Bahan Kajian MK. Pertanian Berkelanjutan INDIKATOR PERTANIAN BERKELANJUTAN Smno.jrsntnh.fpub.2013

Bahan Kajian MK. Pertanian Berkelanjutan

INDIKATOR PERTANIAN BERKELANJUTAN

Smno.jrsntnh.fpub.2013


Activities should be planned and implemented with indicator measurement in mind

The best indicators are those that are:1. Direct2. Objective3. Adequate4. Quantitative, where possible5. Disaggregated, where appropriate6. Practical7. Reliable


PERTANIAN BERKELANJUTAN:

What is it?

We can discuss the properties of Agro-ecosystemsConway’s three properties are:

1. Productivity - Produktivitas2. Stability - Stabilitas3. Resiliency - Ketahanan

Source: Conway, G.R. and Barbier, E.B. 1990. After the Green Revolution. Sustainable Agriculture for Development. Earthscan, London. 205 p.


1.Produktivitas:

Net increment of valued product per unit of resource (kg/ha for

example)


2. Stabilitas:

Degree to which productivity remains constant over time

when not faced with a shock

(1/CV productivity)


2. Resiliensi:

The ability of a system to maintain or recover productivity when subject to stress or

shock.


Performance Indicator Reference Sheet (PIRS)

Producers

Producers harvest food, feed and fiber

“Food” includes grain, fruits and vegetables, livestock, aquaculture, as well as natural products

Producers may also engage in processing and marketing of food, feed and fiber

Producers may reside in settled communities, refugee/IDP camps or be pastoralists .

In this instance, “food” = agriculture. The expansive definition of agriculture includes grain, fruits and vegetables, orchards and other tree crops, livestock and livestock products, aquaculture, as well as natural products


TEKNOLOGI PERTANIANAgriculture technologies refer to :

The practices of combining of land, labor, capital, and knowledge to Produce, market, distribute, utilize, and trade food, feed, and fiber

Some examples: planting in rows, rotation, integrated farming systems, water conservation/harvesting, cover cropping, etc.

Contoh-contoh:1. planting in rows (not broadcasting)2. crop rotation or intercropping (for soil fertility enhancement

and/or pest management) 3. integrated farming systems (for example, rice-carp-pigs

systems) 4. water conservation and water harvesting 5. cover cropping for erosion control, soil fertility enhancement,

livestock pasture .


A sustainable agriculture system Nurtures natural resources and maintains ecological balanceIs driven by market demand and economically viableEnsures local replicability, gender equity, and social acceptability Generates predictable income Considers availability of household labor and seasonality of labor demand


Elements of sustainability

Consider agricultural activities best adapted to the soils, slope and agro-ecological conditions Consider sources of technical assistance, technology, input supply and extension support – and

farmer previous experience with the technology Assess the level and source of market demand for the product Ensure community involvement in planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation for

ownership and understandingDetermine optimum scale of the activity Evaluate policy, legal, customary and cultural context to see that the activity “fits” Keep it simple. Focus on priorities. Don’t be overly ambitious and consign those taking over to

failure


Elements of Sustainability:

Is the activity sustainable without continuous external support?2. An activity cannot be sustainable if it comes at a cost. For example, it should not

Harm the environmentDestroy socio-economic relationsincrease tensions and the potential for conflict

3. The activity should “do no harm”


Sustainable Livelihoods


A single agricultural activity is usually one of many activities comprising a household’s livelihood.

We can think holistically, in terms of sustainable livelihoods, a term that applies to all livelihoods, not limited to those in agriculture. The British aid agency, DFID, has developed a “sustainable livelihoods framework” that shows how we can work within a system to achieve beneficial impacts on people’s livelihoods in a sustainable way.

The sustainable livelihoods framework presents the main factors that affect people’s livelihoods, and typical relationships between them.

This framework has several desirable features:• It shows the whole picture; • It allows indirect as well as direct paths to influencing an outcome, such as improved food

security (or any of its elements). • It forces USAID – and USAID’s partners – to think about what we need to do outside food

security to have an impact inside food security. For example, we could choose to improve food security by advocating market facilitating policies, institutional training, health and hygiene education, access to safe water, and so on.

This gives USAID many possible entry points, from improving the vulnerability context, to strengthening livelihood assets/capital (see definitions below) to influencing policies, institutions and processes.

Moreover, this framework appears robust to handle most anything USAID would want to do. The framework allows ample room for every cooperating sponsor, donor and NGO, but coordination is required from the host national and local governments.

