Developmentadministrationchapter1dan2 120302024231-phpapp01

Prof. Ginandjar Kartasasmita

Program Doktor Bidang Ilmu SosialUniversitas Pasundan

Bandung2012

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IS A SPECIESBELONGING TO THE GENUSADMINISTRATION, WHICH GENUS IN TURNBELONGS TO A FAMILY WHICH WE MAYCALL COOPERATIVE HUMAN ACTION

(WALDO, 1955)

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IS A SPECIESBELONGING TO THE GENUSADMINISTRATION, WHICH GENUS IN TURNBELONGS TO A FAMILY WHICH WE MAYCALL COOPERATIVE HUMAN ACTION

(WALDO, 1955)

www.ginandjar.com 2S3-Unpas_2012

LAW

ECONOMICSSOCIOLOGY

ADMINISTRATION

PSYCHOLOGY

BUSINESS

PHILOSOPHY

POLITICS


Program Doktor Bidang Ilmu SosialUniversitas Pasundan

Bandung2012

ADMINISTRATION IS A TYPE OFCOOPERATIVE HUMAN EFFORT THAT HASA HIGH DEGREE OF RATIONALITY

HUMAN ACTION IS COOPERATIVE IF ITHAS EFFECTS THAT WOULD BE ABSENT IFTHE COOPERATION DID NOT TAKE PLACE

(WALDO, 1955)

ADMINISTRATION IS A TYPE OFCOOPERATIVE HUMAN EFFORT THAT HASA HIGH DEGREE OF RATIONALITY

HUMAN ACTION IS COOPERATIVE IF ITHAS EFFECTS THAT WOULD BE ABSENT IFTHE COOPERATION DID NOT TAKE PLACE

(WALDO, 1955)


THE SIGNIFICANCE OF HIGH DEGREE OFRATIONALITY LIES IN THE FACT THATHUMAN COOPERATION VARIES INEFFECTIVENESS OF GOAL ATTAINMENT,WHETHER WE THINK IN TERMS OFFORMAL GOALS, THE GOALS OF LEADERS,OR OF ALL WHO COOPERATE

(WALDO, 1955)

WHAT IS ADMINISTRATION?

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF HIGH DEGREE OFRATIONALITY LIES IN THE FACT THATHUMAN COOPERATION VARIES INEFFECTIVENESS OF GOAL ATTAINMENT,WHETHER WE THINK IN TERMS OFFORMAL GOALS, THE GOALS OF LEADERS,OR OF ALL WHO COOPERATE

(WALDO, 1955)



ADMINISTRATION IS A PLANNEDAPPROACH TO THE SOLVING OF ALLKINDS OF PROBLEMS IN ALMOST EVERYINDIVIDUAL OR GROUP ACTIVITY, BOTHPUBLIC AND PRIVATE

(DIMOCK, DIMOCK, AND KOENIG, 1960)

ADMINISTRATION IS A PLANNEDAPPROACH TO THE SOLVING OF ALLKINDS OF PROBLEMS IN ALMOST EVERYINDIVIDUAL OR GROUP ACTIVITY, BOTHPUBLIC AND PRIVATE

(DIMOCK, DIMOCK, AND KOENIG, 1960)


IN ITS BROADEST SENSE ADMINISTRATIONCAN BE DEFINED AS THE ACTIVITIES OFGROUPS COOPERATING TO ACCOMPLISHCOMMON GOALS

(SIMON, 1991)


IN ITS BROADEST SENSE ADMINISTRATIONCAN BE DEFINED AS THE ACTIVITIES OFGROUPS COOPERATING TO ACCOMPLISHCOMMON GOALS

(SIMON, 1991)


DECIDE TOBUY

LOTTERIES

FAMILY HAVE SOMEMONEY

RESULTS

WIN LOSE

RICHER ORBETTER LIFE

POORER ORWORSE LIFE


ILLUSTRATION…

DECIDE TO USE THEMONEY AS CAPITAL

TO ESTABLISH ASHOP

HAVE SOMEMONEY

FAMILY

WORKINGTOGETHER IN

THE OPERATIONOF THE SHOP

RESULTS

SUCCESFUL FAILURE

BETTER LIFE FIND WAYS TOSTART AGAIN






THE STUDY OF ADMINISTRATION IS CONCERNED WITHQUESTIONS SUCH AS:

1. HOW THE METHOD WAS CHOOSEN,2. HOW THE MEN (OR WOMEN) WERE SELECTED AND

INDUCED TO COOPERATE IN CARRYING OUT SUCH A TASK,3. HOW THE TASK WAS DIVIDED BETWEEN THEM,4. HOW EACH ONE LEARNED WHAT HIS PARTICULAR JOB WAS

IN THE TOTAL PATTERN,5. HOW HE LEARNED TO PERFORM IT,6. HOW HIS EFFORTS ARE COORDINATED WITH THE EFFORTS

OF THE OTHER

(SIMON, 1991)


THE STUDY OF ADMINISTRATION IS CONCERNED WITHQUESTIONS SUCH AS:

1. HOW THE METHOD WAS CHOOSEN,2. HOW THE MEN (OR WOMEN) WERE SELECTED AND

INDUCED TO COOPERATE IN CARRYING OUT SUCH A TASK,3. HOW THE TASK WAS DIVIDED BETWEEN THEM,4. HOW EACH ONE LEARNED WHAT HIS PARTICULAR JOB WAS

IN THE TOTAL PATTERN,5. HOW HE LEARNED TO PERFORM IT,6. HOW HIS EFFORTS ARE COORDINATED WITH THE EFFORTS

OF THE OTHER

(SIMON, 1991)



ADMINISTRASIDALAM ARTI

SEMPIT

TATA USAHAURUSAN : ⇨SURAT MENYURAT

⇨KEPEGAWAIAN

⇨KEUANGAN

⇨LOGISTIK

=

STAF ADMINISTRASI


ADMINISTRASIDALAM ARTI

SEMPIT

TATA USAHAURUSAN : ⇨SURAT MENYURAT

⇨KEPEGAWAIAN

⇨KEUANGAN

⇨LOGISTIK

SINCE ADMINISTRATION IS CONCERNED WITH ALLPATTERNS OF COOPERATIVE BEHAVIOR, IT IS OBVIOUSTHAT ANY PERSON ENGAGED IN AN ACTIVITY INCOOPERATION WITH OTHER PERSONS IS ENGAGED INADMINISTRATION

SINCE EVERYONE HAS COOPERATED WITH OTHERSTHROUGHOUT HIS LIFE, HE HAS SOME BASICFAMILIARITY WITH ADMINISTRATION AND SOME OF ITSPROBLEMS

(SIMON, 1991)

SINCE ADMINISTRATION IS CONCERNED WITH ALLPATTERNS OF COOPERATIVE BEHAVIOR, IT IS OBVIOUSTHAT ANY PERSON ENGAGED IN AN ACTIVITY INCOOPERATION WITH OTHER PERSONS IS ENGAGED INADMINISTRATION

SINCE EVERYONE HAS COOPERATED WITH OTHERSTHROUGHOUT HIS LIFE, HE HAS SOME BASICFAMILIARITY WITH ADMINISTRATION AND SOME OF ITSPROBLEMS

(SIMON, 1991)


THE CHARACTERISTICS OF ADMINISTRATIONARE BEST SUBSUMED UNDER THE TWOTERMS ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

(WALDO, 1955)

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT ARE THE TWOFACES OF THE SAME COIN.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF ADMINISTRATIONARE BEST SUBSUMED UNDER THE TWOTERMS ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

(WALDO, 1955)

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT ARE THE TWOFACES OF THE SAME COIN.


