speaking than in singing.

There are four tunes used in speaking. They are (1) low, (2) normal, (3) high, and (4)extra high. The first three are the most commonly used tunes and the intonation patterns of

Standard American English are the combination of these three tunes.

English intonation patterns have these essential elements.

Pitch levels these consist of low, mid or normal, high, and extra high tone of voice.

Terminal contours these are the characteristics of the voice tone during utterance of unitsof thought in complete or incomplete forms. The terminal contours, also called clauseterminals, are used in conjunction with the four pitch levels and they are made up of rising,falling, or sustained pitch of voice.

Given a mathematical equivalence, the mid or normal pitch is 2, high pitch is 3, and low pitchis 1.

Common intonation patterns in English are:

High-low falling intonation (3-1) or (2-3-1)

This is a hot day.

Please see me in my office.

Rising intonation (2-3)

Did you go to the party last night?

Are you going home now?

The Basic Intonation Patterns1. The 2-3-1 or Rising-falling Intonation

The rising-falling intonation or 2-3-1 pattern begins on the normal(2) tune and endsby raising the voice to high(3) on the last stressed syllable of the sentence, thenmaking it fall to low(1). This intonation pattern can be illustrated in the following linearrepresentations:


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a.

b.

The first linear presentation is used when the last word in the sentence has 2 or moresyllables. This is called SHIFT. The second, on the other hand is used for words with onesyllable only. It is called GLIDE.

Uses:A. Simple statements of fact

Examples:1. Youre up early.

2. Dan had been working for six hours.3. She is studying.4. Bahrain is small country.5. The traffic jam made him late.6. We drove to the lake.7. She is a professor in English.8. Francis is living for Honolulu tomorrow.9. This is an excellent play.10. Bernie is interested in anthropology.

B. Commands and Requests1. Sit down at the table.

2. Look at that boy.3. Make yourself at home.4. Clean up your room.5. Please erase the board.6. Go to your room.7. Stand up.8. Stop that machine.9. Clean the syringe.

10. Drink this water.C. Information Question

1. What would you like for breakfast?2. What is your name?

3. What is your wish?4. How old are you?5. Which do you prefer?6. Who is your friend?7. Where are you going?8. When will you see John?9. Why is she sulking?

10. How many are going?


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1. The 2-3-3 or Rising IntonationIn the rising intonation, the voice begins on the normal (2) tune and ends on a high(3) tune on the last stressed word of the sentence. The syllables which follow the riseare pronounced on the high note, too, with the last syllable slightly higher than therest. In English, the rising intonation is normally used at the end of questions that are

answered by yes or no. Observe the lines in the following examples and let yourvoice rise as the lines do.

Examples:1. Did you sleep well?2. Is he in school?3. Are you sure youve got enough paper?4. Have you been to may places this year?5. Can you drive?

3. The 2 3 2 intonation pattern is used in three common situationsThe non-final intonation is used in that part of the sentence which precedes the last

stressed word. It suggests incompleteness of thought and it signals that the speaker still hassomething to say. Although the use of this intonation may vary from speaker to speaker withlittle corresponding variation in meaning, the student should realize that in any sentence, wemay pronounce on a note higher than normal, the stressed syllable of any word or words towhich we want to call the special attention of the listener.

In the non-final intonation, the voice begins on normal(2) then rises to pitch level 3 onthe stressed word, and returns to normal level or tune(2). This is done when the speakerwishes to suggest that what follows is connected with what he has just said. This intonation

pattern may be used in the following situations in combination with the rising-falling (2-3-1)or rising (2-3-3) intonation patterns.

A. In specially stressed function words or content words that precede the last stressed wordsas in:

Are you ready to leave? (note you)

They should be here on time.

B. In contrasts and comparisons as in:

Im looking for a shoebrush not a hair brush.

Dan runs faster than Francis does.


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C. In sentences where two or more thought groups are divided by short pauses as in:

Hed like to get it,but he cant.

If you leave now, we have to go with you.

Keep watch,while I run to the station for help.

The intonation Patterns for Specific Structures

The 2-3, 2-3-1 intonation pattern is used for sentences having alternatives with orand series with and, direct address and tag questions. Variations in the pattern may occurespecially in tag questions.

