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GUIDELINES FORINTEGRATED COASTAL

ZONE MANAGEMENT

Jan C. Post and Carl G. Lundin, Editors

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A~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~AEnvi 911taly Sustainable Development Stt4-"'

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1 Culture and Development in Africa: Proceedings of an International Conference (Also in French)

2 Valuing the Environment: Proceedings of the First Annual International Conferenceon Environmentally Sustainable Development

3 Overcoming Global Hunger: Proceedings of a Conference on Actions to Reduce Hunger Worldwide

4 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development: Proceedings of a Conference

5 The Human Face of the Urban Environment: A Report to the Development Community

6 The Human Face of the Urban Environment: Proceedings of the Second Annual World Bank Conferenceon Environmentally Sustainable Development

7 The Business of Sustainable Cities: Public-Private Partnerships for Creative Technicaland Institutional Solutions

8 Enabling Sustainable Community Development

9 Sustainable Financing Mechanisms for Coral Reef Conservation: Proceedings of a Workshop

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I The Contribution of People's Participation: Evidence from 121 Rural Water Supply Projects

2 Making Development Sustainable: From Concepts to Action

3 Sociology, Anthropology, and Development: An Annotated Bibliographyof World Bank Publications 1975-1993

4 The World Bank's Strategy for Reducing Poverty and Hunger: A Report to the Development Community

5 Sustainability and the Wealth of Nations: First Steps in an Ongoing Journey (Forthcoming)

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8 Confronting Crisis: A Comparative Study of Household Responses to Poverty and Vulnerabilityin Four Poor Urban Communities

9 Guidelines for Integrated Coastal Zone Management

10 Enabling the Safe Use of Biotechnology: Principles and Practice

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The World Bank Participation Sourcebook

GUIDELINES FORINTEGRATED COASTAL

ZONE MANAGEMENT

Jan C. Post and Carl G. Lundin, Editors

Environmentally Sustainable Development Studies and Monographs Series No. 9

ESD The World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Copyright (© 1996The International Bank for Reconstructionand Development/THE WORLD BANK

1818 H Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

All rights reservedManufactured in the United States of America

First printing August 1996

This report has been prepared by the staff of the World Bank. The judgments expressed donot necessarily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors or the governmentsthey represent.

Cover photo by Jan C. Post. Sustainable use of the coastal waters in the Republic of Korea isto a considerable extent in the hands of cooperatives of women, who dive for seafood and mayrestock the waters with hatchery-raised juveniles, such as abalone.

Jan C. Post is the senior ecologist in the Environment Department of the World Bank.Carl G. Lundin is a marine resources specialist in the same department.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Guidelines for integrated coastal zone management / Jan C. Post and Carl G.Lundin, editors.

p. cm. - (Environmentally sustainable development studiesand monographs ; no. 9)

Includes bibliographical references.ISBN 0-8213-3735-11. Coastal zone management. 2. Coastal zone management-United

States. 3. Coastal ecology. I. Post, Jan C. 1946- . II. Lundin,Carl G., 1964- . III. Series.HT391.G824 1996333.91'7'0973-dc2O 96-32888

CIP

@ Printed on recycled paper.

Contents

Foreword v

Acknowledgments vi

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER 1

Issues in Coastal Zone Management: What Is the Coastal Zone? 3The Value of Coastal Resources 3Growth in Coastal Populations 4A New Challenge 4

CHAPTER 2

Principles of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 5

CHAPTER 3

Guidelines for Development of ICZM Programs 7Triggering the Need for ICZM 7Who Gives the Go-Ahead? 7Who Does What? Roles and Responsibilities

in the Coastal Zone 8Formulation of the Plan 10Program Implementation 12Monitoring, Evaluation, and Enforcement 12ICZM and National Development Plans, Funding Considerations,

and International Aspects 13

References 15

Foreword

In both developed and developing countries the Netherlands, of which the present guidelines arecoastal zone is likely to undergo the most pro- an expansion and update.found change in the near future. Already more A published paper, "Africa: A Framework forthan 60 percent of the world's population lives Integrated Coastal Zone Management," identi-within 60 km of the coast. By the turn of the cen- fied ICZM as one of the main tools for the imple-tury two-thirds of the population (3.7 billion) in mentation of investment projects. Increasingly,developing countries is expected to occupy the the governments of borrowing countries includecoast. Consequently, unless careful environmen- coastal zone planning needs in Bank loans suchtal management and planning are instituted, se- as the Sustainable Coastal Resource Developmentvere conflicts over coastal space and resource Project in China (under preparation), and theutilization are likely, and the degradation of natu- Thailand Coastal Resources Management Project.ral resources will close development options. These guidelines are a conceptual presenta-

Recognizing these threats, the 1992 United Na- tion of how Integrated Coastal Zone Managementtions Conference on Environment and Develop- may be applied to contribute to the evolving prac-ment (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro recommended tice of environmentally sustainable development.that Guidelines on Integrated Coastal Zone Man-agement (ICZM) be drafted to minimize conflictsand to provide for optimal sustainable resource Ismail Serageldinuse. In response to this request the "Noordwijk Vice PresidentGuidelines" on ICZM were presented at the 1993 Environmentally Sustainable DevelopmentWorld Coast Conference in Noordwijk, The The World Bank

v

Acknowledgments

These guidelines have been prepared from con- andAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNationstributions by a number of consultants, primarily (FAO), and The World Conservation Union (IUCN),Professor Robert W. Knecht, University of Dela- and were supported by a Trust Fund from the Swed-ware; Dr. Chua Thia-Eng, Coastal Management ish International DevelopmentAuthority. Contribu-Center, Philippines; and Dr. Olof Linden, regional tors to the Technical Workshop on Coastal Zonecoordinator for the Swedish Agency for Research Management Guidelines, held at the World BankCooperation with Developing Countries' Marine in November 1992, are also acknowledged.Sciences Program (SAREC). The guidelines have This volume was edited byAlicia Hetzner andbeen developed in consultation with United Na- Virginia Hitchcock, and desktopped by Jimtions Environment Programme (UNEP), Food Cantrell. Joyce Petruzzelli designed the cover.