CHARACTERISTICS OF ADMINISTRATION

ORGANIZATION IS THE ANATOMY,MANAGEMENT THE PHYSIOLOGY, OFADMINISTRATION

ORGANIZATION IS THE STRUCTURE;MANAGEMENT IS THE FUNCTIONINGOF ADMINISTRATION

(WALDO, 1955)

ORGANIZATION IS THE ANATOMY,MANAGEMENT THE PHYSIOLOGY, OFADMINISTRATION

ORGANIZATION IS THE STRUCTURE;MANAGEMENT IS THE FUNCTIONINGOF ADMINISTRATION

(WALDO, 1955)


UNPAS_2009 www.ginandjar.com 18

ORGANIZATION

Directorate General

Directorate/BureauDirectorate/Bureau

Division

Section


MANAGER

MANAGEMENT

PLANNING IMPLEMENTATION CONTROLLING


THE STRUCTURE OF AUTHORITATIVEAND HABITUAL PERSONALINTERRELATIONS IN ANADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM

(WALDO, 1955)

THE STRUCTURE OF AUTHORITATIVEAND HABITUAL PERSONALINTERRELATIONS IN ANADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM

(WALDO, 1955)


IN GENERAL, ORGANIZATIONAL THEORYIS “GENERIC” IN THE SENSE THAT IT DOESNOT MAKE DISTINCTIONS BETWEENPUBLIC AND PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS

(BOZEMAN, 1987)

IN GENERAL, ORGANIZATIONAL THEORYIS “GENERIC” IN THE SENSE THAT IT DOESNOT MAKE DISTINCTIONS BETWEENPUBLIC AND PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS

(BOZEMAN, 1987)


1. STAFF ORGANIZATION

2. LINE ORGANIZATION

3. LINE AND STAFF ORGANIZATION

1. STAFF ORGANIZATION

2. LINE ORGANIZATION

3. LINE AND STAFF ORGANIZATION


MINISTER

ORGANIZATION

ASSISTANTMINISTERASSISTANTMINISTER

INSPECTORGENERAL

INSPECTORINSPECTOR

SECRETARYGENERAL

DIRECTORGENERAL

DIRECTORGENERAL

DIRECTOR DIRECTOR BUREAUBUREAU

ASSISTANTMINISTERASSISTANTMINISTER


TECHNICAL IMPLEMENTATION UNITSTAFLINE

LINE AND STAFF ORGANIZATION

SALES MANAGER

MARKET FORECASTORMARKET FORECASTOR MARKET FORECASTOR

SALES PEOPLE

REGION C SALESMANAGER

REGION B SALESMANAGER

REGION A SALESMANAGER

TRAINING DIRECTOR

SALES PEOPLESALES PEOPLE


MARKET FORECASTOR

THE TERM "MANAGEMENT" APPEARED EARLY IN THEDISCUSSION OF STATE ADMINISTRATION AS VIRTUALLYSYNONYMOUS WITH ADMINISTRATION.MANAGEMENT AS A DISTINCTIVE IDEA DID NOT BEGINTO EMERGE UNTIL THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, WITH“EXPLICIT THEORIZING…PERHAPS MOST NOTICEABLEIN THE US, WHICH INDUSTRIALIZED LATER AND EVENFASTER THAN GERMANY OR THE UK.” (POLLITT, 1990)

THE TERM "MANAGEMENT" APPEARED EARLY IN THEDISCUSSION OF STATE ADMINISTRATION AS VIRTUALLYSYNONYMOUS WITH ADMINISTRATION.MANAGEMENT AS A DISTINCTIVE IDEA DID NOT BEGINTO EMERGE UNTIL THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, WITH“EXPLICIT THEORIZING…PERHAPS MOST NOTICEABLEIN THE US, WHICH INDUSTRIALIZED LATER AND EVENFASTER THAN GERMANY OR THE UK.” (POLLITT, 1990)


GETTING THINGS DONE THROUGH THE EFFORTS OFOTHER PEOPLE (TAYLOR, 1912).

ACTION INTENDED TO ACHIEVE RATIONAL COOPERATIONIN AN ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM (WALDO, 1955).

MANAGEMENT REFERS TO THE PROCESS OF RUNNINGAN ORGANIZATION AND THE USE OF RESOURCES TOACCOMPLISH ITS GOALS. THE TERM ALSO REFERS TOTHOSE INDIVIDUALS WHO ARE FORMALLY AUTHORIZEDTO RUN THE ORGANIZATION (LEMAY, 2002).

GETTING THINGS DONE THROUGH THE EFFORTS OFOTHER PEOPLE (TAYLOR, 1912).

ACTION INTENDED TO ACHIEVE RATIONAL COOPERATIONIN AN ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM (WALDO, 1955).

MANAGEMENT REFERS TO THE PROCESS OF RUNNINGAN ORGANIZATION AND THE USE OF RESOURCES TOACCOMPLISH ITS GOALS. THE TERM ALSO REFERS TOTHOSE INDIVIDUALS WHO ARE FORMALLY AUTHORIZEDTO RUN THE ORGANIZATION (LEMAY, 2002).


CLASSICAL MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS : PLANNING ORGANIZING STAFFING DIRECTING COORDINATING REPORTING BUDGETING

(LUTHER GULICK AND LYNDALL URWICK, 1932)

CLASSICAL MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS : PLANNING ORGANIZING STAFFING DIRECTING COORDINATING REPORTING BUDGETING

(LUTHER GULICK AND LYNDALL URWICK, 1932)


ALTHOUGH THE SERIOUS STUDY OF LEADERSHIP ISONLY ABOUT 100 YEARS OLD, INTEREST INLEADERS AND LEADERSHIP DATES BACKTHOUSANDS OF YEARS.

IN ADDITION TO THE ENORMOUS POWER THATLEADERS HAVE HAD OVER THEIR PEOPLE-LITERALLY LIFE AND DEATH-LEADERS OFTENATTAINED GODLIKE STATUS THEMSELVES.

(MONTGOMERY VAN WART, 2008)

ALTHOUGH THE SERIOUS STUDY OF LEADERSHIP ISONLY ABOUT 100 YEARS OLD, INTEREST INLEADERS AND LEADERSHIP DATES BACKTHOUSANDS OF YEARS.