A. Series with and/Alternatives with orThis intonation pattern (2-3, 2-3-1) is sometimes called the choice question tune. A

rising intonation is used on all parts of the alternatives or series except the last, which isgiven the rising-falling pattern (2-3-1). For alternatives with or, the speaker emphasizes thecontrast between or among the various possible choices; for series with and, the speakeremphasizes the last word of the series.

For example:

He will arrive on Thursday or Saturday.

Would you like to play golf,tennis, or bowling. (note the word tennis)

These are my friends: Maryam,Zainab,and Ehra.

Shed like to buy a bottle of shampoo and lipstick.

Notice the words tennis, Maryam and Zainab, although stressed on the firstsyllable, still follow the intonation pattern of the above sentence constructions. The followingsentences have the series with and/alternatives with orintonation patterns.

1. You can wait or go to another booth.

2. Where would you like to go: to a disco or a caf?3. Shell find the letters, numbers, or punctuation marks in it.


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4. Is this what you want or what he wants?5. The clerks prepare invoices, bills, and receipts?

B. Direct AddressDirect address refers to the name or word substituted for a name, such as dear, or

darling, addressed directly to the person to whom one is speaking. This may come at theend of the sentence or elsewhere, and it does not affect the intonation pattern of the rest ofthe sentence.

For example:

Youre very kind, my dear.

Anna, will you please come to Ward No. 10.

But, Sir, I really must attend to this lady.

Note that whatever the direct address is placed, the 2-3 pattern is used.

C. Tag QuestionsTag questions are spoken in two types of intonation patterns. If the tag question is

said as a statement of fact and the speaker is definite that the listener will agree with him,the tag question is spoken with the rising-falling intonation. For example:?

Its painful, isn t it?

If the sentence is said as real question and the speaker is not sure of the listenersanswer, the tag question is spoken with the rising pattern. For example:

Its painful, isn t it?

The 2 3 2 3 or 2 3 2 as the alternate form of the 2 3 in grammatical units thatdenote incompleteness of ideas or that the speaker has more to say.

For the most part of our lesson

Shes a lovely girl, (but)

Under the circumstances,

In the room where the patient is

Pinky is willing to come


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Variation of intonation patterns as dictated by the meaning the speaker wishes tocommunicate:

a. Noun of address 3 2; 2 3 2; or 2 3 1

Dominic, come here.

Mrs. Reyes, this is Dr. Torres.

Thank you for your help, Marcia.

Dont work too hard, Rey.

Mr. Tan, heres the bill of lading.

Compound elements 2 3 1 or 3 1

Beautiful sunset

a white house

green leaves

airforce

housekeeper

Mark Twain

lighthouse

notebook

News Watch

Enumeration of series of things or statements indicating alternatives or choices 2 3 2 3. 3 2 3 1.

She likes to eat oranges, pies, hotcakes, and sizzling steaks.

These are my children, Johnny, Betty, Nicky, and Kathy.

Will you see Dr. Cruz, Mrs. Luce, and Sister Ana?

Lunch will be served at twelve or at twelve-thirty.

Would you like coffee or tea?

Rate of SpeechSpeaking is characterized by variations in speed. Slow speech projects such

personality characteristics as calmness, acceptance of others, and formality. However, if therate is too slow, it may project an image of dullness, listlessness, apathy, laziness, andsometimes lack of intelligence. Rapid speech, on the other hand, projects animation,

enthusiasm, excitement and informality. But to speak too fast may also suggestnervousness, tension, anxiety, or flighty personality. Slow speech may result in the


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Exercise II: Read the following selection using varieties in voice quality, speech level,intensity and rate of speaking.

FOOTPRINTS IN THE SAND

One night a man had a dream. He dreamed he was walking along the beach with theLord. Across the sky flashed scenes from his life. For each scene, he noticed two sets offootprints in the sand; one belonging to him and the other to the Lord.

When the last scene of his life flashed before him, he looked back at the footprints inthe sand. He noticed that many times along his path of hi life there was only one set offootprints. He also noticed that it happened at the very lowest and saddest times in his life.

This really bothered him and he questioned the Lord about it. Lord, you said thatonce I decided to follow you, youd walk with e all the way, but I have noticed that during themost troublesome times in my life, there is only one set of footprints. I dont understand whywhen I needed you most, you would leave me.