vi

Introduction

oastal zones throughout the world tives for the development and management of thehave historically been among the coastal zone. ICZM should ensure that the pro-most heavily exploited areas because of cess of setting objectives, planning and imple-

their rich resources. In coastal countries today mentation involves as broad a spectrum of inter-an estimated half of the total populations live in est groups as possible, that the best possible com-coastal zones, and migration from inland areas promise between the different interests is found,to the coast is increasing. Not surprisingly, there and that a balance is achieved in the overall useis also a sharp conflict between the need for im- of the country's coastal zones.mediate consumption or use of coastal resources Coastal zone management as a formal govern-and the need to ensure the long-term supply of mental activity was first undertaken in the Unitedthose resources. In many countries this conflict States in 1972 with the enactment by the U.S.has already reached a critical stage, with large Congress of the Coastal Zone Management Act.parts of the coastal zone polluted from local or Results of the U.S. effort are generally thought toupland sources, fisheries severely degraded or de- be positive.stroyed, wetlands drained, coral reefs dynamited A number of other nations initiated coastaland beaches long since ruined for human enjoy- management efforts of one type or another in thement. If these coastal resources are to be main- late 1970s and early 1980s. In fact, terms such astained and restored, effective action is urgently coastal zone management, coastal resource man-needed. To answer this need, a management sys- agement, and coastal area management havetem has been designed: Integrated Coastal Zone been used virtually interchangeably to describeManagement (ICZM). such efforts. Many of these programs, however,

ICZM is a process of governance and consists dealt with a single sector-say, coastal erosion orof the legal and institutional framework neces- shoreland use. Most did not attempt to deal com-sary to ensure that development and manage- prehensively with the entire coastal zone and itsment plans for coastal zones are integrated with full range of resources.environmental (including social) goals and are Beginning in the mid-1980s, as the difficultiesmade with the participation of those affected. The inherent in using a single sector approach in at-purpose of ICZM is to maximize the benefits pro- tempting to manage something as complex as thevided by the coastal zone and to minimize the coastal zone became more apparent, the conceptconflicts and harmful effects of activities upon of Integrated Coastal Zone Management cameeach other, on resources and on the environment. into being. ICZM differs from the earlier form ofIt starts with an analytical process to set objec- CZM in that it attempts a more comprehensive

I

2 Guidelinesfor Integrated Coastal Zone Management

approach-taking account of all of the sectoral urged that it be begun as early as possible to in-activities that affect the coastal zone and its re- crease preparedness to deal with the potentiallysources and dealing with economic and social is- far-reaching impact of climate change upon thesues as well as environmental/ecological con- coastal zone.cerns. The goal, of course, is to harmonize these At the onset several caveats are necessary withactivities in such a way that all of them are con- regard to these guidelines. First, a single set ofsistent with and support a broader set of over- guidelines cannot fit all situations. Although anarching national goals for the coastal zone. effort has been made to reflect varying govern-

Encouragement for coastal nations to develop mental, economic, and environmental contexts,their own integrated coastal zone management obviously all of the countless possibilities cannotinfrastructures emerged during the preparation be included. Second, given the governmentalfor the United Nations Conference on Environ- nature of ICZM, these guidelines have been pre-ment and Development (UNCED) that culmi- pared from a governmental/public policy per-nated in the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro, spective. This means that they emphasize insti-Brazil in June 1992. The Agenda 21 Action Plan tutional, policy, legal, and regulatory aspects and,adopted at Rio by all nations assigns a promi- to a lesser extent, economic and ecological fac-nent role to ICZM in the oceans part of the docu- tors.ment (chapter 17). The Intergovernmental Panel It is likely that other, specialized sectoral andon Climate Change (a scientific body) and the In- issue-specific guidelines will be developed latertergovernmental Negotiating Committee on Glo- by other agencies such as for fisheries, agricul-bal Climate Change (a negotiating and policy ture, forestry, port construction, pollution, andbody) have also recently endorsed ICZM and tourism.

Chapter 1

Issues in Coastal Zone Management:What Is the Coastal Zone?

Tr he coastal zone is the interface where * Coastal ecosystems may act to moderate thethe land meets the ocean, encompass- impacts of pollution originating from land (foring shoreline environments as well as ad- example, wetlands absorbing excess nutrients,

jacent coastal waters. Its components can include sediments, human waste).river deltas, coastal plains, wetlands, beaches and * The coast attracts vast human settlements duedunes, reefs, mangrove forests, lagoons, and to its proximity to ocean's living and nonliv-other coastal features. The limits of the coastal ing resources, as well as marine transporta-zone are often arbitrarily defined, differing tion and recreation.widely among nations, and are often based onjurisdictional limits or demarcated by reasons of The Value of Coastal Resourcesadministrative ease. It has often been argued thatthe coastal zone should include the land area from Coastal resource systems are valuable naturalthe watershed to the sea, which theoretically endowments that need to be managed for presentwould make sense as this is the zone where bio- and future generations. Coastal zones offer physi-physical interactions are strongest. For planning cal and biological opportunities for human use,purposes this definition is often quite impracti- and ICZM tries to find the optimum balance be-cal, however, as huge areas containing whole tween these uses based on a given set of objec-countries would fall under this definition. tives. Concern is growing in particular about the