IN ADDITION TO THE ENORMOUS POWER THATLEADERS HAVE HAD OVER THEIR PEOPLE-LITERALLY LIFE AND DEATH-LEADERS OFTENATTAINED GODLIKE STATUS THEMSELVES.

(MONTGOMERY VAN WART, 2008)


TYPES OF WORK

EXECUTION POLICY NEW IDEAS

TYPE

SO

F FO

LLO

WER

S

EMPLOYEES MANAGERS EXECUTIVES WITHPOLICYRESPONSIBILITIES

TRANSFORMATIONLEADERS

TYPE

SO

F FO

LLO

WER

S

EXECUTIVES WITHPOLICYRESPONSIBILITIES

CONSTITUENTS COMMUNITYLEADERS OFVOLUNTEERGROUPS

LEGISLATORS ANDADVISORY BOARDMEMBERS

LOBBYISTS ANDPOLICYENTREPRENEURS

ADHERENTS SMALL GROUPLEADERS

LEADERS OF SOCIALMOVEMENTS

PHILOSOPHICALZEALOTS ANDSOCIAL TRENDSETTERS

-ibid-


MENORGANIZATION

GOAL GOAL GOAL GOALS

ULTIMATEINTERMEDIATE

MATERIALS MANAGEMENTGOAL GOAL GOAL GOALS


THE CLASSIC MEANING OF PUBLIC DERIVES FROM TWOSOURCES. THE FIRST IS THE GREEK WORD PUBES, OR"MATURITY," WHICH IN THE GREEK SENSE MEANS IN THEBOTH PHYSICAL AND EMOTIONAL OR INTELLECTUALMATURITY AND EMPHASIZE MOVING FROM THE SELFISHCONCERNS OR PERSONAL SELF-INTEREST TO SEEINGBEYOND ONE'S SELF TO UNDERSTAND THE INTEREST OFOTHERS

IT IMPLIES AN ABILITY TO UNDERSTAND THECONSEQUENCES OF ONE'S INDIVIDUAL ACTIONS ON OTHERPEOPLE

THE CLASSIC MEANING OF PUBLIC DERIVES FROM TWOSOURCES. THE FIRST IS THE GREEK WORD PUBES, OR"MATURITY," WHICH IN THE GREEK SENSE MEANS IN THEBOTH PHYSICAL AND EMOTIONAL OR INTELLECTUALMATURITY AND EMPHASIZE MOVING FROM THE SELFISHCONCERNS OR PERSONAL SELF-INTEREST TO SEEINGBEYOND ONE'S SELF TO UNDERSTAND THE INTEREST OFOTHERS

IT IMPLIES AN ABILITY TO UNDERSTAND THECONSEQUENCES OF ONE'S INDIVIDUAL ACTIONS ON OTHERPEOPLE


FREDERICKSON’S FIVE PERSPECTIVES OF PUBLIC INPUBLIC ADMINISTRATION:

1) THE PUBLIC AS INTEREST GROUPS (THE PLURALISTPERSPECTIVE)

2) THE PUBLIC AS RATIONAL CHOOSER (THE PUBLIC CHOICEPERSPECTIVE)

3) THE PUBLIC AS REPRESENTED (THE LEGISLATIVEPERSPECTIVE)

4) THE PUBLIC AS CUSTOMER (THE SERVICE-PROVIDINGPERSPECTIVE)

5) THE PUBLIC AS CITIZEN

WHAT IS PUBLIC?

FREDERICKSON’S FIVE PERSPECTIVES OF PUBLIC INPUBLIC ADMINISTRATION:

1) THE PUBLIC AS INTEREST GROUPS (THE PLURALISTPERSPECTIVE)

2) THE PUBLIC AS RATIONAL CHOOSER (THE PUBLIC CHOICEPERSPECTIVE)

3) THE PUBLIC AS REPRESENTED (THE LEGISLATIVEPERSPECTIVE)

4) THE PUBLIC AS CUSTOMER (THE SERVICE-PROVIDINGPERSPECTIVE)

5) THE PUBLIC AS CITIZEN


THE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF MENAND MATERIALS TO ACHIEVE THE PURPOSES OFGOVERNMENT

THE ART AND SCIENCE OF MANAGEMENT ASAPPLIED TO AFFAIRS OF STATE

(WALDO, 1955)

THE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF MENAND MATERIALS TO ACHIEVE THE PURPOSES OFGOVERNMENT

THE ART AND SCIENCE OF MANAGEMENT ASAPPLIED TO AFFAIRS OF STATE

(WALDO, 1955)


THE ADMINISTRATION OR MANAGEMENT OFMATTERS WHICH HAVE PRINCIPALLY TO DO WITH THESOCIETY, POLITY, AND ITS SUBPARTS WHICH ARE NOTESSENTIALLY PRIVATE, FAMILIAL, COMMERCIAL, ORINDIVIDUALISTIC.

DISCIPLINED STUDY OF SUCH MATTERS. IN ITS SIMPLEST MEANING, PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

HAS TO DO WITH MANAGING THE REALM OFGOVERNMENTAL AND OTHER PUBLIC ACTIVITIES

(MARTINI, 1998)

THE ADMINISTRATION OR MANAGEMENT OFMATTERS WHICH HAVE PRINCIPALLY TO DO WITH THESOCIETY, POLITY, AND ITS SUBPARTS WHICH ARE NOTESSENTIALLY PRIVATE, FAMILIAL, COMMERCIAL, ORINDIVIDUALISTIC.

DISCIPLINED STUDY OF SUCH MATTERS. IN ITS SIMPLEST MEANING, PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

HAS TO DO WITH MANAGING THE REALM OFGOVERNMENTAL AND OTHER PUBLIC ACTIVITIES

(MARTINI, 1998)


ADMINISTRATION = GOVERNMENT


OBAMA ADMINISTRATION

OCUPATION/PROFESSION

ACADEMIC FIELD

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

OCUPATION/PROFESSION

ACADEMIC FIELD

RESEARCHTEACHING


1. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AND THE BEHAVIOROF PEOPLE IN PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS;

2. THE TECHNOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT AND THEINSTITUTIONS OF POLICY IMPLEMENTATION;

3. THE PUBLIC INTEREST AS IT RELATES TO INDIVIDUALETHICAL CHOICE AND PUBLIC AFFAIRS.

(BAILEY, 1968)

1. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AND THE BEHAVIOROF PEOPLE IN PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS;

2. THE TECHNOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT AND THEINSTITUTIONS OF POLICY IMPLEMENTATION;

3. THE PUBLIC INTEREST AS IT RELATES TO INDIVIDUALETHICAL CHOICE AND PUBLIC AFFAIRS.

(BAILEY, 1968)


