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The Hydropower Workers’ Song
Heave! Ho! Heave! Heave, ah Heave! Ho! Heave!Heave, ah
Cut the mount, split the ridge, 1000 mountains, 10,000 riversOur footprints, the iron dragon rolls, transmitting light;
Let burning ambition illuminate Heaven and Earth, cherish the majestic hydropower!
Man, winds, and rains, how many springtimes of lofty sentimentWritten on the great Earth; ‘tis the springtime of hydropower
The heavens ablaze with color, la! la!We’re a new generation, a new generation of hydropower workers,
a new generationOur achievements endure a thousand years, good for the country,
good for the peopleMorning is coming
Bringing the people an undying star!
The four seas are our home, we work night and day, seeking brilliance
Our spirits, iron and steel our army, tenaciously advancing;Let the Jade Emperor above be struck with awe, pleased with the
tribute of hydropowerMan, hot blood forged into rivers, bold science and technologyCreating a glorious industry, from the high ridges come plains
The waters reflecting white clouds, la!A new generation of hydro workers, bringing fortune to the
fatherland, to the peopleThe march of modernized construction brings the people an
undying starMorning!
2
Substations and Subregions
Large-scale hydropower and local development in Yunnan and southwest China
Darrin Magee, Ph.D.
3
Presentation Outline Regional Development: Yunnan peripheral,
Yunnan central Economic, political, and cultural marginality Centrality to regional development policies
Details of Yunnan hydropower projects Decision-making & institutional challenges
Protection vs. Development Civil Society vs. Control Water Law vs. Bureaucratic Inertia
Suggestions for further research
4
Centrality and Marginality
Development Frameworks and Major Energy Infrastructure Projects
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Regional Development: Domestic Western Development Strategy (西部大开发 )
Attempt to address coastal bias of reform era Emphases on transportation, power, & industry
Pan-Pearl River Delta (凡珠三角 ) 2004 Discussion Forum and Trade Negotiations on
Greater Pearl River Delta Cooperation & Development
Nine provinces from Fujian to Yunnan, plus Macao and Hong Kong (“9+2 Region”)
China Southern Power Grid (南方电网 )
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RD 1: China’s “West”
Yunnan
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Go West, Young Han?
Viewpoints on Western Development range from critical to optimistic “Internal colonisation” Further entrenchment and legitimacy for
longstanding patterns of resource extraction
or… Real concern on behalf of Beijing leadership to
seek more balanced development and address ~10:1 east/west gaps in per capita GDP
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Western Development Strategy Official launch in 2000 Centerpiece of 10th FYP (2001-2005) Increased direct fiscal transfers to west, along with
favorable loan terms for infrastructure projects Some critics argue that further subsidies are not the
answer, call for new methods for financing capital-intensive projects (e.g., securities markets)
Basic infrastructure, “ecological construction” Uncertainty about policies, but certainty that western
resources play a key role
9
Key Projects (announced in 2000)Project Location
Ningxia-Tibet Railway Ningxia Province to Tibet
Chongqing-Huaihua Railway Chongqing Municipality to Huaihua City
Western regions road construction Various areas
Western regions airport construction Various areas
Chongqing light rail Chongqing Municipality
Sebei-Xining-Lanzhou gas pipeline Qinghai Province, Gansu Province
Qinghai 300,000-ton potash fertilizer factory Qinghai Province
Grain-for-Green project Various areas
Higher education basic infrastructure Various areas
Zipingpu Water Conservancy Sichuan
中国西部开发大事记 (2003)
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Electricity & Western Development Send Western Electricity East ( 西电东送 )
Among second set of major Western Development projects prioritized in 2001
Send Yunnan Power to Guangdong ( 滇电粤送 ) Ultra-high-voltage DC transmission lines (800 kV)
expected by 2010, aimed at reducing voltage losses resulting from long-distance transmission
Send Yunnan Electricity Outward ( 云电外送 ) Contract negotiations since late 1990s for power
sales to Thailand and later Vietnam
11
China’s Hydro Bases: Baker’s Dozen?