For practical planning purposes, the coastal destruction of natural coastal ecosystems by thezone is a special area, endowed with special char- demands placed upon them by population andacteristics, whose boundaries are often deter- economic growth. These natural ecosystems havemined by the specific problems to be tackled. Its considerable value for sustainable extractive andcharacteristics are: nonextractive use which is often undervalued in

* It is a dynamic area with frequently changing comparison with other often non-sustainablebiological, chemical, and geological attributes. uses. These guidelines therefore emphasize natu-

* It includes highly productive and biologically ral coastal ecosystems and sustainable use of thediverse ecosystems that offer crucial nursery coastal zone with maximum preservation of en-habitats for many marine species. vironmental quality.

* Coastal zone features such as coral reefs, man- In nature the coastal system maintains an eco-grove forests, and beach and dune systems logical balance that accounts for shoreline stabil-serve as critical natural defenses against ity, beach replenishment, and nutrient generationstorms, flooding, and erosion. and recycling, all of which are of great ecological

3

4 Guiidelinesfor Integrated Coastal Zone Management

and socioeconomic importance. These natural sys- of crucial importance for the maintenance of thetems are umder increasing threat from unmanaged quality and productivity of the coastal zone, ashuman activities such as pollution, habitat destruc- indeed of the rest of the planet.tion, and overexploitation of resources. Increased coastal resource use conflicts will in-

In coastal rural areas fishing of nearshore wa- evitably intensify social and economic develop-ters and farming of coastal lowlands are the major ment problems. Problems of multiple jurisdictioneconomic activities supplying fish and agricultural and competition between users of resources with-products for subsistence of the inhabitants and out the benefit of a conflict resolution mechanism,urban centers. Activities that add further value to inadequate regulations for protecting resources,coastal resources include recreation and tourism, and the lack of nationally or locally adapted coastalwhich have become major sources of domestic and policies for informed decisionmaking, will trans-foreign exchange earnings in many coastal nations. late into a loss of capability for future sustainable

The intrinsic economic value of coastal re- development. As the resource base is depleted,sources represents a "capital" investment for conflicts may reach alarming dimensions to thehumankind by nature. The goods and services point of threatening human life and public order.derived from them are the "interest" generatedby the investment. Hence, the destruction of the A New Challengeresource base means depletion of the "capital"and therefore less interest and the ultimate ex- Storm surges caused by typhoons, cyclones, hur-haustion of what nature has freely provided. ricanes, and coastal storms are familiar natural

phenomena that periodically inundate someGrowth in Coastal Populations coastal regions. Recently, the international sci-

entific community has recognized as real the con-Population growth in the coastal zone is a major cern over human-induced global warming of theconcern. The world population is expected to atmosphere, leading to climate changes and seagrow at an exponential rate from 5.8 billion in level rise. The latter will in particular affect low-1995 to 8.5 billion by the year 2025. It is projected lying coastal regions. Further, an increase in meanto reach 11 billion in a century's time, with 95 sea surface temperatures may increase the fre-percent of the growth occurring in developing quency of hurricanes as well as expand the areacountries. More than 50 percent of the world of their influence.population is already concentrated within 60 km The global scientific community is predictingof the coast while there is considerable migration an acceleration in sea level rise associated withof population to the coast from inland areas. In atmospheric warming. The coastal zones anddeveloping countries, by the turn of this century their human settlements may not only be affectedtwo-thirds of the population (3.7 billion) is ex- by changes in sea level, temperature, rainfall,pected to live along the coast. humidity, winds and, perhaps, storm frequency,

This growth will exacerbate already severe but also by changes in groundwater level, salin-coastal-use conflicts in terms of land and water ity, ocean circulation, sediment flux, and stormspace and resource utilization. The negative im- and erosion patterns. An ICZM system in placepacts of increased human settlement and indus- could prepare for such an eventuality and mini-trial development are also more acutely felt in mize resource and human losses. It can also bethe coastal zone since it is at the receiving end of designed to safeguard the natural systems thatland- and water-based pollution. Compounding provide protection from high seas by managingthe problem, the coastal zone is often subject to indiscriminate development activities that putoverlapping governance of local, provincial and greater numbers of people and property at risk.central governments resulting in interagency con- Environmentally sound responses to reduceflicts and unclear policy concerning resource the vulnerability of coastal communities anddevelopment and management and environmen- coastal resources to global climate and sea leveltal protection. In many countries, large parts of changes require long lead times for planningthe coastal zone area are privately owned. Stabi- purposes. Thus, even though the effects of somelizing population through family planning pro- of these changes may be decades away, now isgrams as an integral part of ICZM, therefore, is the time to consider appropriate action.