The Lord replied, My precious child, I love you and I would never leave you. Duringyour times of trial and suffering, when you see only set of footprints, it was then when Icarried you.

V. References/Additional Readings

1. Flores, Carmelita et.al., Effective Speech Communication, Revised Edition.(National Book Store, Inc. 1990)

2. Tan, Arsenia B. Public Speaking and Speech Improvement for Filipinos(National Book Store, Inc. 1997)


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LESSON 8HESITATION FILLERS

I. Learning Objectives:At the end of the topic, the students should be able to:

1. speak without hesitation fillers;2. note the importance of speaking without any hesitation filler;3. identify the different hesitation fillers where we are accustomed to use; and

4. suggest some ways on how to avoid hesitation fillers when speaking to attain

spontaneity.

II. Introduction:

Public speaking skills can be acquired. All of us have the potential to live, relate and

connect with each other better through public communication and leadership. One member

of Toastmaster- a group of professionals whose main goal is to develop their speaking

prowess shares the experiences that everyday is a day that we can become bettercommunicators.

Human speech is peppered with ums and uhs, among other signs of hesitation in theplanning process. But are these so-called fillers (or filled pauses) intentionally uttered byspeakers, or are they side-effects of difficulties in the planning process? And how dolisteners respond to them? In the present paper we review evidence concerning theproduction and comprehension of fillers such as um and uh, in an attempt to determinewhether they can be said to be words with meanings that are understood by listeners. Weconclude that, whereas listeners are highly sensitive to hesitation dissiliences in speech,there is little evidence to suggest that they are intentionally produced, or should beconsidered to be words in the conventional sense.

Unless you are a robot or a very well-trained speaker, you will realise that as you are

speaking during conversations, there will be "ers, erm, ah, ok, all-rights, lahs" in our speech.

This is normal. This is common. This is what toastmasters refer to as "Pause Fillers".

III. Discussion:p

What are Pause Fillers?

Nature abhors vacuums and when you are speaking naturally, there will be timeswhen there are pauses in your speech as you take a breath or as you think about something

you are going to say before you say it. In this short few seconds or even mili-seconds; your

voice utters a sound or sounds to fill in the emptiness that lies between our previous

utterance and the next.

An example:

"I had always been an avid toastmaster for the last five years, because...er...yah, I enjoy

speaking in front of audiences and..and.. therefore going to a toastmaster meeting thrills

me..."


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The "er..yah" (erms and ahs) in red and the "and...and" (repetition) are pause fillers. They

add nothing to your speech except to make it less fluent and seem cluttered with

unnecessary sounds.

We will consider four kinds of fillers: filled pauses, discourse markers, explicitediting terms and asides/parentheticals. None of these filler types alters the propositionalcontent of the material into which they are inserted, and their insertion does not depend onthe word identities of the surrounding material. Annotating fillers consists of identifying thetoken(s) that act as a filler, and labelling the filler with the appropriate type. Clean-up ofthese phenomena is equivalent to removing the entire word or phrase that constitutes thefiller.

Chains of Fillers

In order to save time during annotation, long strings of contiguous filled pauses maybe labelled as a single multi-word filler rather than a series of separate filled pauses.

(Example: I {um uh oh uh} think I'll have a burger.)

On the other hand, however, the same rule does not apply to discourse markers.Long strings of contiguous DMs should be labelled individually. (Example: {you know} {Imean} {uh uh uh} {you know} I just wanted some candy.)

End-of-turn fillers

End-of-turn fillers of ANY kind (in addition to being labelled with the proper filler type) shouldbe followed by an incomplete SU:

DISCOURSE MARKER ...and I went to the store [/.] you know [/-]FILLED PAUSE ...and I went to the store [/.] um [/-]

The same applies to final conjunctions:

CONJUNCTION ...and I went to the store [/.] but [/-]

What is a hesitation particle?

Sometimes known as filled pauses, they often precede a dispreferred response in aconversation. Instead of refusing or declining an offer right away, one usually throws in a

filler word and/or a small pause (could be 0.5 seconds or more).

Hesitation particles are common in everyday speech, but often times speakers are notaware that they are using these words themselves.