Northeast11,983
N. Yellow6,408
Min-Zhe14,871
Lancang21,470
Dadu17,720
U. Yellow16,364.3
Jinsha59,080
Wu R.10,615
U. Yangtze28,897
Huxi7,735
Yarlung20,100
Nanpan/Red12,012
Nu30,000
12
Money for Megawatts
Guangdong investment in infrastructure to support power transfers
Early 1990s… 2.39 B Yuan for Yunnan and Guangxi power
stations 35 M Yuan in design and planning work for
Xiaowan Dam on the Lancang Guangdong currently receives 30-40% of
power from external sources
13
(Mis)perceived synergy?
Guangdong peak power demand occurs during summer
Yunnan’s peak hydropower generation output occurs during monsoon season (summer!)
yet… Need for flood control is also highest during
times of peak runoff into rivers (summer!)
14
Three west-east corridors ( 通道 )
Beijing /
Tianjin area
Shanghai / Zhejiang / Jiangsu area
Guangdong / PRD
Northern Corridor
From: Yalong Tsangpo
& Yellow
To: Capital area
Middle Corridor
From: Jinsha/Upper Yangtze
To: Shanghai area
Southern Corridor
From: Lancang/Nu
To: Guangdong area
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RD 2: Pan-Pearl River Delta (PPRD)
PPRD Region
Pearl River Delta
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PPRD & China Southern Power Grid Severe power outages in Guangdong in
2003; PPRD created in 2004, with power transfers as a key component
Creation of new regions such as PPRD legitimize and naturalize certain policies and investment patterns
17
PPRD InitiativesTopic Key Initiatives
Industry investment and basic infrastructure Science and technology, west-east electricity transmission, interprovincial highway construction
Market construction Quality control, commodity prices, intellectual property, enterprise collaboration, market oversight, trademark protection
Agriculture Agricultural technology, trade, key agro-industry promotion, specialized products, standardization of production bases, quality supervision and control
Regional environmental protection Air quality monitoring in delta area, environmental monitoring network and reporting over PPRD area
Tourism, labor, science, education, culture, sanitation, and health
Tourism cooperation, educational exchange and resource sharing; food and medication security; infectious disease prevention and reporting
Create a convenient platform for information exchange and a PPRD information network
Information network interlinking and maintenance for government offices; website management groups
Source: PPRD Office (2005)
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Yunnan Electricity to Guangdong Pan-Pearl River Delta Core: Guangdong’s Pearl River Delta
PPRD Region
Pearl River Delta
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Generation in the Southern Grid
Yunnan Guizhou Guangxi Guangdong Total
No. of Dams 145 81 56 41 323
Installed Capacity (MW) 88,200 14,663 14,515 2,680 20,058
Annual Output (Billion kWh)
437.3 65.64 64.4 9.68 577.07
Output as % of 4-Province Total
75.6 11.4 11.2 1.7
Population (millions) 41.457 36.646 46.74 71.30 196.14
Per capita output (MWh/person)
10.55 1.79 1.38 0.136 2.94
Source: (Ji & Duan, 2001)
20
Thematic Map of Power Consumption
2,224.96 to 4,715.52
1,174.92 to 2,224.96
315.93 to 1,174.92
Annual per capita consumption 2004 (kWh/pers)
Data source: China Electric Power Yearbook Editorial Committee (Ed.) (2005)
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Yunnan: Guangdong’s Powershed? 2001-2005, some 24 B kWh sent from
Yunnan to Guangdong, even while rolling blackouts affected Yunnan
1993-2004, increase in dedicated generation capacity from 300 to 1800 MW
Much of Lancang (Mekong) cascade capacity will be for Guangdong
Yunnan likely to become sole supplier in near future based on growing demand in Guangxi
22
Why “Powershed”?