Chapter 2

Principles of IntegratedCoastal Zone Management

C oastal nations should be in a position * Employs a multidisciplinary, holistic systemsto develop an ICZM structure that is perspective, which recognizes the intercon-uniquely suited to that nation-to the na- nections between coastal systems and uses.

ture of its coastal areas, its institutional and gov- * Maintains a balance between protection ofernmental arrangements, and its traditions and valuable ecosystems and development ofcultures and economic conditions. Nonetheless, coast-dependent economies. It sets prioritiessome currently accepted principles and charac- for uses, taking account of the need to mini-teristics associated with the ICZM concept are mize the impact on the environment, to miti-useful to describe. gate and restore if necessary, and to seek the

ICZM focuses on three operational objectives: most appropriate siting of facilities. These are* Strengthening sectoral management, for in- the activities contained in Environmental Im-

stance through training, legislation, and staff- pact Assessments.ing - Operates within established geographic lim-

* Preserving and protecting the productivity its, as defined by governing bodies, that usu-and biological diversity of coastal ecosystems, lly aslde by coverces.mainly through prevention of habitat destruc- ally include all coastal resources.tion, pollution, and overexploitation * Seeks the input of all important stakeholders

* Promoting rational development and sustain- to establish policies for the equitable alloca-able utilization of coastal resources. tion of space and resources in the coastal zone.

An appropriate governance structure is essen-ICZM's distinguishing characteristics are that it:. appforisuc de n and oversight.

* Moves beyond traditional approaches, which tilfrsc eiinaigadoesgtteMoves beyonctoradlyoritional ap aches, whic * Is an evolutionary process, often requiring it-tend to be sectorally oriented ing erative solutions to complex economic, social,with a single factor) and fragmented In char- acter and seeks to manage the coastal zone as environmental, legal, and regulatory issies.a whole using an ecosystem approach where * Integrates sectoral and environmental needs.possible. ICZM should be implemented through spe-

* Is an analytical process that advises govern- cific legal and institutional arrangements atments on priorities, trade-offs, problems, and appropriate levels of the government and thesolutions. community.

* Is a dynamic and continuous process of ad- * Provides a mechanism to reduce or resolveministering the use, development, and protec- conflicts that may occur, involving resourcetion of the coastal zone and its resources to- allocation or use of specific sites as well as thewards democratically agreed objectives. approval of permits and licenses.

5

6 Guidelinesfor Integrated Coastal Zone Management

* Promotes awareness at all levels of govern- Some of the management actions selected willment and community about the concepts of involve strengthening of institutional arrange-sustainable development and the significance ments and empowerment of local authorities;of environmental protection. It is proactive reiterating customary rights and strengthening(incorporating a development planning ele- community organization; developing sustainablement) rather than reactive (waiting for devel- livelihoods as alternative employment; enforcingopment proposals before taking action). regulatory measures to control new entrants toICZM also embraces certain general principles coastal zone fisheries; curtailing destructive fish-

in the course of developing the program by a ing practices; and promoting awareness of thegiven nation. Note that most of the principles concepts and practice of sustainable developmentlisted here are among the recommendations con- at all levels of government and in the affectedtained in UNCED's Agenda 21 action program. communities.These include the following principles: An important part of the ICZM process is to

e Precautionary build understanding and a strong political alli-* Polluter pays ance among the various concerned sectors of the* Proper resource accounting coastal communities. Adoption of strong regu-* Transboundary responsibility latory measures such as those involving the "pol-* Intergenerational equity. luter pays" and "precautionary" principles, the

A key part of the formulation of an ICZM pro- implementation of user fees, limiting access togram is the development of the specific policies and exploitation of (mostly living) resources, theand goals that are to be the central objectives of imposition of Environmental Impact Assessmentthe ICZM program in question. Clearly, there will requirements, and other mitigating measures willbe a close relationship between the kinds of requireconvincingjustification. Publiceducationcoastal problems that trigger the need for an and community mobilization will be required toICZM program and the policies and goals se- reduce resistance from some of the potentially af-lected for that program. fected interest groups.

While all phases of the process of formulating All the policies, goals, and management ac-an ICZM program should be "transparent," it is tions that will come to make up an ICZM pro-of the utmost importance that the policy and goal gram are not necessarily decided upon and putsetting aspects be fully open and easily accessible in place during the initial program formulationto the affected coastal stakeholders and the in- stage. Indeed, ICZM is meant to be a dynamicterested public. Open public meetings that allow process-one that is designed to be as proactivefor detailed discussion and questions, supported as possible within the limits of the data and in-

by clear and understandable documentation, formation available at the time the program isby' developed. But unanticipated events inevitably

should be a part of the deliberations that lead to r * r ethe selection of policies and goals. occur: new coastal resources are discovered, new

uses of the coastal zone are proposed, urgentThe ean adpte toachive he eleted problems and coastal resource depletion sud-

goals and policies will include new and strength- denlyemerge. IcZMa fundamenll,isn prcsenedreglatry pogrms,zontionschmesfor denly emerge. ICZM, fundamentally, is a process

ened regulatory programs, zonation schemes for and as such it can deal on a reactive basis as well.partitioning the coastal zone into areas for par- Hence, new (or revised) policies and new (or re-ticular uses and activities, new management pro- vised) goals can be set by the body overseeinggrams tailored for particular resources (for ex- the ICZM program to deal with such unexpectedample,, coral reefs, mangroves) or particular sites developments as they occur.(a given bay or estuary), action programs aimed Finally, it is important that the plan formula-at correcting and/or restoring degraded coastal tion process be completed in a reasonably shortresources (damaged wetlands, for example) or time. The energy and momentum generated insolving coastal problems (coastal erosion), and the early stages of initiating the plan should notaction programs targeted at stimulating new be lost. Stakeholders and government agenciestypes of economic development in the coastal can lose interest if the plan formulation processzone. is overly extended.