NATIONALRESOURCES

ORGANIZEII

MANAGEPUBLIC

GOODS

SERVICES

GOAL

GOAL

GOAL

ULTIMATEGOALS

GOAL

– NATURALRESOURCES

– HUMANRESOURCES

– RELIGION,ETHICS

– CULTURE,HERITAGE,TRADITION

– EMPLOYMENT– POVERTY– EDUCATION– HEALTH– JUSTICE– DEMOCRACY– ENVIRONMENT– SECURITY

– SOCIALJUSTICE

– INDIVIDUALRIGHTS

– FREEDOM


MANAGERIAL POLITICAL LEGAL

MANAGERIAL POLITICAL LEGAL


APPROACHES TO PUBLICADMINISTRATION

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IS GEAREDTOWARD THE MAXIMIZATION OFEFFECTIVENESS, EFFICIENCY, ANDECONOMY

(ROSENBLOOM, 2005)

MANAGERIAL APPROACH

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IS GEAREDTOWARD THE MAXIMIZATION OFEFFECTIVENESS, EFFICIENCY, ANDECONOMY

(ROSENBLOOM, 2005)


ADMINISTRATION

PRIVATE

PLANNING

ORGANIZING

PLANING PROCESS

BUDGETING

STRUCTURES

PROCEDURES

PUBLIC

ORGANIZING

IMPLEMENTING

CONTROLLING

PROCEDURES

HUMAN RESOURCES

STANDARD OPERATINGPROCEDURES

MONITORING

EVALUATION

FEED BACK

GOALS


THE PROCESS OF ENSURING THAT THE ALLOCATION AND

USE OF RESOURCES AVAILABLE TO THE GOVERNMENT

ARE DIRECTED TOWARD THE ACHIEVEMENT OF LAWFUL

PUBLIC POLICY GOALS.

THIS DEFINITION SEES THE PUBLIC MANAGER AS BOTH

CREATURE-OF POLITICS, LAW, STRUCTURES, AND ROLES—

AND CREATOR—OF STRATEGIES, CAPACITY, AND RESULTS.

THE PROCESS OF ENSURING THAT THE ALLOCATION AND

USE OF RESOURCES AVAILABLE TO THE GOVERNMENT

ARE DIRECTED TOWARD THE ACHIEVEMENT OF LAWFUL

PUBLIC POLICY GOALS.

THIS DEFINITION SEES THE PUBLIC MANAGER AS BOTH

CREATURE-OF POLITICS, LAW, STRUCTURES, AND ROLES—

AND CREATOR—OF STRATEGIES, CAPACITY, AND RESULTS.



POWER, AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY RELATIONSHIP.

RESPONSIBILITY AND RESPONSIVENESS OF THEADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES AND THE BUREAUCRACIES TOTHE ELECTED OFFICIALS (THE CHIEF EXECUTIVES, THELEGISLATORS).

IT IS OF CENTRAL IMPORTANCE IN A GOVERNMENT BASEDINCREASINGLY ON THE EXERCISE OF DISCRETIONARYPOWER BY THE AGENCIES OF ADMINISTRATION.

(ROSENBLOOM, 2005)

POLITICAL APPROACH

POWER, AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY RELATIONSHIP.

RESPONSIBILITY AND RESPONSIVENESS OF THEADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES AND THE BUREAUCRACIES TOTHE ELECTED OFFICIALS (THE CHIEF EXECUTIVES, THELEGISLATORS).

IT IS OF CENTRAL IMPORTANCE IN A GOVERNMENT BASEDINCREASINGLY ON THE EXERCISE OF DISCRETIONARYPOWER BY THE AGENCIES OF ADMINISTRATION.

(ROSENBLOOM, 2005)



AN ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY IS A GOVERNMENTALAUTHORITY, OTHER THAN A COURT AND OTHER THAN ALEGISLATIVE BODY, WHICH AFFECTS THE RIGHTS OFPRIVATE PARTIES THROUGH EITHER ADJUDICATION, RULEMAKING, INVESTIGATING, PROSECUTING, NEGOTIATING,SETTLING, OR INFORMALLY ACTING.

THE LEGAL APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIONEMPHASIZES THE RULE OF LAW.

(ROSENBLOOM, 2005)

LEGAL APPROACH

AN ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY IS A GOVERNMENTALAUTHORITY, OTHER THAN A COURT AND OTHER THAN ALEGISLATIVE BODY, WHICH AFFECTS THE RIGHTS OFPRIVATE PARTIES THROUGH EITHER ADJUDICATION, RULEMAKING, INVESTIGATING, PROSECUTING, NEGOTIATING,SETTLING, OR INFORMALLY ACTING.

THE LEGAL APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIONEMPHASIZES THE RULE OF LAW.

(ROSENBLOOM, 2005)


ADMINISTRATIVE LAW REFERS TO THOSE LAWS ANDREGULATIONS THAT ARE CREATED BY THE ACTIVITIESOF GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES THAT MAKE RULES ANDADJUDICATE CASES CONCERNING PRIVATE RIGHTSAND OBLIGATIONS AND THE LIMITS NEEDED TOCONTROL SUCH AGENCIES.

INCLUDED IN THE BODY OF LAWS (OR RULES ANDREGULATIONS) OF ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES THATCOLLECTIVELY MAKE UP ADMINISTRATIVE LAW AREINTERPRETATIVE RULES—THOSE RULES THAT SPECIFYAN AGENCY'S VIEWS OF THE MEANING OF ITSREGULATIONS OR OF THE STATUTES IT ADMINISTERS.

ADMINISTRATIVE LAW REFERS TO THOSE LAWS ANDREGULATIONS THAT ARE CREATED BY THE ACTIVITIESOF GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES THAT MAKE RULES ANDADJUDICATE CASES CONCERNING PRIVATE RIGHTSAND OBLIGATIONS AND THE LIMITS NEEDED TOCONTROL SUCH AGENCIES.

INCLUDED IN THE BODY OF LAWS (OR RULES ANDREGULATIONS) OF ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES THATCOLLECTIVELY MAKE UP ADMINISTRATIVE LAW AREINTERPRETATIVE RULES—THOSE RULES THAT SPECIFYAN AGENCY'S VIEWS OF THE MEANING OF ITSREGULATIONS OR OF THE STATUTES IT ADMINISTERS.


A COMMON USAGE OF ‘PUBLIC’ IS TO DISTINGUISHBETWEEN THE ‘PUBLIC SECTOR’ AND THE ‘PRIVATESECTOR’, WHICH ESSENTIALLY REVOLVES AROUNDDIFFERENCE OF OWNERSHIP (COLLECTIVE OWNERSHIP,IN THE NAME OF ALL CITIZEN, VERSUS INDIVIDUALOWNERSHIP) AND MOTIVE ( SOCIAL PURPOSE VERSUSPROFIT).