Be careful of overusing them, as too many hesitation particles can make one sound lesspowerful or less credible. This is especially true when one is doing a presentation or publicspeech to a large audience. In normal conversations, these usually cannot be avoidedcompletely and we have gotten accustomed using them often.
http://linguisticszone.blogspot.com/2007/07/preferred-responses.htmlhttp://linguisticszone.blogspot.com/2007/07/preferred-responses.html


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Here's a list of hesitation particles in English:hmmmohehuhm

umerahmmm

Here's a list of filler words to go along with them:kindasortalikey'knowperhapsso

actuallymaybe

Filler Type: Filled Pause (FP)

What is a Filled Pause?

Filled pauses are hesitation sounds that speakers employ to indicate uncertainty orto maintain control of a conversation while thinking of what to say next. Filled pauses do notadd any new information to the conversation (other than to indicate the speaker's hesitation)

and they do not alter the meaning of what is uttered. For instance,

Um I do uh some uh woodworking myself.

Filled pauses can occur anywhere in the stream of speech. In English, the set offilled pauses includes the following five words:

ah uheh umer

Other sounds or non-lexemes can occasionally be used as a filled pause, and somespeakers may adopt an idiosyncratic filled pause noise that does not appear on the abovelist. For the purposes of Simple MDE annotation, we limit ourselves to the filled pauses listedabove.

Other FP functions

Be aware that some tokens that can be used as FPs may have other functions, likequestion responses, elsewhere in the discourse. Label tokens as filled pauses only whenthey indicate a speaker's hesitation.

Look out for filled pauses that are actually mistranscribed backchannels. Forexample, a speaker says "mhm" but the transcription is "uh", with automatic filled pause

annotation. In this case, "uh" is a would-be backchannel.


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FPs occupying a whole speaker turn

Sometimes a speaker's turn consists solely of a filled pause. You should annotatethis as an incomplete SU:

A: I love mowing the lawn [/.]B: {Um} [/-]A: Being outdoors is great [/.]

FPs at the end of a speaker turn

Said at the end of the discourse.

Strings of FPs

In order to save time, long strings of contiguous filled pauses may be labeled as a

single multi-word filler rather than a series of separate filled pauses.The {uh, um, uh uh} oh, what's it called, the {uh, uh} the Chrysler Building.

These will be separated into individual filled pause tokens as an automatic post-processing step. However, fillers of different types that occur in sequence should beannotated separately according to their type. For instance,

{Um, uh} {well} {you see} {uh} it's not that simple.

Annotation: FPause Disc.Marker FPause

Upon post-processing, this example will be rendered as follows:

{Um} {uh} {well} {you see} {uh} it's not that simple.

Post-process: FP FP DM DM FP

Filler Type : Discourse Marker (DM)

What is a Discourse Marker?

A DM is a word or phrase that functions primarily as a structuring unit of spoken language.DMs frequently appear at the beginning or end of an SU. To the listener, a DM signals thespeaker's intention to mark a boundary in discourse, such as a change in the speaker, thebeginning of a new topic or the expression of a response:

That gets on my nerves, too. Anyway, tell me about your new job.

DMs can also serve to indicate the speaker's attitude or orientation toward the discourse; forinstance, a speaker may introduce a discourse marker to indicate a contradictory stance

toward what the other speaker has stated:


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A: I think he's done a terrible job in that position. If it were up to me I'd fire him.B: See, I don't know if I'd go that far.

Because of the many uses of DMs in speech, and the resulting complexity of defining andidentifying them, we will annotate only a limited set of discourse markers that are used in

clearly recognizable ways. The following words and phrases will be annotated as discoursemarkers when they are used to structure the discourse and do not carry separate meaning.

actually* nowanyway* seebasically* wellI mean you knowlet's see (now) you seelike so

Unlike strings of filled pauses, strings of multiple DMs must be annotated as separate unitsrather than as one multi-DM unit:

{Like}, {you see}, that's a hard question.

NOT

{Like, you see}, that's a hard question.

Many words and phrases used as discourse markers also have other literal meanings:

Do you knowhow many minutes we're supposed to talk for?The situation right nowis that we're moving in three weeks.

We will label onlythose instances that function as discourse markers.

*In the case of "actually," "anyway," and "basically," they primarily function as discoursemarkers when they occur sentence-initially. Rarely, though occasionally, they do function asdiscourse markers sentence-terminally, usually at the end of a turn.