Chapter 3

Guidelines for Developmentof ICZM Programs

Av ny one of a number of problems can * Perceived economic opportunities associatedtrigger the need for a more effective, with new forms of development in the coastal

etter integrated approach to the man- zoneagement of a given coastal area, that is, for ICZM. * Conflicts of interest among user groups.Typically, some major crisis or event precipitates These "triggering" conditions do not have toaction by awakening the stakeholders to the ur- be present throughout a nation's coastal zone.gency of a problem or condition. Governments Indeed, more typically coastal resource depletionthen become involved and seek ways to remedy or environmental problems first occur at a par-the problem. Unfortunately, given human nature, ticular location and the first recognition of thea decision to embark upon a major management seriousness of the problem may be by local stake-strengthening and improvement effort such as the holders or local government officials in that area.ICZM process is seldom undertaken in advance To the extent that local governments are preparedof the appearance of major problems and/or con- to address the problems in the coastal zone, thisflicts, in spite of the fact that the problems are can start the ICZM process before the nationallikely to be more tractable and the solutions less government gets involved, through the draftingcostly at an earlier stage. Many coastal problems of an initial concept paper, for instance.are not calamities but creeping disasters such as pol-lution, erosion and disappearance of biodiversity. Who Gives the Go-Ahead?

Triggering the Need for ICZM In virtually all governments formal approvals arerequired to initiate new programs, especially

Below are a few different kinds of coastal prob- those requiring significant realignments of insti-lems, or opportunities, that can trigger the ICZM tutional responsibilities, the establishment of newprogram: organizations or the expenditure of important

* Desire to increase the economic benefits flow- sums of money. Generally speaking, a concepting from the use of coastal zone resources paper or "decision document" is prepared which

* Serious resource depletion problems lays out the need for the new program (the prob-* Increasing pollution of the coastal and ocean lems to be addressed), spells out what it is in-

environment tended to accomplish, indicates how the program* Loss of or damage to productive coastal eco- will be developed and by whom, and shows how

systems much time and money will be required. At this* Increasing losses of life and property from stage, since the document is only requesting ap-

natural coastal hazards and disasters proval to develop an ICZM plan, it will not be spe-7

8 Gutidelinesfor Integrated Coastal Zone Management

cific regarding the final design of the ICZM pro- coastal zone and its resources (stakeholders), andgram itself but rather will specify the approach for the general public. The key to success is in-to be undertaken in the development of such a volvement of all parties and demonstration thatplan. The detailed structure of the ICZM pro- the ICZM program is in the long term interest ofgram will be decided during the course of the de- as large a number of people as possible.velopment of the plan itself. Ideally, the prepara-tion of the concept paper should be a collabora- The Interagency Coordinating Mechanismtive effort among the government agencies (lo-cal and national) that will be participants in the Several institutional approaches are possible toICZM plan development process and later, in the perform this task, including the:ICZM program itself. Coastal stakeholder groups * National planning agencyshould also be invited to review the proposal at * Formal establishment of an interagency oran early stage. It is important that all of the af- interministerial councilfected groups be identified early and be invited * Creation of a special coordinating commissioninto the process from the very beginning of the or committeework. * Formal designation (by the chief executive or

The decision to accept the recommendations the legislature) of one of the line agencies orcontained in the concept paper and to proceed ministries to act as "lead agency" and to over-with the development of an ICZM program for a see an interagency coordination process.given coastal area needs to be taken by the gov- The main purpose of the coordination mecha-ernment agency(s) having responsibility for the nism is to:planning and management of the coastal areas * Promote and strengthen interagency and in-in question. If the coastal areas of an entire na- ter-sectoral collaborationtion are involved, this will be either a sectoral * Reduce interagency rivalry and conflictsagency (fisheries, natural resources, environment) * Minimize duplication of functions of line agen-acting on behalf of the national government, the ciesnational planning office, or a still higher office * Provide a forum for conflict resolution amongdepending on the assignment of responsibilities sectorswithin the national government itself. At this * Monitor and evaluate the progress of ICZMpoint regional efforts or international assistance projects and programscan play a catalytic role. * Implement actions resulting from the evalua-

tion exercise.Who Does What? Roles and Responsibilities The interagency coordination entity overseesin the Coastal Zone the implementation and operation of the ICZM

program and has general management and sup-Much of the coastal zone and the adjacent ocean port responsibilities, particularly with respect to:and most of their resources are usually under * Coordination of planningpublic ownership. Therefore, programs to man- * Establishment of zonation schemes and imple-age those resources and areas are operated by mentation of other management actionsgovernments for the benefit of their people. Typi- * Environmental impact assessmentscally, particular government ministries, depart- * Human resources developmentments, and/or agencies are responsible for par- * Transnational issuesticular resources or uses. However, in some coun- * Budget coordinationtries much of the coastal zone is privately owned * Political accountability.and attempts by the government to get involved These are functions that are normally beyondin the management of private lands can be a the management responsibilities of individualsource of conflict. The military can also be a line agencies.major player in ICZM issues, given its often ex-tensive control of key coastal areas. National (Central) Government

In an ICZM program, important roles will con-tinue to exist for specialized agencies at both the While the initial impetus to adopt an ICZM pro-national and local governmental levels, for re- gram can come from various sources, the activesearch institutions, for users and owners of the support of the national government is crucial to