(BOVAIRD AND LöFFER , 2003)

A COMMON USAGE OF ‘PUBLIC’ IS TO DISTINGUISHBETWEEN THE ‘PUBLIC SECTOR’ AND THE ‘PRIVATESECTOR’, WHICH ESSENTIALLY REVOLVES AROUNDDIFFERENCE OF OWNERSHIP (COLLECTIVE OWNERSHIP,IN THE NAME OF ALL CITIZEN, VERSUS INDIVIDUALOWNERSHIP) AND MOTIVE ( SOCIAL PURPOSE VERSUSPROFIT).

(BOVAIRD AND LöFFER , 2003)



1. SERVICE DELIVERY2. POLITICAL PROCESS3. LEGALISTIC APPROACH4. BUREAUCRACY5. EFFECTIVE6. NO COMPETITION7. SOCIAL WELFARE GOALS



PRIVATE ADMINISTRATION

1. PROFIT MOTIVATION2. BUSINESS ACTIVITIES3. PROFIT APPROACH4. EGALITER5. EFFICIENT6. FREE COMPETITION7. INDIVIDUL WELFARE

TARGETS



TARGETS







TARGETS



TARGETS


THE REMOTENESS OF MARKET FORCES FROM PUBLICADMINISTRATION ENABLES THE GOVERNMENT TO PROVIDESERVICES AND PRODUCTS THAT COULD NOT PROFITABLY BEOFFERED BY PRIVATE FIRMS.

SOME OF THESE SERVICES AND PRODUCTS ARE REFFERED TOAS PUBLIC GOODS OR QUASI-PUBLIC GOODS.

PUBLIC GOODS THE REMOTENESS OF MARKET FORCES FROM PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION ENABLES THE GOVERNMENT TO PROVIDESERVICES AND PRODUCTS THAT COULD NOT PROFITABLY BEOFFERED BY PRIVATE FIRMS.

SOME OF THESE SERVICES AND PRODUCTS ARE REFFERED TOAS PUBLIC GOODS OR QUASI-PUBLIC GOODS.


WHEN UNIVERSAL ACCESS TO A GOOD, SUCH ASHEALTH CARE OR EDUCATION, SECURITY OR SAFETYBECOMES VIEWED AS AN ESSENTIAL INGREDIENT OFTHE KIND OF SOCIETY THE POLITICAL SYSTEM WANTSTO FOSTER, IT IS LIKELY TO BE CONSIDERED A PUBLICGOOD.

PUBLIC GOODS

WHEN UNIVERSAL ACCESS TO A GOOD, SUCH ASHEALTH CARE OR EDUCATION, SECURITY OR SAFETYBECOMES VIEWED AS AN ESSENTIAL INGREDIENT OFTHE KIND OF SOCIETY THE POLITICAL SYSTEM WANTSTO FOSTER, IT IS LIKELY TO BE CONSIDERED A PUBLICGOOD.


BROADLY SPEAKING, THESE ARE GOODS, THATINDIVIDUALS CANNOT BE EXCLUDED FROM ENJOYING,THAT ARE NOT EXHAUSTED OR SIGNIFICANTLYDIMINISHED AS MORE INDIVIDUALS USE THEM, ANDFOR WHICH INDIVIDUALS DO NOT COMPETE.

PUBLIC GOODS

BROADLY SPEAKING, THESE ARE GOODS, THATINDIVIDUALS CANNOT BE EXCLUDED FROM ENJOYING,THAT ARE NOT EXHAUSTED OR SIGNIFICANTLYDIMINISHED AS MORE INDIVIDUALS USE THEM, ANDFOR WHICH INDIVIDUALS DO NOT COMPETE.


PRIVATE FIRMS TYPICALLY FACE MARKETS IN A FAR MOREDIRECT FASHION. UNDER FREE-MARKET CONDITIONS, IFTHEY FAIL TO PRODUCE PRODUCTS OR SERVICES ATCOMPETITIVE PRICES, CONSUMERS TURN TO OTHERSOURCES AND A COMPANY'S INCOME DECLINES.

IN BETWEEN THE TYPICAL PUBLIC AGENCY AND THEPRIVATE FIRM IS A GRAY AREA IN WHICH NOT-FOR-PROFITORGANIZATION AND HIGHLY REGULATED INDUSTRIES,SUCH AS MANY UTILITIES, OPERATE.

PUBLIC GOODS

PRIVATE FIRMS TYPICALLY FACE MARKETS IN A FAR MOREDIRECT FASHION. UNDER FREE-MARKET CONDITIONS, IFTHEY FAIL TO PRODUCE PRODUCTS OR SERVICES ATCOMPETITIVE PRICES, CONSUMERS TURN TO OTHERSOURCES AND A COMPANY'S INCOME DECLINES.

IN BETWEEN THE TYPICAL PUBLIC AGENCY AND THEPRIVATE FIRM IS A GRAY AREA IN WHICH NOT-FOR-PROFITORGANIZATION AND HIGHLY REGULATED INDUSTRIES,SUCH AS MANY UTILITIES, OPERATE.


PUBLIC POLICY

FOR MANY YEARS, PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS WERE SEENAS NEUTRAL IMPLEMENTORS OF PUBLIC POLICIESSHAPED AND DESIGNED ELSEWHERE IN THE DEMOCRATICPROCESS. SINCE THE 1960s, WITH THE GROWTH OFPUBLIC POLICY ANALYSIS, BOTH THE POLICY PROCESS ITSELF AND THE ROLE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN ITHAVE BEEN REEVALUATED.

FOR MANY YEARS, PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS WERE SEENAS NEUTRAL IMPLEMENTORS OF PUBLIC POLICIESSHAPED AND DESIGNED ELSEWHERE IN THE DEMOCRATICPROCESS. SINCE THE 1960s, WITH THE GROWTH OFPUBLIC POLICY ANALYSIS, BOTH THE POLICY PROCESS ITSELF AND THE ROLE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN ITHAVE BEEN REEVALUATED.


PROCEEDING FROM THE PREMISE THAT POLITICS ISMESSY AND IMPRECISE, PROPONENTS OF PUBLIC POLICYANALYSIS ARGUE THAT THE INTRODUCTION OFRIGOROUS ANALYTICAL METHODOLOGIES AND DECISIONTOOLS WILL DRAMATICALLY IMPROVE BOTH THEDEFINITION OF PUBLIC PROBLEMS AND THEIDENTIFICATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS TO THEM.

PUBLIC POLICY

PROCEEDING FROM THE PREMISE THAT POLITICS ISMESSY AND IMPRECISE, PROPONENTS OF PUBLIC POLICYANALYSIS ARGUE THAT THE INTRODUCTION OFRIGOROUS ANALYTICAL METHODOLOGIES AND DECISIONTOOLS WILL DRAMATICALLY IMPROVE BOTH THEDEFINITION OF PUBLIC PROBLEMS AND THEIDENTIFICATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS TO THEM.