Note that the framework is centered on people and the assets or capabilities that these livelihood groups possess or can draw upon (DFID). These assets and capabilities are defined in terms of different kinds of “capital.”

• Natural capital: the natural resources that can be used; • Social capital: access to social relationships, networks and contacts; • Human capital: personal skills, knowledge, health and ability to work; • Physical capital: the availability of basic infrastructure; and• Financial capital: savings, credit, remittances and other sources of finance.

Additionally, the way this capital interacts with the many policies, institutions and processes • influences their livelihood strategies and • determines the viability of their livelihood outcomes.

The arrows do not suggest causality but they do acknowledge some influence. In this manner, the sustainable livelihoods framework is holistic and dynamic. It helps the government and its partners move beyond a collection of disjointed projects to a more comprehensive and systematic approach to supporting livelihoods.


Elements of a Sustainable Livelihood

Livelihoods are sustainable when they:

Are resilient in the face of external shocks and stresses

Are not dependent upon external support

Maintain the long-term productivity of natural resources

Do not undermine the livelihoods of others or compromise the livelihood options open to others

A single agricultural activity is usually one of many activities comprising a household’s livelihood.

We can think holistically, in terms of sustainable livelihoods, a term that applies to all livelihoods, not limited to those in agriculture. The British aid agency, DFID, has developed a “sustainable livelihoods framework” that shows how we can work within a system to achieve beneficial impacts on people’s livelihoods in a sustainable way.

Livelihoods are sustainable when they:•Are resilient in the face of external shocks and stresses (recall the resilience graph in slide 8)•Are not dependent upon external support (this requires planning an exit strategy before entry)•Maintain the long-term productivity of natural resources (allowing regeneration and renewal)•Do not undermine the livelihoods of others, or compromise the livelihood options open to others (sustainable livelihoods)

Reinforce the “DO NO HARM” principles.


Sustainable Agriculture Questions in the Standardized Annual Performance Questionnaire (SAPQ)

1. Number of farmers (individuals) that received extension/outreach services during the FY

2. Number of sustainable agricultural technologies being transferred

3. A list of those technologies 4. The minimum number of technologies that farmers are

expected to use 5. The percentage of beneficiaries (individual farmers) who

use that minimum number of technologies


Sustainable Agriculture in the SAPQ (Part II)Number of farmers (individuals) that received extension/outreach services during the FY

Relatively straight forward Disaggregate by gender (M/F)

Number of sustainable agricultural technologies being transferred Less straight forward, what is an agricultural technology?

Germplasm, fertilizer type or timing, row spacing? Is a package one or more technologies?Use your judgment, but make it logical and defendable, as guidance from FFP is limited


Sustainable Agriculture in the SAPQ (Part III)A list of those technologies

Very straightforward The minimum number of technologies that farmers are expected to use

How many of those technologies are required to meet criteria for success? The percentage of beneficiaries (individual farmers) who use the minimum number of technologies

An indication of the success of your outreach program


Examples of Successful ‘Sustainable’ Agriculture Interventions

1. Aménagement en Courbes de Niveau (ACN)

2. Germplasm Collection, Evaluation and Improvement of African Leafy Vegetables

3. Shea Butter: Producers in search of a Marketing Plan


Aménagement en Courbes de Niveau (ACN)


ACN’s BenefitsRidge Tillage in the Sahel of West Africa

• Increased capture of rainfall• Reduced drought risk to crops

– Increase productivity, stability and resiliency• Increased biodiversity

– Spontaneous regeneration of three ecologically and economically valuable tree species (Faidherbia albida (Acacia albida)), Adansonia digitata (baobab) and Vitellaria paradoxa (shea tree)

• Increased drinking water supplies– Reduction in runoff due to ACN results in more recharge of groundwater– Dry season vegetable gardens irrigated with groundwater are now the norm (80%) in

certain villages where 12 years ago there were none


Germplasm Collection, Evaluation and Improvement of African Leafy Vegetables


African Leafy VegetablesEstablished a germplasm collection in Africa for leafy vegetables species - Brassica carinata (Ethiopian mustard), Cleome gynandtopsis (spider plant) and Solanum scabrum and S. villosum (nightshades)

Evaluating agronomic and nutritional traits of hundreds of accessions and surveyed the indigenous knowledge of the targeted species

Introduced best performing (most productive and nutritious) accessions’ seeds into existing seed marketing channels