Guidelines for Development of ICZM Programs 9

the eventual success of the effort. Furthermore, in the collection and analysis of data concerningthe national government usually provides the coastal resources, environmental degradation,funding to launch the program but sometimes it mitigation strategies, new economic developmentwill be externally funded. The expertise and da- possibilities and the like.tabases for coastal resource and environmentalinformation and some or all of the existing man- Coastal Stakeholdersagement and regulatory authority usually restswith individual departments of the national gov- Coastal stakeholders are individuals or groupsernment. of individuals involved in activities which take

place in the coastal zone. In many cases, the eco-State Government nomic survival of such stakeholders depends

upon the continued health and productivity ofIn large federally organized countries such as the coastal zone. Coastal stakeholders also in-Australia, Brazil and India, the responsibility for clude individuals or groups who place a highthe management of a particular coastal zone of- value on the aesthetic, touristic, and recreationalten rests with the "state" governments and is value of the coastal area. It is important, there-funded by them. In these cases it may be the state fore, that coastal stakeholders become intimatelygovernment which initiates and manages the involved in the development and implementa-ICZM process. tion of the ICZM process to the point that they

feel an "ownership" in the process. Much of theLine Agencies and Ministries drive and momentum necessary to initiate and

sustain an ICZM process must come from thisgroup. lThe stakeholders must help generate theIn most cases, the line agencies or ministries with goup. The stakehocders mustghelp generat

specialized sectoral missions are at present man- ment policymakersaaging coastal resources. These agencies gener-ally possess the best data and expertise in the General Publicnation in their particular fields (for example, fish-eries management, control of coastal erosion, Putting an effective ICZM program in place usu-management of offshore oil and gas operations, ally requires some change in the way certain gov-etc.) and will, therefore, be essential participants ernment agencies do business and change in thein the ICZM process. way certain resources are managed. These

changes could be controversial especially amongLocal Governments certain stakeholders who may see reduced in-

comes if the new program is adopted. A well-In nations having several levels of government, informed public supporting the changes calledthe local level is the one which is "closest" to the for in the ICZM program can be an effective coun-coastal zone and its problems and opportunities. terbalance to such narrowly-based opposition.The local government and community are likely Once the formal approval to develop an ICZMto be most concerned and most affected by the plan is received, a team is formed to undertakeecological and economic health and productiv- the work. Such a team should be multi-disciplin-ity of the coastal zone and most impacted by poor ary and include experts in coastal management,development and/or environmental degradation. regional planning, resource economics, environ-Many of the "stakeholders" in the coastal zone mental management, and ecology. Other special-are constituents of the local government. Clearly ists are needed but can generally be borrowedthen, local/provincial governments must also be from sectoral government agencies (for example,fully involved and committed to the ICZM process. fisheries experts, specialists in coastal erosion,

coastal engineers, lawyers specializing in envi-Research Institutions ronmental legislation, etc.). A typical ICZM co-

ordinating body could include:A sound ICZM program must be based on good Lead agency: President's or prime minister's of-data and information. If appropriate capabilities fice or powerful line ministry (not necessarilyare not present within government agencies, uni- the environment ministry/department) orversities or research institutions can often assist possibly a separate agency

10 Guidelines for Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Participating ministries: Treasury, fisheries, ag- * Develop recommendations for policies, goals,riculture, transportation/ports, urban devel- and projects to include in the ICZM manage-opment, physical planning, forestry, environ- ment program.ment, oil and gas, navy/military/coast guard, * Design appropriate monitoring and evalua-tourism, energy tion systems.

Local governments: Town or city authority, pub- * Establish timetable, approach, and division oflic works company, district, state or depart- labor.ment

Stake holders: Fisherfolk, businesses, hotels, agri- Step 3: Formtal Adoption by the Government of theculture organizations, park or reserve manag- ICZM Programers, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) of * Establish the interagency coordinating mecha-various types.nim

Formulation of the Plan ~*Approve staffing and organizational changesthat may be required.

The verll efor indeveopig, mpleentng, * Adopt policies, goals, new management mea-

and then operating an ICZM program can be ac- sures, and inital projects.* Enact, probably by legislation, coastal zonecomplished in different ways. An example is magentbudrsad,ipoilet

given below. ~~~~this stage, a zoning scheme.* Approve the funding allocation for the ICZM

Step 1: Initiating the Effort porm

* Recognize the need for improved manage- Step 4: Operational Phasement through consultative meetings with keyagencies and stakeholders. The ICZM program becomes operational

* Prepare a concept paper outlining the need when:for ICZM. * An interagency coordinating body begins

* Approve development of an ICZM program. oversight of ICZM process and programs.* Create a team to formulate the ICZM plan * New or revised management programs come

through review of institutional capabilities, into effect.* Individual sectoral line agencies continue to

S;tep 2: Formlulating the ICZM Plan perform their regulatory and management re-sponsibilities but now as a part of the ICZM

* Assemble necessary information and data on program.the physical, economic, and social character- * Specific projects are designed and undertakenistics of the coastal zone. in connection with new economic opportuni-

* Prepare a plan for public participation in the ties in the coastal zone.ICZM process. * New management mechanisms are enforced

* Analyze and assess management problems by appropriate authority.(causes, effects, solutions). * A monitoring and evaluation program is ini-

* Set priorities to tackle problems and take into tiated.consideration the technical, financial, and Some of the more important steps listed abovestaffpower feasibility, are discussed in greater detail below.