PUBLIC POLICY

FURTHER, IT IS ARGUED THAT MORE RATIONAL DECISIONPROCESSES WILL NOT ONLY BE MORE EFFICIENT, BUT ALSOMORE RESPONSIVE TO CITIZEN NEEDS AND PREFERENCES.THIS VERSION OF PUBLIC POLICY ANALYSIS VALUESOBJECTIVITY AND NEUTRALITY; IT IS BASED ON AN ABIDINGBELIEF IN TECHNICAL ANALYSIS AND ABILITIES.

FURTHER, IT IS ARGUED THAT MORE RATIONAL DECISIONPROCESSES WILL NOT ONLY BE MORE EFFICIENT, BUT ALSOMORE RESPONSIVE TO CITIZEN NEEDS AND PREFERENCES.THIS VERSION OF PUBLIC POLICY ANALYSIS VALUESOBJECTIVITY AND NEUTRALITY; IT IS BASED ON AN ABIDINGBELIEF IN TECHNICAL ANALYSIS AND ABILITIES.

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PUBLIC POLICY

IT MAKES USE OF TECHNIQUES DEVELOPED IN THE FIELDS OFECONOMICS, MATHEMATICS, STATISTICS, OPERATIONS RESEARCH,AND SYSTEMS DYNAMICS, AMONG OTHERS, TO PROVIDE DECISIONMAKERS WITH ADVICE IN THE FORMULATION OF PUBLIC POLICY.

IN APPLYING THOSE TECHNIQUES, THE ANALYST MAY ALSO DRAWON KNOWLEDGE FROM FIELDS SUCH AS SOCIOLOGY, POLITICALSCIENCE, WELFARE ECONOMICS, LAW, ORGANIZATION - THEORY,THE PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES, AND ELSEWHERE.POLICY ANALYSIS MUST TAKE THE ANALYST WHEREVER THE POLICYISSUE LEADS, MAKING ANALYSIS THE MULTI DISIPLINARY ACTIVITYPAR EXCELLENCE.

IT MAKES USE OF TECHNIQUES DEVELOPED IN THE FIELDS OFECONOMICS, MATHEMATICS, STATISTICS, OPERATIONS RESEARCH,AND SYSTEMS DYNAMICS, AMONG OTHERS, TO PROVIDE DECISIONMAKERS WITH ADVICE IN THE FORMULATION OF PUBLIC POLICY.

IN APPLYING THOSE TECHNIQUES, THE ANALYST MAY ALSO DRAWON KNOWLEDGE FROM FIELDS SUCH AS SOCIOLOGY, POLITICALSCIENCE, WELFARE ECONOMICS, LAW, ORGANIZATION - THEORY,THE PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES, AND ELSEWHERE.POLICY ANALYSIS MUST TAKE THE ANALYST WHEREVER THE POLICYISSUE LEADS, MAKING ANALYSIS THE MULTI DISIPLINARY ACTIVITYPAR EXCELLENCE.


PUBLIC POLICY

POLICY ANALYSIS INCLUDES:1) IDENTIFYING THE “PROBLEM” TO BE RESOLVED,

2) SPECIFYING THE GOAL(S) TO BE SOUGHT THROUGH PUBLIC POLICY,

3) IDENTIFYING OR INVENTING THE AVAILABLE POLICY ALTERNATIVES,

4) ESTIMATING THE EFFECTS OF EACH OF THE ALTERNATIVES, BOTHFAVORABLE AND UNFAVORABLE,

5) IMPUTING VALUES IN A SINGLE, COMMENSURABLE MATRIX TO THOSEEFFECTS, AND

6) CHOOSING THE “BEST” POLICY ALTERNATIVE ACCORDING TO ANEXPLICIT DECISION RULE.

POLICY ANALYSIS INCLUDES:1) IDENTIFYING THE “PROBLEM” TO BE RESOLVED,

2) SPECIFYING THE GOAL(S) TO BE SOUGHT THROUGH PUBLIC POLICY,

3) IDENTIFYING OR INVENTING THE AVAILABLE POLICY ALTERNATIVES,

4) ESTIMATING THE EFFECTS OF EACH OF THE ALTERNATIVES, BOTHFAVORABLE AND UNFAVORABLE,

5) IMPUTING VALUES IN A SINGLE, COMMENSURABLE MATRIX TO THOSEEFFECTS, AND

6) CHOOSING THE “BEST” POLICY ALTERNATIVE ACCORDING TO ANEXPLICIT DECISION RULE.


IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE LAST CENTURY, THEDISCIPLINE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION DEVELOPEDWITHIN THE FRAMEWORK SET BY WILSON. THE ENDS OFPUBLIC ADMINISTRATION WERE SEEN AS THE"MANAGEMENT OF MEN AND MATERIAL IN THEACCOMPLISHMENT OF THE PURPOSES OF THE STATE."

PUBLIC CHOICE

IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE LAST CENTURY, THEDISCIPLINE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION DEVELOPEDWITHIN THE FRAMEWORK SET BY WILSON. THE ENDS OFPUBLIC ADMINISTRATION WERE SEEN AS THE"MANAGEMENT OF MEN AND MATERIAL IN THEACCOMPLISHMENT OF THE PURPOSES OF THE STATE."


PUBLIC CHOICE

IN HIS BOOK: ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOR (1945), HERBERTSIMON, SUSTAINED A DEVASTATING CRITIQUE OF THETHEORY IMPLICIT IN THE TRADITIONAL STUDY OF PUBLICADMINISTRATION. SIMON ELUCIDATED SOME OF THEACCEPTED ADMINISTRATIVE PRINCIPLES ANDDEMONSTRATED THE LACK OF LOGICAL COHERENCEAMONG THEM.

IN HIS BOOK: ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOR (1945), HERBERTSIMON, SUSTAINED A DEVASTATING CRITIQUE OF THETHEORY IMPLICIT IN THE TRADITIONAL STUDY OF PUBLICADMINISTRATION. SIMON ELUCIDATED SOME OF THEACCEPTED ADMINISTRATIVE PRINCIPLES ANDDEMONSTRATED THE LACK OF LOGICAL COHERENCEAMONG THEM.


PUBLIC CHOICE

DURING THE PERIOD FOLLOWING SIMON'S CHALLENGE,ANOTHER COMMUNITY OF SCHOLARS HAS GRAPPLED WITHMANY OF THESE SAME INTELLECTUAL ISSUES.

THIS COMMUNITY OF SCHOLARS COMPOSEDPREDOMINANTLY OF POLITICAL ECONOMISTS HAVE BEENCONCERNED WITH PUBLIC INVESTMENT AND PUBLICEXPENDITURE DECISIONS.

ONE FACET OF THIS WORK HAS BEEN MANIFEST IN BENEFIT-COST ANALYSIS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLANNING,PROGRAMMING AND BUDGETING (PPB) SYSTEM.

DURING THE PERIOD FOLLOWING SIMON'S CHALLENGE,ANOTHER COMMUNITY OF SCHOLARS HAS GRAPPLED WITHMANY OF THESE SAME INTELLECTUAL ISSUES.