So in these examples, "actually" is serving as a DM:

Actually, I've been involved in recycling for long before it was fashionable.

TI had sent me to Taiwan actually....that's not necessarily the fault of immigration, but just the way the world is going toyou know where in a hand basket anyway.

Whereas in this example, "actually" is not:

So they may actuallyhave about three passes at this collection.

It can sometimes be difficult to distinguish when a word or phrase is functioning as adiscourse marker and when it is acting as a content word. In cases of uncertainty,annotators should leave the word or phrase un-annotated.

You know as a generalizer


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One example of such an ambiguous case is "you know" as a generalizer that refers tosomething external to the sentence. We annotate these as DMs:

It's not like Boston, NY, Philly/. Oryou know /-If the stress is really on she'll break down/. and you know /-

Why do we utter pause fillers?

Pause fillers come in because we tend to be uncomfortable with silence, even as it is for a

very short 1 or 2 seconds or less. Thus, the tendency for speakers is to fill that with sounds

that do not value-add anything to the neither content nor form of your speech.

My personal experience with my own pause fillers started out even before I became a

toastmaster. I remember doing a presentation of my social committee's proposal to organise

the annual dinner and dance as I was the Chairman of this committee. There I was, bringing

the senior management meeting through the proposal when the CEO cut me off saying,

"Stop the lors and the lahs!"

I was both nervous in front of this senior group of people in my organisation as a junior staff

just starting out my career in the organisation plus I was not a trained toastmaster then.

Hence, I was having a lah or ler in my presentation which sounded Singlish and also was

jarring to the CEO's ears.

That experience lingered in my mind until today and I can say confidently now that I speak

better now than I did then because I am more aware of what my pause fillers do to my public

communication.

Negative impact of pause fillers

If you are serious about being a better public speaker either on a one-to-many or

one-to-one situation, you have to be very conscious of pause-fillers because they can cause

the following impact on your audience's perception of you:

1) Lacks confidence and appears unconvincing- If you are confident, your audience

expects you to say what you want to say in a steady and coherent manner. The steadiness

comes from choosing your words carefully and communicating them confidently to the

audience without hesitation, unnecessary pauses and unnecessary pause fillers.

2) Appears unpolished and poorly prepared- Well prepared public speakers shouldn't be

thinking of what they want to say. It should be at their fingertips (metaphorically) as pause

fillers signify you are still thinking of what to say.

3) Jarring on the audience's ears- I don't know about you but pause fillers really make my

skin crawl... Especially when THEY ARE MINE! :-(

4) Appears untrustworthy- Some people associate pause fillers as those who are shifty

and their views and opinions bend with the wind even as their words are not sure nor steady.


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How to overcome pause fillers

1) Recognise that you have them- In order for you to overcome pause fillers, you need to

first recognise that you do use them in your daily speech. In a typical toastmasters meeting,

there will be a person taking up the role of an "ah-counter". The "ah-counter" is someone

who will count your pause fillers so that you are made aware of how many you make in the

course of the meeting. I recall during my very first few toastmasters meeting, I made easily

20-30 pause fillers during the course of doing a 4 to 6 or 5 to 7 minute speech. It was only

later when I became aware of the number of pause fillers in my speech.

2) Getting comfortable with pauses- The way to reduce your pause fillers is to be

comfortable with short pauses in your speech. If you listen to speeches of important men

and women, you will realise that many of them speak with gravity and with deliberate pace,

pausing before major utterances to lend credibility to their spoken words. If you want to be

like them, get comfortable with the natural pauses in your own speech.

3) Be well prepared- One of the other ways to overcome pause fillers is to be well

prepared. When you are well prepared you will be confident enough with your material to

field questions deliver your speech and convince the audience of your message.

Let's overcome pause fillers by recognising it, getting comfortable with pauses and to be

always well prepared for speaking opportunities.

Speak well and to live well.

IV. ACTIVITIES:Each student is given a situation or issue to talk about for a 3-5 minutes. The goal of

the activity is for each to speak with spontaneity by avoiding the use of any hesitation filler.The lesser number of hesitation fillers while talking or none at all will be given the [perfectmark.