Obvious analogy to watershed; space over which a resource is collected/concentrated
Underscores the fact that Yunnan hydro is not simply a Yunnan issue, and that familiar scalar analytics like provinces fail to capture the dynamics of interprovincial power transfers
Challenges comfortable rural-urban dichotomy Opens door for simultaneous examination of
political economic power relations
23
Making the connection: grid linking Southern Grid: Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi,
Hainan, Guangdong 110-kV, 220-kV, 500-kV, and 800-kV (2010)
transmission lines coexisting in porous grid Southern Grid and China Power Grid ( 中国南
方电网和中国电网 ) both formerly housed under the Ministry of Electric Power; split off in 2002
Goal to create national grid by ~2015
24
Challenges to grid interlinking Differing voltages necessitate step-down or
step-up stations ( 调度站 ) Numerous local, low-voltage grids across
Yunnan (and other provinces) Some in poor areas with little or no infrastructure Some in rich areas with sufficient infrastructure
and little incentive (at present) to interconnect Debate about national grid architecture
网对网 (grid to grid) vs 点对网 (point to grid)
25
Regional Development: International Mekong River Commission ( 湄公河委员会 )
Half-century history; re-established in 1995 Entrenched perception of “MRC vs China” Little incentive for China to join, yet some recent
progress in technical cooperation Greater Mekong Subregion ( 大湄公河次区域 )
Launched by Asian Development Bank in 1992 Seen as less of a political challenge than MRC
ASEAN ( 东盟 )
26
GMS: Naturalizing the Subregion
Nepal
India
China
Bhutan
Bangladesh
Vietnam
Myanmar
Thailand
Cambodia
Laos
Yunnan
GMS
5 nation-states, one province-state; call for inclusion of second Chinese province (Guizhou), but not Tibet
27
GMS: Power, transport, tourism, trade First transborder power sales from Yunnan to
Vietnam via Hekou/Lao Cai in fall 2004 Second GMS leaders summit held in
Kunming in July 2005 Agreements on electrical grid development and
interconnection, trans-border movement of people and goods, disease prevention, etc.
Within Yunnan, GMS construct frequently deployed as justification for infrastructure investments (cf. Tibet)
28
GMS Projects
Agriculture Energy Environment Human Resources Investment Telecom Tourism Trade Transport Multisector Second GMS Leaders Summit in Kunming,
July 2005
29
GMS Transportation Loans to PRC
12/2004 Loan 2116: Dali-Lijiang Railway
9/2004 Loan 2094: Guangxi Roads Development Project II
10/2003 Loan 2014: Western Yunnan Roads Development Project
10/2001 Loan 1851: Guangxi Roads Development Project
9/1994 Loan 1325: Yunnan Expressway
30
GMS Transportation (partial)3/2006 RETA 6310: Development Study on GMS North-South Economic Corridor
12/2005 TA 4742: GMS Northern Transport Network Improvement
9/2005 TA 4657: Preparing the Railway Development Project (Yunnan-Yuxi Mengzi Railway)
8/2005 RETA 6251: GMS Rehabilitation of the Railway in Cambodia
3/2005 RETA 6235: GMS Southern Coastal Corridor
12/2004 RETA 6227: Coordinating for GMS: North-South Economic Corridor Bridge Project (formerly Third Mekong Bridge)
12/2004 RETA 6228: Facilitating Cross-Border Trade and Investment in the GMS
10/2004 RETA 6193: GMS Infrastructure Connections in Northern Laos (SSTA); RETA 6195: GMS Transport Sector Strategy Study
12/2002 TA 4050: Prep Kunming-Haiphong Transport Corridor Project-Viet Nam
31
GMS Regional Power Trade (RPT)1/2006 RETA 6304: GMS RPT Coordination & Development; Also RETA 6301:
Developing the GMS Energy Sector Strategy
3/2004 RETA 4323: TA to the Lao PDR for Preparing the GMS: Nam Theun 2 (NT2) Hydropower Development Project- Phase II
12/2003 RETA 6147: Preparing the GMS Power Interconnection Phase I
1/2003 TA 4078: GMS: Cambodia Preparing the Power Distribution and GMS Transmission Project
11/2002 RETA 6100: TA to Study a GMS RPT Operating Agreement
7/2000 RETA 5920: Regional Indicative Master Plan on Power Interconnection
7/1999 RETA 3222: Se San 3 Hydropower – Viet Nam
7/1997 RETA 2926: Nam Ngum 500 kV Transmission – Lao PDR
8/1996 RETA 5697: Se Kong-Se San & Nam Theun Basins Hydro Dev Study
9/1995 RETA 5643: Subregional Electric Power Forum
32
Transboundary power sales