Accessions Trials


Shea Butter: Producers in search of a Marketing PlanShea nuts from the shea tree have many multiple uses as an edible fruit, edible oil, body lotion, soap and traditional medicine

USAID-funded NGOs are working with women’s groups in Southern Sudan to process shea nuts into shea butter (the basic raw material) as an income-generating activity


Shea Butter: Producers in search of a Marketing Plan1. These women's’ groups have mastered all the steps to produce high-quality shea butter2. But, production is seasonal (4 months) and sales revenues are a fraction of NGO support 3. In short, these groups need help marketing4. USAID/Sudan will ask the Agricultural Marketing Enterprise Project to develop a market-

oriented business plan for the shea butter groups5. Sustainability requires expanding the scope of the original activity to make it commercially

viable


Indicators of Sustainable Agriculture Profitability • Generates profits over the long-term • Maximizes farmer/rancher control over crops and prices • Supports a family at a standard of living that includes health care, education, and vacations • Minimizes reliance on government subsidies • Has a succession plan. Succession plan means have a plan for who will operate the farm after the current ownership.

Environmental Stewardship • Builds and maintains soil organic carbon to level appropriate for soil and climate • Prevents soil erosion • Balances nutrient inputs and outputs • Maintains clean water • Maximizes water conservation • Minimizes dependence on non-renewable resource fuels and purchased production inputs • Minimizes use of toxic substances • Uses integrated pest management practices • Maximizes crop rotation • Encourages diversity of plant varieties and/or livestock breeds • Encourages diversity of plants and animals within the landscape • Minimizes land under agricultural production • Minimizes air pollution problems such as odors, dust, and greenhouse gasses • Minimizes solid waste generation • Optimizes the management and use of on-farm resources • Protects and renews soil fertility

Quality of life for farmers, ranchers, farm workers, and their community • Allows time for family, hobbies, and/or community participation • Provides safe, nutritious food, fiber, and/or biomass energy • Treats farm workers well • Treats animal humanely • Increases the surrounding communities economic and civic well being i.e. provides the capacity for the community to support local schools, houses of worship, or other community institutions • Contributes to the scenic beauty of community • Contributes to farming/ranching being seen as respected professions • Encourages involvement of the next generation

www.envirothon.org/pdf/indicators_of_sustainable_agriculture.pdf



A Farm-Based Indicator of Agricultural Sustainability

Farmers as Adaptive Managers of Natural capital

"The appellation of the word 'sustainable' to a farming system

remains a matter of opinion. Most farmers and agricultural professionals

have a 'feel' for what 'sustainable' is…."

(Smith, M., 1994. The Real Dirt: Farmers Tell About Organic and Low-Input Practices in the Northeast, Northeast Organic Farmers

Association.)

To paraphrase Rodale:

Sustainability is like being pregnant—either you are or you

aren’t.

Goal: To develop a readily-measurable indicator of farm (agroecosystem) sustainability. The difficulty of measurement should be comparable to organic certification. Such an indicator would enable:

• Policy makers to support sustainable farm operations through legislation.

• Consumers to support sustainable farm operations through purchases.

• Farmers to analyze and address the sustainability of their own operations.

Nice, but difficult to operationalize.

First we need a definition:"A sustainable agriculture is one that, over the long-term, enhances environmental quality and the resource base on which agriculture depends; provides for basic human food and fiber needs; is economically viable and enhances the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole" (FAO,

1989).

Characterizations of agricultural sustainability Taken

from: Hansen, J.W., 1996. Is Agricultural Sustainability a Useful Concept? Agricultural Systems, 50:117-143.

Four frameworks for defining sustainability. Each framework leads naturally to methods of measurement.

1. Sustainable agriculture as an ideology or philosophy.

Agriculture which embodies variously defined values such as:

• Diversity• Self-sufficiency• Respect for Nature• Decentralization• Social Equity

• Examples include: organic farming, biodynamic farming, and permaculture.

Leads to a binary measure of sustainability: A farm is sustainable if it follows a certain philosophy.

2. Sustainable agriculture as a set of practices.

An approved set of “sustainable practices” is defined. Practices are chosen by their ability to maintain production while limiting

environmental impact.

These often include:

• Biological or organic pest controls• Organic Soil Amendments• Low stocking rates for animals• Integrated Pest Management• Conservation Tillage Practices

This also leads to natural measures of sustainability:

A farm that restricts itself to the defined set of practices is deemed sustainable.

This is a common framework used to craft indicators.Leads to a continuous measure of sustainability.