Activity 2:The teacher prepares tongue twisters. Each student will be given a tongue to deliver

with accuracy and speed.


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from a family who struggled financially and is one of the few amongst her relatives who hasmaintained a good marriage, raised children and now runs a successful business. Shedeveloped a small catering firm specializing in delivering beautifully presented gourmetmeals and finger food on demand. Martha is conscious of her good fortune but also knowsthe starting point, or the seed, lay within her. She desired the change of circumstances so

much she enabled them to happen

Her notes may look like this:

Speech Title:How to win a future for your family when the kids need feeding and the billswant paying.

I am like you I get too busy to plan ahead, I have a tendency to deal with whateversqueals loudest, I get tired

Before and after life before I made the decision to start my own business life afterI made the decision. Comparisons several examples.

The hardest part of making the decision and acting on it was Examples.

The best part of making the decisionExamples. People who inspired me to act.

What Ive learnt in the process about my family, others and myselfExamples.

How I keep myself inspiredgoal setting, listening and learning from others

The future the way forward for you, the women in the audience listening.

3. HOW- There are two important hows.The first is howlong the speech is to be. The time given you will determine what you putinto your speech and what you will leave out. If you have a relatively short time (3-5minutes), you will need to either focus on onemajor topic with examples to illustrate orsettlefor covering a maximum ofthree lightly.

The second howrelates to the method of presentation. For example: Will this be a speechtold with humor? Will you have a show and tell?When you consider this how bear in mind the different needs of your audience. Most peoplehave a preferred mode for receiving information. Some people understand well throughlistening. They are called auditory. Some people get most of their understanding throughlooking. They are called visual. Others receive and understand information best when theycan touch, feel or do what is being explained to them. These are the kinesthetics'. Aconsiderate and effective speaker tries to include all three modes in their speech.Marthas Notes:

How long?Time available = 10 minutes. (Maybe some more but that depends on the rest of the agendaof the meeting and how well it flows.( Could be some space for questions from the audienceand answer.)

How to present?With humor! Also take some flyers, business cards and samples of finger food along. These


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Thanks for coming today Summer heat, wed all rather be at beach reading a bookunder a sun umbrella.etc. But Ive got something for you thatll more than make upfor it. I look around the hall and I see a lot of women just like me: women, who workhard, love their families, etcwant the best for them. (Insert anecdotal humor,perhaps a small personal story about the checkbookThe only way I could manage it

was to banish it the bottom drawer of the filing cabinet. Likewise I used my creditcards to test how sharp my scissors were.)

Main Idea 1 (3 minutes):Introduce business and what it is. Explain how it functions on a daily basis. Brieflyoutline long-term goals. (Quick show-and-tell with flyers and food. Invite people tosample at end

and ask questions.)

Main idea 2 (2 minutes):My life before the business (tie to women in audience). My life after business started.What I have achieved. The hardest part about starting, staying in business. The bestpart about starting, staying in business. People who have inspired me.

Main idea 3 (3 minutes):What Ive learnt in the process about my family, others and myselfExamples. How Ikeep myself inspiredgoal setting, listening and learning from others

Summary: (1minute):Very quick round up of principal points. The future the way forward for you, thewomen in the audience listening. Invite questions if time. Remind them about theflyers and the food! Thank organizers.

2) 0utlining according to structure

The outline will help clarify what you want to say as well as help organise your material.

The process is broken down into 4 steps:

STEP 1: Preparation:

Deciding on your topic, considering the audience, refining your topic to suit them,deciding on the purpose of the speech and the organisational method you will use

Sample Speech Outline - Step One - Preparation

1. Topic - decide what you are going to talk about

2. Audience - consider who will be listening to you and what aspects of your topicare best suited to meet their needs

3. Refine or Limit Topic - reframe in view of your audience -decide on the angleyou will take and whether or not you need to limit the scope

4. Define Purpose - Is it, for example, to persuade, inform, demonstrate, entertain,

or welcome? Is it a combination of these?


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Through verbal communication, people learn about your thoughts, ideas,products, and services. Through non-verbal communication, they learn about yourfeelings.

When George Bush ran for president in 1988, he hired a voice coach to help

him lower his voice an octave. Why? Because the candidate's high-pitched voicehad helped saddle him with the "wimp" image, even though Bush had proved hisvalor as a Navy combat pilot during World War II.