Power sold to Vietnam at higher tariff than to Guangdong or elsewhere in China
Transboundary transmissions to Vietnam currently occur over low-voltage (110-kV) lines, but plans underway to complete 220-kV circuit to Vietnam by late 2006 and 500-kV circuit to Thailand via Laos
Late 1990s negotiations between Thailand and Yunnan for joint investment in dams along with power purchase agreements; yet loud criticisms within Thailand of “Chinese” dams
33
Water to Watts
Details of Lancang (Mekong) and Nu (Salween) hydropower development
34
River as Power Source Major push underway since mid-1980s to develop
large-scale hydropower on Yunnan’s rivers Lancang-Mekong
4800 km long (1200 in YN) 6 countries
Nu-Salween 2800 km long (600 in YN) 3 countries
Jinsha-Chang-Yangtze Concern over impacts Great uncertainty Manwan Dam
35
Project Details
Yunnan
Guangdong
36
China has half the world’s large1 dams (20K) TGP: 18,200 MW installed capacity
Hoover Dam: 2,067 MW Grand Coulee: 6,809 MW Columbia River: 24,149 MW
Lancang (Mekong) cascade: 16,150 MW Nu (Salween) cascade: 21,320 MW Concerns about downstream impacts and
resettlement of thousands of villagers
Background: Hydropower Potential
1. WCD: >15 m high; China: >250 MW
37
Regional Power Consumption Trends
0
2000000
4000000
6000000
8000000
10000000
12000000
14000000
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Year
10,0
00 k
Wh
Yunnan
Guangdong
Fujian
Shanghai
Tianjin
Beijing
38
Urban Power Consumption Trends
Urban Electricity Consumption
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Year
Ter
awat
t-h
ou
rs (
TW
h)
Guangzhou
Shenzhen
Dongguan
Kunming
39
Power Consumption by Region
N NE E SC SW NW
1995
1999
2000
2001
2002
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
600010
0 M
kW
h
40
Middle & Lower Lancang Cascade
Dam NameInstalled Capacity
(MW)
Annual Output (Twh)
Start Date End Date
Dam Height
(m)
(Est.) Cost (Billion Yuan)
Reservoir Volume
(billion m3)
Gongguoqiao
功果桥 a 750 4.060 2006-2007 2010-2015 130 3.8 0.51
Xiaowan
小湾 b 4,200 18.89 January 2002 2012 292 22.3 to 27.7 15.13
Manwan
漫湾 c 1,500 7.805 May 1986 1995 132 3.4d 1.06
Dachaoshan
大朝山 e 1,350 6.70 August 1997 October 2003 120.5 8.9 0.88
Nuozhadu
糯扎渡 b 5,850 23.684* End of 2005 2017 260 35.3 22.74
Jinghong
景洪 b 1,750 7.931 2004 2009-2013 107 17 1.23
Ganlanba
橄榄坝 a 150 0.899 ? ? ? 0.6 ?
Mengsong
勐宋 a 600 2.888 ? ? 65 2.2 ?
41
Lancang (Mekong) River 澜沧江
42
Xiaowan Dam Site
292 m tall ~25 B Yuan (~ $3B US)
43
Middle & Lower Nu CascadeDam Name
InstalledCapacity (MW)
Annual Output(Twh)
Start Date(Est)
End Date (Est)Dam Height(m)
(Est.) Cost (Billion Yuan)
Songta 松塔 4,200 17.87 2006-2007 2020-2030 307 19.7
Bingzhongluo 丙中洛 1,600 8.34 ? 2020-2030 54.5 5.2
Maji 马吉 4,200 18.97 2006-2007 2015-2020 300 18.5
Lumadeng 鹿马登 2,000 10.09 ? 2020-2030 165 9.1
Fugong 福贡 400 1.98 ? 2020-2030 60 2.3
Bijiang 碧江 1,500 1.18 ? 2015-2020 71.4 5.9
Yabiluo 亚碧罗 1,800 9.06 2006-2007 2015-2020 133 6.0
Lushui 泸水 2,400 12.74 ? 2015-2020 175 8.8
Liuku 六库 180 0.76 2006-2007 2015-2020 35.5 0.9
Shitouzai 石头寨 440 2.29 ? 2020-2030 59 2.3
Saige 赛格 1,000 5.37 2006-2007 2015-2020 79 3.6
Yansangshu 岩桑树 1,000 5.2 ? 2015-2020 84 4.4
Guangpo 光坡 600 3.15 ? 2020-2030 58 2.9
44
Nu (Salween) River 怒江
45
Institutional Challenges
I: Environmental Impact Assessment Law vs. “Development First” Paradigm
46
Development vs. Protection Middle & Lower Nu River Hydropower Planning
Report submitted to the NDRC in July 2003 Environmental Assessment Law promulgated in
September 2003. Nu River (Upper Salween) widely seen as a test case for “teeth” of law and enforcement capabilities of State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA)
March 2004: Call for suspension of Nu projects November 2004: Lancang EIA meeting held, but
closed to public October 2006: Minister of Water Resources Wang
Shucheng calls Nu projects “predatory development”
47
Projects halted due to EIA LawResponsible Company Project
Three Gorges Project Corp. Jinsha R. Xiluodu Hydro Station (12600 MW)
Three Gorges Project Corp. TGP Underground Power Gen. (4200 MW)
Three Gorges Project Corp. TGP Power Supply station (100MW)*
Taicang Harbor Env. Prot. Power Gen. Co. Jiangsu Taicang Harbor 4th stage 2×600MW exp.