THIS COMMUNITY OF SCHOLARS COMPOSEDPREDOMINANTLY OF POLITICAL ECONOMISTS HAVE BEENCONCERNED WITH PUBLIC INVESTMENT AND PUBLICEXPENDITURE DECISIONS.

ONE FACET OF THIS WORK HAS BEEN MANIFEST IN BENEFIT-COST ANALYSIS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLANNING,PROGRAMMING AND BUDGETING (PPB) SYSTEM.


PUBLIC CHOICE

ONE OF SIMON'S CENTRAL CONCERNS WAS TO ESTABLISHTHE CRITERION OF EFFICIENCY AS A NORM FOR EVALUATINGALTERNATIVE ADMINISTRATIVE ACTIONS. SIMON ARGUEDTHAT THE "CRITERION OF EFFICIENCY DICTATES THAT CHOICEOF ALTERNATIVES WHICH PRODUCE THE LARGEST RESULTFOR THE GIVEN APPLICATION OF RESOURCES."

IN ORDER TO UTILIZE THE CRITERION OF EFFICIENCY, THERESULTS OF ADMINISTRATIVE ACTIONS MUST BE DEFINEDAND MEASURED. CLEAR CONCEPTUAL DEFINITIONS OFOUTPUT ARE NECESSARY BEFORE MEASURES CAN BEDEVELOPED.

ONE OF SIMON'S CENTRAL CONCERNS WAS TO ESTABLISHTHE CRITERION OF EFFICIENCY AS A NORM FOR EVALUATINGALTERNATIVE ADMINISTRATIVE ACTIONS. SIMON ARGUEDTHAT THE "CRITERION OF EFFICIENCY DICTATES THAT CHOICEOF ALTERNATIVES WHICH PRODUCE THE LARGEST RESULTFOR THE GIVEN APPLICATION OF RESOURCES."

IN ORDER TO UTILIZE THE CRITERION OF EFFICIENCY, THERESULTS OF ADMINISTRATIVE ACTIONS MUST BE DEFINEDAND MEASURED. CLEAR CONCEPTUAL DEFINITIONS OFOUTPUT ARE NECESSARY BEFORE MEASURES CAN BEDEVELOPED.


PUBLIC CHOICE

PUBLIC CHOICE REPRESENTS ANOTHER FACET OF WORK INPOLITICAL ECONOMY WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR THE THEORYOF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. MOST POLITICAL ECONOMISTSIN THE PUBLIC CHOICE TRADITION BEGIN WITH THEINDIVIDUAL AS THE BASIC UNIT OF ANALYSIS. THETRADITIONAL "ECONOMIC MAN" IS THEN REPLACED BY"MAN: THE DECISION MAKER."

PUBLIC CHOICE REPRESENTS ANOTHER FACET OF WORK INPOLITICAL ECONOMY WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR THE THEORYOF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. MOST POLITICAL ECONOMISTSIN THE PUBLIC CHOICE TRADITION BEGIN WITH THEINDIVIDUAL AS THE BASIC UNIT OF ANALYSIS. THETRADITIONAL "ECONOMIC MAN" IS THEN REPLACED BY"MAN: THE DECISION MAKER."


PUBLIC CHOICE

THE SECOND CONCERN IN THE PUBLIC CHOICE TRADITION ISWITH THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF PUBLIC GOODS AS THETYPE OF EVENT ASSOCIATED WITH THE OUTPUT OF PUBLICAGENCIES.

PUBLIC CHOICE THEORY IS ALSO CONCERNED WITH THEEFFECT THAT DIFFERENT DECISION RULES OR DECISION-MAKING ARRANGEMENTS WILL HAVE UPON THEPRODUCTION OF THOSE EVENTS CONCEPTUALIZED AS PUBLICGOODS AND SERVICES.

THE SECOND CONCERN IN THE PUBLIC CHOICE TRADITION ISWITH THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF PUBLIC GOODS AS THETYPE OF EVENT ASSOCIATED WITH THE OUTPUT OF PUBLICAGENCIES.

PUBLIC CHOICE THEORY IS ALSO CONCERNED WITH THEEFFECT THAT DIFFERENT DECISION RULES OR DECISION-MAKING ARRANGEMENTS WILL HAVE UPON THEPRODUCTION OF THOSE EVENTS CONCEPTUALIZED AS PUBLICGOODS AND SERVICES.


PUBLIC CHOICE

FOUR BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT INDIVIDUALBEHAVIOR ARE NORMALLY MADE:

– FIRST, INDIVIDUALS ARE ASSUMED TO BE SELF-INTERESTED(NOT EQUIVALENT TO “SELFISH”). THE ASSUMPTION OFSELF-INTEREST IMPLIES PRIMARILY THAT INDIVIDUALS EACHHAVE THEIR OWN PREFERENCES WHICH AFFECT THEDECISIONS THEY MAKE, AND THAT THOSE PREFERENCES MAYDIFFER FROM INDIVIDUAL TO INDIVIDUAL.

FOUR BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT INDIVIDUALBEHAVIOR ARE NORMALLY MADE:

– FIRST, INDIVIDUALS ARE ASSUMED TO BE SELF-INTERESTED(NOT EQUIVALENT TO “SELFISH”). THE ASSUMPTION OFSELF-INTEREST IMPLIES PRIMARILY THAT INDIVIDUALS EACHHAVE THEIR OWN PREFERENCES WHICH AFFECT THEDECISIONS THEY MAKE, AND THAT THOSE PREFERENCES MAYDIFFER FROM INDIVIDUAL TO INDIVIDUAL.


PUBLIC CHOICE

– SECONDLY, INDIVIDUALS ARE ASSUMED TO BE RATIONAL.RATIONALITY IS DEFINED AS THE ABILITY TO RANK ALL KNOWNALTERNATIVES AVAILABLE TO THE INDIVIDUAL IN A TRANSITIVEMANNER.

– THIRD, INDIVIDUALS ARE ASSUMED TO ADOPT MAXIMIZINGSTRATEGIES. MAXIMIZATION AS A STRATEGY IMPLIES THECONSISTENT CHOICE OF THOSE ALTERNATIVES WHICH ANINDIVIDUAL THINKS WILL PROVIDE THE HIGHEST NET BENEFIT ASWEIGHED BY HIS OWN PREFERENCES. AT TIMES THE ASSUMPTIONOF MAXIMIZATION IS RELATED TO THAT OF SATISFYING,DEPENDING UPON ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT THE INFORMATIONAVAILABLE TO AN INDIVIDUAL IN A DECISION-MAKING SITUATION.

– SECONDLY, INDIVIDUALS ARE ASSUMED TO BE RATIONAL.RATIONALITY IS DEFINED AS THE ABILITY TO RANK ALL KNOWNALTERNATIVES AVAILABLE TO THE INDIVIDUAL IN A TRANSITIVEMANNER.