We convey feelings, moods and attitudes through a variety of voice qualities,which are sometimes called paralanguage. Among these qualities are volume, pace,intonation, stress and juncture.

A. VOICE QUALITYVoice is the production of sound while speech is the combination of sounds

so that they become symbols that represent meanings to both the speaker and thelistener. The human voice consists ofsound made by a human being using the vocal

folds fortalking, singing, laughing, crying, screaming, etc. Human voice is specificallythat part of human sound production in which the vocal folds (vocal cords) are theprimary sound source.

Voice is said to be PLEASANT orUNPLEASANT. This is often called theTMBRE or TONE COLOR and it results from the weight exerted on the vocalcords by the resonators in the process of speaking. Our individual voice quality hasbeen determined for us by nature- the size of the larynx, pharynx, mouth, resonators-but we can change and improve the quality of our voice through the correct use ofthe speech organs.

Any discussion on voice quality needs a relative dichotomy between a goodvoice and unpleasant voice. For a voice to be considered good it should be clear,

pleasant, varied and understandable; it should be free from tension in the throat,inadequate breath control, or inadequate use of resonating cavities because theseproduced irritating characteristics such as harshness, or hollowness.

1. The Normal VoiceIn conversation, you speak naturally showing little or no emotion. The

speaker talks without any tension at all.Example: reading a passage from the Holy Book

2. The Breathy voiceWhen you want to create an atmosphere of secrecy and mystery, you use

this voice. This breathy whispered type of the tone is an ASPIRATE quality of the

voice best heard in the STAGE WHISPER in which the sound of rushing air presentin the real whisper is sustained by a partial vibration of the vocal cords.

3. The Full VoiceIn many forms of public speaking when the voice must be projected to a

greater distance, or when an occasion is formal and dignified, you use the full, deepquality of your voice. Also known as OROTUND (round mouth) quality, it isproduced by opening the mouth somewhat wider and by increasing the oral andnasal resonance so that the voice acquires a more ringing tone.

4. The Chesty VoiceThis is a deep hollow voice as if coming from a deep empty cave. Its voice

quality has less nasal resonance and it is accompanied by a vibration in the bony
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_beinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocal_foldshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocal_foldshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laughterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screaminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_beinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocal_foldshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocal_foldshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laughterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screaming


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structure of the upper chest, thus making it a chesty voice with a PECTORALquality.

5. The Thin VoiceThis voice quality is thin and high-pitched, the high pitch being its chief

characteristic. This FALSETTO quality occurs only in extreme fatigue, weakening,old age, ill-health or in extreme excitement.

The use of these voice qualities will always depend on your mood and thespeaking situation. In ordinary conversation and in public speaking, the normal andfull qualities are desirable but for acting, oral interpretation, and role delineation thethin, chesty, and breathy qualities are useful.

B. Volume and Pace

Volume and pace should be used in a careful, controlled way. Thesequalities can work in unison to achieve powerful effects, especially when selling andpersuading from the public platform. You can let your voice rise to a crescendo, thepace and volume quickening until you reach a peak of excitement. Or you can dropto a dramatic whisper.

Volume should always be great enough that you can be heard by everyoneyou're trying to reach with your voice. When addressing a group through amicrophone, that generally presents no problem for you. When speaking without amicrophone, keep checking the people farthest from you for signs that they're

straining to hear, or indications that their attention is straying.

Pace should be adapted to the message. Some simple but telling points canbe made effectively in rapid-fire sequence. Others can be made by slowly drawingout the words or by long pauses to let the points sink in.

Speed

You will always be faster than you think you are because everyone getsnervous when they are speaking

If you are angry, frustrated, happy or saying something really excitingspeed up just a little bit to get people more into the pace of the emotion.

If you are trying to convey something a little sadder, slow down a little

more so that every word sinks in.

C. Pauses

Let your audience absorb what you said

Give yourself time to remember the next line and breadth

Pauses help you stay calm and when properly employed, can give you an airof confidence, professionalism and thoughtfulness

Pauses reduce the umms and awkward stammering

After you ask a question or say something shocking have a pause

Pause for water only during 2 and 3 second pauses if possible

IV. EXERCISES

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