Xuzhou Huaxin Power Gen. Co. Jiangsu Xuzhou 2×300 MW exp.
Jiangsu Xutang Power Gen. Co. Jiangsu Xutang 2×300 MW exp.
Jiangyin Sulong Power Gen. Co. Jiangyinxia Harbor 2×330 MW exp.
Jiangsu Huadian Yangzhou Power Gen. Co. Thermal power & heat supply 2×300MW
Xiamen Huaxia Int’l Electric Power Dev Co. Xiamen Songyu Stn. 2nd Stage 2×300MW exp.
Baotou East China Thermal Power Co. Thermal power & heat supply 2×300 MW
Qingyuan No. 1 Power Gen. Co. Gansu Qingyuan Stn. 3rd Stage 2×300 MW exp.
Ningxia Power Generation Group Co. Ningxia Maliantai Stn. 2×330 MW
Jiangsu Xinhai Power Gen. Co. Jiangsu Xinhai 2×300 MW Power & Heat Supply Exp.
Datang Int’l Stock Co. Zhejiang Datang Wushashan Stn. 4×600 MW
Inner Mongolia Huolin River Power Gen. Co. Inner Mongolia Huolin 2×300 MW
48
Projects halted due to EIA Law (cont’d)Responsible Company Project
Qufu Shengcheng Thermal Power Co. Qufu Shengcheng 2×200MW
Sichuan Electric Power Co. Nanchong-Wanxian 500-kV transmission project
Sichuan Electric Power Co. Guang’an-Nanchong 500-kV transmission project
Fujian Province Electric Power Co.Fujian Power Grid Xiamen Hepu R. Transformer Stn. 500-kV power conversion & transmission project
China Guodian Group Ningxia Shizuishan 2×330 MW tech upgrade
China Huadian Group Guizhou Dafang 4×300 MW
Guodian Xuanwei Power Generation Co. Yunnan Xuanwei Stn. 7th Stage 2×300 MW exp.
Henan Zhongfu Industry Stock Co. Henan Zhongfu 2×300 MW exp.
Inner Mongolia Xinfeng Thermal Power Co. Xinfeng 2×300 MW power and heat supply
Inner Mong. Zhungeer Dafanpu Power Stn. Dafanpu Power Stn. 2×300 MW
Nanjing Suyuan Thermal Power Co. Suyuan Thermal Power Co. 2nd stage 2×300 MW power & heat supply
China Nat’l Petroleum & Natural Gas Co. Lanzhou Petrochem Stock Co. 1.2 Megaton/year delayed coking project
Foshan Huafeng Paper Industries Co. Upgrade to 300 kiloton/year high-grade paper project
Inner Mongolia Transportation Bureau Portion of Dandong-Lhasa highway project
Fuzhou City Development & Reform Comm.Fujian Min R. North Harbor Southside Flood Prev. Project and South R. road construction project
49
Institutional Challenges
II: Civil society vs. Legal Regulations on Organizations
50
Civil Society Organizations
Since late 1990s, increasing concern among NGOs in downstream countries about impacts of Chinese development of upstream waters
Strong anti-dam NGO community in Thailand; no real analog in China
Complicated by transboundary power sales More recent development of organizations mobilized
around environmental and cultural preservation within China
“Safe” topics, but idea of non-state organizations generally troubling to China’s leadership
51
Fine print: dual oversight
CSOs could formerly register with industrial or commercial bureaucracy as “non-enterprise units”
Registration with the Ministry of Civil Affairs Adoption by a professional bureaucracy (forestry,
agricultural, transportation, science and technology, etc.) that agrees to oversee the organization
Theoretically, only one organization at any one administrative level focused on same issue
Many (80%?) exist peacefully below regulatory radar as long as focus of work is not considered sensitive (eg. poverty alleviation)
52
Fine Print 2 (2005)
No longer allowed to register with industrial and commerce bureaucracy as non-enterprise (or non-profit) units; instead, MUST register with civil affairs
Law targeted unregistered organizations and those with “social science”, “research center”, or “research institute” in their names
Two-week deadline given for re-registration with civil affairs administration
Case of Green Watershed and Yu Xiaogang
53
Institutional Challenges
III: Bureaucratic Jockeying vs. Water Law
54
Analysis of decision making
Decision making about hydropower. Who is at the table? What leverage do they have? How is this changing?