– THIRD, INDIVIDUALS ARE ASSUMED TO ADOPT MAXIMIZINGSTRATEGIES. MAXIMIZATION AS A STRATEGY IMPLIES THECONSISTENT CHOICE OF THOSE ALTERNATIVES WHICH ANINDIVIDUAL THINKS WILL PROVIDE THE HIGHEST NET BENEFIT ASWEIGHED BY HIS OWN PREFERENCES. AT TIMES THE ASSUMPTIONOF MAXIMIZATION IS RELATED TO THAT OF SATISFYING,DEPENDING UPON ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT THE INFORMATIONAVAILABLE TO AN INDIVIDUAL IN A DECISION-MAKING SITUATION.


PUBLIC CHOICE

– FOURTH, AN EXPLICIT ASSUMPTION NEEDS TO BE STATEDCONCERNING THE LEVEL OF INFORMATION POSSESSED BY AREPRESENTATIVE INDIVIDUAL. THREE LEVELS HAVE BEENANALYTICALLY DEFINED AS INVOLVING CERTAINTY, RISK, ANDUNCERTAINTY.

– FOURTH, AN EXPLICIT ASSUMPTION NEEDS TO BE STATEDCONCERNING THE LEVEL OF INFORMATION POSSESSED BY AREPRESENTATIVE INDIVIDUAL. THREE LEVELS HAVE BEENANALYTICALLY DEFINED AS INVOLVING CERTAINTY, RISK, ANDUNCERTAINTY.


PUBLIC CHOICE

THE CONDITION OF CERTAINTY IS DEFINED TO EXISTWHEN:

1) AN INDIVIDUAL KNOWS ALL AVAILABLESTRATEGIES;

2) EACH STRATEGY IS KNOWN TO LEAD INVARIABLYTO ONLY ONE SPECIFIC OUTCOME, AND;

3) THE INDIVIDUAL KNOWS HIS OWN PREFERENCESFOR EACH OUTCOME. GIVEN THIS LEVEL OFINFORMATION, THE DECISION OF A MAXIMIZINGINDIVIDUAL IS COMPLETELY DETERMINED.

THE CONDITION OF CERTAINTY IS DEFINED TO EXISTWHEN:

1) AN INDIVIDUAL KNOWS ALL AVAILABLESTRATEGIES;

2) EACH STRATEGY IS KNOWN TO LEAD INVARIABLYTO ONLY ONE SPECIFIC OUTCOME, AND;

3) THE INDIVIDUAL KNOWS HIS OWN PREFERENCESFOR EACH OUTCOME. GIVEN THIS LEVEL OFINFORMATION, THE DECISION OF A MAXIMIZINGINDIVIDUAL IS COMPLETELY DETERMINED.


PUBLIC CHOICE

UNDER CONDITIONS OF RISK, THE INDIVIDUAL IS STILLASSUMED TO KNOW ALL AVAILABLE STRATEGIES. ANYPARTICULAR STRATEGY MAY LEAD TO A NUMBER OFPOTENTIAL OUTCOMES, AND THE INDIVIDUAL ISASSUMED TO KNOW THE PROBABILITY OF EACHOUTCOME. THUS, DECISION MAKING BECOMESWEIGHTING PROCESS WHEREBY HIS PREFERENCES FORDIFFERENT OUTCOMES ARE COMBINED WITH THEPROBABILITY OF THEIR OCURRENCE PRIOR TO ASELECTION OF A STRATEGY.

UNDER CONDITIONS OF RISK, THE INDIVIDUAL IS STILLASSUMED TO KNOW ALL AVAILABLE STRATEGIES. ANYPARTICULAR STRATEGY MAY LEAD TO A NUMBER OFPOTENTIAL OUTCOMES, AND THE INDIVIDUAL ISASSUMED TO KNOW THE PROBABILITY OF EACHOUTCOME. THUS, DECISION MAKING BECOMESWEIGHTING PROCESS WHEREBY HIS PREFERENCES FORDIFFERENT OUTCOMES ARE COMBINED WITH THEPROBABILITY OF THEIR OCURRENCE PRIOR TO ASELECTION OF A STRATEGY.


PUBLIC CHOICE

DECISION MAKING UNDER UNCERTAINTY IS ASSUMEDTO OCCUR EITHER WHERE (1) AN INDIVIDUAL HAS AKNOWLEDGE OF ALL STRATEGIES AND OUTCOMES, BUTLACKS KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE PROBABILITIES WITHWHICH A STRATEGY MAY LEAD TO AN OUTCOME, OR (2)AN INDIVIDUAL MAY NOT KNOW ALL STRATEGIES OR ALLOUTCOMES WHICH ACTUALLY EXIST.

DECISION MAKING UNDER UNCERTAINTY IS ASSUMEDTO OCCUR EITHER WHERE (1) AN INDIVIDUAL HAS AKNOWLEDGE OF ALL STRATEGIES AND OUTCOMES, BUTLACKS KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE PROBABILITIES WITHWHICH A STRATEGY MAY LEAD TO AN OUTCOME, OR (2)AN INDIVIDUAL MAY NOT KNOW ALL STRATEGIES OR ALLOUTCOMES WHICH ACTUALLY EXIST.


PUBLIC CHOICE

UNDER CONDITIONS OF UNCERTAINTY, THEDETERMINATENESS OF SOLUTIONS IS REPLACED BYCONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE RANGE OF POSSIBLE"SOLUTIONS."

ESTIMATIONS ARE MADE ABOUT THE CONSEQUENCESOF STRATEGIES.

(VINCENT OSBORNE & ELEANOR OSBORN, 1971)

UNDER CONDITIONS OF UNCERTAINTY, THEDETERMINATENESS OF SOLUTIONS IS REPLACED BYCONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE RANGE OF POSSIBLE"SOLUTIONS."

ESTIMATIONS ARE MADE ABOUT THE CONSEQUENCESOF STRATEGIES.

(VINCENT OSBORNE & ELEANOR OSBORN, 1971)


PUBLIC CHOICE

PUBLIC CHOICE IS ONE OF A NUMBER OF MODELSOF DECISION-MAKING IN ADMINISTRATION.

OTHER MODELS INCLUDE:– RATIONAL COMPREHENSIVE MODEL;– BARGAINING MODEL;– INCREMENTAL MODEL;– PARTICIPATIVE MODEL.

(LEMAY, 2002)

PUBLIC CHOICE IS ONE OF A NUMBER OF MODELSOF DECISION-MAKING IN ADMINISTRATION.

OTHER MODELS INCLUDE:– RATIONAL COMPREHENSIVE MODEL;– BARGAINING MODEL;– INCREMENTAL MODEL;– PARTICIPATIVE MODEL.

(LEMAY, 2002)


COOPERATIVE HUMANACTION

SOCIETY (SOCIETALINSTITUTIONS)

ADMINISTRATION PUBLIC PRIVATE


ORGANIZATION(STRUCTURE)

MANAGEMENT(FUNCTION)

BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION


Business

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