* Analyze feasibility of new economic develop-ment opportunities. Creation of Plan Formulation Team

* Consider coastal zone management bound-aries and formulate recommendations. To the extent possible, the plan formulation team

* Consider new management measures, zona- should be composed of in-country staff secondedtion schemes, and strengthened regulatory from key government agencies having importantprograms. management roles regarding coastal resources

* Analyze and assess institutional capacities; and the coastal zone. All of the key agencies, lo-develop options for the interagency coordi- cal and national, should be represented. Ideally,nating mechanism. the team should be directed by someone repre-

Gutidelines for Development of ICZM Programs 11

senting a higher policy level in the central gov- * Present use of coastal resources (fishing, rec-ernment (for example, the national planning of- reation, mining)fice, the national development office, the * Present status of coastal resources (includingPresident's or Prime Minister's office). qualitative assessments of water, soil, air eco-

Issues such as legal authority, technical com- systems)petence, enforcement mechanisms, and access to * Potential for present and future use.funds should be assessed and addressed.

Social Organization in the Coastal ZoneAssembly of Necessary Data and Infornmation

* Existence and character of human settlementsAn effective ICZM program must be based upon (villages, towns)adequate information with respect to the physi- * Economic basis for human settlementscal, economic, social, ecological and governmen- * Existence of indigenous peoples and their tra-tal aspects of the coastal region in question. Some ditional coastal activitiesof this data and information may be available in * Social issues.existing country profiles, national environmen-tal action plans, national development plans, spe- Existing Environm1lentcialized resource inventories, and the like. and Resouirce-Related ProgramsSources of such information include governmentagencies (national, regional, and local), universi- Environmental regulatory programsties and other research institutions, resource-re- i Fisheries management programs, other re-lated private sector firms, and, in some cases, rel- source management programsevant international organizations. A new initia- 3 Protected area programs

e Beach/erosion management programstive to collect primary data should only be un- - Pollutioniontrol programsdertaken in those relatively few cases where data e Pollution control programsof fundamental importance to the ICZM program * Other environmental management programs.development process are lacking.development procss are lacking.Instittitional, Legal, and Financial Capacity

The list below indicates the kind of informa-tion that is required in the formulation of an * Relevant national-level institutionsICZM program. All of this information does not * Relevant regional/provincial-level institutionsneed to be in hand before the analysis and as- * Relevant local institutionssessment work begins. Indeed, as the ICZM pro- * Survey of legal authorities relative to coastalgram progresses, some of the information and and ocean activitiesdata gaps can be filled on the following issues: * Existing capacity building efforts, including

* Management issues that triggered the deci- those funded by external sources.sion to formulate the ICZM program

* Potential for new economic development ac- Determination of the Management Areativities in the coastal zone

* Roles, responsibilities, effectiveness, and le- One of the key decisions in formulating an ICZMgal authority of the institutions currently man- program is the size of the area to be managed.aging coastal resources and uses Ideally, the management zone should include all

* Nature and characteristics of the broader po- of the coastal resources of interest and all of thelitical, economic, and cultural contexts within activities that are capable of affecting the re-which coastal zone activities are conducted. sources and waters of the coastal zone. Such anAs the plan formUlation process proceeds, infor- approach could give rise to a zone that extends

mation and data of the following types are needed: inland to the upper reaches of the coastal water-sheds and seaward to the limit of national juris-

Coastal Resouirce Base diction-generally, the limit of the territorial sea(12 nautical miles). With regard to the inland limit

* Existing coastal resources (beaches, wetlands, of the management zone, many governmentsestuaries, mangroves) have found it more practical to use an existing

12 Guidelinesfor Integrated Coastal Zone Management

administrative or political subdivision boundary Program Implementationrather than the watershed boundary. Such anapproach may rely on other activities in the up- Initiating the ICZM Process in Stagesper parts of coastal watersheds such as water-shed management, erosion control or pesticide Given the time usually necessary to obtain theshd aagmet eoso cnto o psicd required executive and legislative approvals,reduction programs to safeguard the coastal zone required tie and pro vals,v v ~~~~~~~some parts of the ICZM program may start toagainst poor quality runoff. Similarly, although function earlier than others. Major legislative mi-important marine resources of economic interest tiatives are not always required. In some coun-to the coastal nation may exist within its 200-mile tries a decree or administrative rule is sufficient.Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), nations typically Besides, the data base development and inven-find devices to coordinate ocean resource activi- tory work can be done in advance of legislation.ties with coastal management efforts (for ex- Existing zoning and land use management sys-ample, fishing and offshore oil and gas activities) tems can often be used on an interim basis to di-other than by broadening the coastal manage- rect land use in the coastal zone.ment zone to the outer limits of the EEZ.

ICZM in Operation

Role of thze Nongovernmental Sector With the necessary formal approvals by govern-

mental policy bodies and the enactment of re-In countries where government power is limited, qed(, r ' auired ~~~legislation, the ICZM program is formally

especially in remote coastal areas, the private sec- 'esalishediand the ImlMentat bins. Mostf r ~~~established and the implementation begins. Most

tor and local communities may have a major role nations will not have opted for the creation of ain managing coastal resources. In many cases "super" coastal agency into which all coastal andlong term planning and sustainability is not the ocean related activities have been placed.primary interest of the private sector. Through The chances for effective implementation ofcreating incentives for sustainable management an ICZM program are enhanced if:the government can help the private sector and * High visibility improvements can be achievedlocal communities maintain long term develop- at an early stage of the program.ment objectives. This will usually require estab- * The policies to be followed by the programlishment and legal protection for property rights, are clearly and unambiguously spelled out.appropriate fiscal measures and coastal resource

goals of various elements of the program aretenure systems that ensure long term benefits to clearly articulated and expressed in quantita-the users and owners. The government can then tive, measurable terms.concentrate its scarce resources on the implemen- * The institutions involved in the ICZM pro-tation and enforcement of existing rules and gram are given clear assignments of respon-newly formulated management regimes. sibility and are held accountable.