Reforms in water and electricity sector since mid-1990s have left many conflicts, overlaps, and ambiguities
Process depends on perspective
55
Perspective 1: Hydro Companies
Formerly part of central ministry Restructuring from 1996 to 2002 changed the
shape of hydropower development authorities, but perhaps not the way they do business
Maintenance of direct connections to Energy Bureau of NDRC, and State Council
56
Ministry to SOE to Stock Company
Ministry of Electric Power
(<1998)
State Power Corp. of China
(1998-2002)
China Huadian
China Datang
China Power Investment
China Guodian
China Huaneng
Generation Companies
Design Companies
Grid Companies
State Power Grid Southern Power Grid
China Gezhouba Co.
Sinohydro Corporation
China Hydro Consulting
China Power Engineering
57
Perspective 2: Basin Commission CWRC: One of seven watershed
commissions that are neither local nor national in administrative scope
50 years as technical agency; less than five as an enforcement authority
Chicken and egg: comprehensive plan vs. hydropower plan
Hydro leading planning; authority of CWRC being skirted.
58
Watershed (Basin) Commission prepares comprehensive plan
Developer solicits project pre-feasibility
study
Pre-feasibility study approved by Basin
Commission
Developer solicits technical plan & feasibility study
Input from local gov’t & central ministries
(forestry, transportation, navigation, agriculture
water, SEPA)
Developer begins work on project
(bidding, contracting)
Feasibility study & plan approved by
Basin Commission
Survey & Design Institute(s)
Survey & Design Institute(s)
Developer submits project application
report
Basin Commission approves project application report
Potential State
Council Intervention
Construction Companies
Survey & Design Institute(s)
Banks and other financiers
Decision-Making Process from CWRC Perspective
59
Developer makes initial project proposal
NDRC approves project concept
YDRC approves detailed proposal
NDRC approves detailed proposal
Input from local gov’t & central ministries
(forestry, transportation, navigation, agriculture
water, SEPA)
Developer begins work on project
(bidding, contracting)
Survey & Design Institute(s)
Survey & Design Institute(s)
Developer submits project application
NDRC approves project application
Potential State
Council Intervention
Construction CompaniesSurvey & Design
Institute(s)
Banks and other financiers
Input from local governments
Developer prepares detailed proposal
Decision-Making Process from Company Perspective
60
Further Research
Water, Power, Economic Development, Decision Making, Environmental and Human Health
61
Science and Sustainability
大型水电 = 可再生能源 (large hydro = renewable resource)
Frequent conflation of scientific development sustainable development Implication: If it’s “scientific,” it’s sustainable
Whose scientists produce the science?
62
Nu/Salween Hydropower Cascade Key arguments that have brought large-scale
hydro into question If Nu 13-dam cascade is cancelled,
implications for local development Implications for pluralization of decision-
making processes regarding natural resources and local development
63
South-North Water Diversion
Three routes Eastern, Central, Western
Technical issues Pollution & human health impacts Environmental impacts High-altitude transfers
Jurisdictional issues Basin commissions Provincial D & R commissions
64
Small-scale hydropower
Often touted as benign alternative Run-of-river vs. impoundment Local and inexpensive technology Minimal investment
Less oversight, more shortcuts Approval at prefecture/city level or lower Start first, approve later Few controls on construction Little incentive to integrate with grid