Can lead to circular reasoning:

Sustainable farms are those which adopt the practices used by

sustainable farms.This would readily imply that organic certification is a sufficient condition

for sustainability.

3. The ability to satisfy a diverse set of goals.

A farm is sustainable if it is able to (pick any or all):

• Maintain a high level of production.• Preserve and enhance natural capital.• Provide a livelihood for a farm family.• Sustain a rural culture.

This is the framework for the FAO definition. It is the most difficult of the four to

operationalize.

• Goals are indeed diverse and often difficult to measure in an efficient and concise manner.• Commensurability is a major obstacle in crafting a

numeric indicator.

Consider such a condition for Vermont Farmers:

A list of goals for the sustainable Vermont farm would include:

• High level of production, both economic and ecological.

• Must not get too big so as not to inconvenience neighbors.

• Must maintain “rural landscape” of Vermont.• Reduce run-off into Lake Champlain.

4. The ability to continue.Or in the words of Costanza and Patten (1995):

A sustainable system is one which survives or persists.

• This is the most intuitive definition.

• Fits the English!

• This is the framework I will use from here on.

This naturally leads to the following two questions:

• Which system should persist?

• For how long?

For our purposes:

• What system: The farm or agroecosystem as an economic, social, and ecological entity.

• For how long: As long as its existence is useful to and desired by the family that manages it and the community it serves.

Note: Not forever!

Qualification: The survival of the farm system depends on the survival of any supersystem which contains it. This

includes the encompassing watershed, global systems, and agroeconomic systems.

Therefore: This definition precludes any negative impacts of the farm system upon the supersystems

that contain and sustain it.

The crafting of indicators:

According to Costanza and Patten(1995:194), "What passes as definitions of

sustainability are often predictions of actions taken today that one hopes will lead to

sustainability."The same is true of indicators.

Any present measurement is at best a prediction of sustainability.

Elements of a good indicator:

• System oriented• Quantitative• Predictive• Stochastic• Diagnostic (Hansen, 1996)• Readily measurable (Rigby, 2001)

Characterization of agricultural indicators.

1. Reductionist vs. Holistic

A reductionist indicator takes measurements of individual components within an

agroecosystem.

Rigby et al. (2001): seed sourcing, soil fertility, pest/disease control, weed control, and crop management.

Bockstaller et al. (1997): nitrogen and phosphorous flows, pesticide use, irrigation, organic matter, energy, crop diversity, soil structure, soil cover, and ecological structures.

Two types of reductionist indicators:

Primary predictors vs. Secondary predictors

A primary predictor has an a priori concept of what sustainable measurements are for various components

i.e. soil organic matter, nutrient flow rates, levels of crop diversity, etc. By comparing actual measurements to

desired levels, a primary predictor “predicts” the likelihood of a system persisting.

A secondary predictor examines practices. It also has an a priori concept of what the components of a sustainable system should look like, but it focuses

on the effect of various practices on individual components.

Practices -----effect-----Components-----effect-----Sustainability

Why do I keep saying “Predicted”?

Don’t we know the impacts of different practices?Don’t we know the characteristics of a sustainable system?

For simple systems, maybe. For complex, nonlinear agroecosystems, probably not!

Holistic Indicators

A holistic indicator looks for measurements at the systems level that enable a prediction to be made regarding sustainability.

Examples:• Non-negative time trend in output• Total factor productivity• Resilience• Stability

A brief overview of

Productivity as an Indicator of Sustainability

• A farm or agroecosystem is first and foremost a system of production.

• A system of production has the goal of converting inputs into desirable outputs.

• Any definition of agricultural sustainability must ultimately focus on the ability to produce.

Arguments against:

• Correlates to a weak sustainability assumption.

• Might hide internal degradation until collapse is unavoidable.

• Ignores impacts on supersystem.• Difficulty selecting units of measurements

(more on this later).

Arguments for:

• Necessary condition for sustainability.• Maximizes micro-level freedom with macro-

level control.• Recognizes the adaptive management abilities

of the farmer.

Following Conway, we want a productivity—defined as Output/Input—that is characterized by:

• Appropriately high levels

• Stability over time

• Resilience when affected by perturbations

Addressing the issue of commensurability-

Three measurements of productivity:

• Biological (biomass)

• Economic (dollars)

• Ecological Economic (true costs)



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Bahan Kajian MK. Pertanian Berkelanjutan INDIKATOR PERTANIAN BERKELANJUTAN Smno.jrsntnh.fpub.2013