* Adequate human and financial resources areAssessment of New Economic Development made available for implementation of the pro-Possibilities in the Coastal Zone gram.

* The public has been made fully aware of theEspecially in developing countries, this impor- ICZM program and its goals and policies andtant part of the analysis will review and assess supports the overall effort.new economic development possibilities in the * Adequate resources and support are given tocoastal zone. Priorities should be set based upon monitoring, evaluation, and enforcement ac-clearly designed studies of markets and poten- tivities.tial demand, analyses of costs of production and Monitoring, Evaluation, and Enforcementcompetitive aspects, and related issues. The im-pacts and risks of proposed development projects Monitoring and Evaluationon the coastal and marine environment need tobe addressed in terms of both possible mitigat- The results of the ICZM program should be sub-ing actions and their associated costs. ject to regular monitoring and evaluation as a way

Gutidelines for Development of ICZM Programs 13

of continually improving the process. It is espe- authority, all of which tend to have cross-depart-cially important, therefore, that the goals of the mental functions.overall ICZM effort and the goals and objectivesof individual management and/or action projects Funding Considerationsbe specified as clearly and as quantitatively aspossible; otherwise assessments as to how well Large sums of new funding are generally not re-they are being achieved are difficult. quired to put an ICZM program in place. The

The monitoring procedure should include: development of an ICZM plan can often be ac-identification of expected performance, assess- complished primarily by staff delegated fromment and/or measurement of the actual perfor- existing agencies, provided that the appropriatemance of the program, establishment of perfor- professional disciplines and experience are rep-mance variances (for example, shortcomings or resented. However, some new funding will usu-excesses), and procedure for communicating vari- ally be required to fill selected new positions andances that exceed preestablished limits to the ap- to undertake programs to fill particularly impor-propriate management or enforcing and imple- tant data or research gaps. The funding for thesementing authorities. purposes should be able to be provided by the

national government or with assistance from in-Enforcement ternational agencies.

Enforcement of existingrulesadregLarger sums of money will be required forEnforcement of existdig rules and regulations is certain types of projects in the coastal zone. Out-one of the most difficult aspects of government side sources may have to be considered for fund-in developed and developing countries alike The ing such projects. However, external donor andgoal should be to have rules that are generally funding organizations may be more willing toaccepted by most parts of society and that can be support such requests if they are part of an inte-enforced. Chances for this are dependent on the grated management effort.knowledge level of the public and the credibilityof government programs. Strong and objective International Considerationsenforcement is often required, however, whenparties are clearly benefiting economically from As ICZM programs confront ocean resource is-breaking the rules. sues, they are necessarily drawn into the inter-

national arena. Transnational issues related toICZM and National Development Plans, the coastal and marine environment usually callFunding Considerations,aundi 'nternaionalApcs for the collective efforts of the concerned govern-

ments in developing management measures to

ICZM programs have implications for pre-exist- resolve resource use conflicts, to reduce or miti-ICZM ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~t negrm ative imcaln acts of oluton ndumaing national plans and programs as well as inter- gate negahve impacts of pollution and humannational jurisdictions. activities, and to develop common standards and

procedures for monitoring and assessment. Most

Incorporating the ICZM Program transnational issues involving shared fisheriesin the National Development Plan stocks and pollution occur in large marine eco-

systems, such as large bays, gulfs, and semi-en-From an economic development perspective the closed seas. Near the shore, environmental issuesultimate objective of the ICZM program is that it become transnational when a given ecosystemwill become an integral part of economic devel- falls within two or more national jurisdictions.opment plans both at the national and local level. Like migratory fish stocks, marine pollution alsoAchieving this objective will require the support recognizes no political boundary. Concernedof policymakers and planning and line agency coastal nations must recognize the mutual im-officials. Most national and local government pacts of development activities. Thus, for in-programs are formulated through their respec- stance, the destruction of the nursery function oftive planning agencies such as a town and coun- mangroves under one national jurisdiction maytry planning department, an economic develop- affect recruitment of shrimp or fish in a nearbyment unit, or a national economic development fishing ground under another jurisdiction. To the

14 Guidelinesfor Integrated Coastal Zone Management

extent possible, the waterbody should be treated the London Dumping Convention (1972), andas whole in a manner similar to an inland water- MARPOL (73/79).shed as far as management is concerned. Co-management among the affected jurisdictions Role of Scientific and Regulatory Bodiesshould be a guiding principle, although successwill depend upon the political and socioeconomic Scientific bodies can provide scientific advice onpriorities of the nations concerned, matters related to the utilization and manage-

ment of marine resources in given regions. TheGlobal Environmental Agreements International Council for the Exploration of the

Seas and the Forum Fisheries Agency provideInternational conventions and agreements are such advice for the North Atlantic and Pacificplaying an increasingly important role in envi- region. Regional programs such as the Regionalronmentl manaincreasingly iportantroe t end, USeas Program of United Nations Environmentronmentalmanagement Toward thisend, United Programme (UNEP) can perform similar func-Nations agencies have been diligent in forging a tions in other regions. Coastal nations could con-number of agreements and protocols which pro- tribute to the effectiveness of such efforts by as-mote international, regional, and bilateral coop- signing qualified scientific personnel to partici-eration and collaboration among coastal nations. pate in regional programs and by applying theThese include agreements such as the Law of the resulting collective scientific advice in makingSea Convention (LOS) (1982), the Montreal Pro- policy and management decisions affecting thetocol on Land Based Sources of Pollution (1987), region in question.

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