TERM PAPERS ENGLISH LEARNING STRATEGY

Asked To Meet Classic Final Course Learning Strategy

Created by :

Class : II D

Nani Afriyani (2223102422)

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

TEACHERS’ TRAINING EDUCATION FACULTY

SULTAN AGENG TIRTAYASA UNIVERSITY

2011

PREFACE

All praises be to allah, the god who creates us being and teaches us language. So ,

with language teaching , we could be understood of the language. Then , we are very grateful

to our teacher who has guided us to make paper planning on English Learning Strategy.

This paper means explain definition “Cognitive Learning Strategy “In make this paper

our so, understood.

“No Body’s perfect”. That is our motto in the paper assignment. We realize that this

exercise is far from being perfect, but we do expect it will be of any use for you, the learners.

It is for this reason that we open our door for the constructive criticism as well as the advice

from you who really want to have this exercise better improved. Our since gratitude is , of

course, addressed to you.

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Language Learning Strategies

Research into language learning strategies began in the 1960s. Particularly,

developments in cognitive psychology influenced much of the research done on language

learning strategies (Wiliams and Burden 1997:149). In most of the research on language

learning strategies, the primary concern has been on "identifying what good language learners

report they do to learn a second or foreign language, or, in some cases, are observed doing

while learning a second or foreign language." (Rubin and Wenden 1987:19). In 1966, Aaron

Carton published his study entitled The Method of Inference in Foreign Language Study,

which was the first attempt on learner strategies.After Carton, in 1971, Rubin started doing

research focussing on the strategies of successful learners and stated that, once identified,

such strategies could be made available to less successful learners. Rubin (1975) classified

strategies in terms of processes contributing directly or indirectly to language learning.

Wong-Fillmore (1976), Tarone (1977), Naiman et al. (1978), Bialystok (1979), Cohen and

Aphek (1981), Wenden (1982), Chamot and O'Malley (1987), Politzer and McGroarty

(1985), Conti and Kolsody (1997), and many others studied strategies used by language

learners during the process of foreign language learning.

The concept of learning strategy is dependent on the assumption that learners

consciously engage in activities to achieve certain goals and learning strategies can be

regarded as broadly conceived intentional directions and learning techniques." All language

learners use language learning strategies either consciously or unconsciously when

processing new information and performing tasks in the language classroom. Since language

classroom is like a problem-solving environment in which language learners are likely to face

new input and difficult tasks given by their instructors, learners' attempts to find the quickest

or easiest way to do what is required, that is, using language learning strategies is

inescapable.

Language learning strategies language learners use during the act of processing the

new information and performing tasks have been identified and described by researchers. In

the following section, how various researchers have categorized language learning strategies

will be shortly summarized:

In Oxford’s language learning strategy taxonomy , language – learning strategies are

divided into two big categories : direct and indirect strategies. Direct learning strategies

involve the target language , requiring different ways of mentally processing a given aet of

lingustic data. Direct strategy consist of memory ,cognitive strategy ,compensation strategy.

Direct learning strategy

Memory strategis Cognitive strategies Compensation strategies

Creating mental linkages Creating mental linkages Guessing inteligently

Applying images and sounds Receiving and sending

messages

Overcoming limitations in

speaking and writing

Reviewing well Analyzing and reasoning

Employing action Creating structure for input

and output

Indirect learning strategies support and manage language learning without involving

the target language directly. They consist of metacognitive, affective , and social strategies.

Indirect learning strategy

Metacognitive strategis Affective strategies Social strategies

Creating your learning Lowering your anxiety Asking question

Arranging and planning your

learning

Encouraging your self Cooperating with others

Evaluating your learning Takaing your emotional

temperature

Empathizing with other

1.2 Cognitive of Language Learning Strategy

Etymologically, the term cognitive-strategy derived from the Latin verb co-agitare

which, among other means thinking, planning, designing, and figure, and said strategema,

ATIS, which means strategy. Thus, cognitive strategy is a ploy to understand. But cognitive

strategies are not identical with the intellectual skills (intellectual skills). Intellectual skills is

more oriented to the interaction of learners as individuals with a learning environment, that is

numbers, words (language), symbols, formulas, principles, procedures and so forth. While

cognitive strategies is a person's ability to control the interaction with the environment.

Cognitive strategies are one type of learning strategy that learners use in order to learn

more successfully. These include repetition, organising new language, summarising meaning,

guessing meaning from context, using imagery for memorisation. All of these strategies

involve deliberate manipulation of language to improve learning. Classifications of learning

strategies distinguish between cognitive strategies and two other types, metacognitive

strategies (organising learning), and social/ affective strategies (which enable interaction).

Because they are diverse and highly relevant to tasks, the use of cognitive strategies

by teachers and students can significantly impact important learning outcomes for students.

This website provides examples of cognitive strategies, with descriptions and examples. The

following table presents the strategies that will be discussed. In addition, case studies will be

presented to show cognitive strategies in action.

Cognitive Strategies for Special Connections

Strategy Type Brief Description Examples

Orienting

Strategies

Student's attention is

drawn to a task

through teacher input,

highlighted material,

and/or student self-

regulation.

Teacher cue to "listen

carefully"Boldface type

Specific Aids for

Attention

Student's attention is

maintained by

connecting a concrete

object or other cue to

the task.

A special pencil cues the

student to pay special

attention to punctuation

when he is writing

sentences.

Specific Aids for

Problem-Solving

or Memorization

Student's problem-

solving is enhanced by

connecting a concrete

object or other cue to

the task.

Concrete objects are used

in solving math problems.

Rehearsal

Student practices

(rehearses) target

information through

verbalization, visual

study, or other means.

Students practice

vocabulary and definitions

through games where they

must orally repeat target

information.

Elaboration

Student expands target

information by

relating other

information to it (ex.

creating a phrase,

making an analogy).

Students relate the life of

an ant colony to their

community.

Transformation

Student simplifies

target information by

converting difficult or

unfamiliar information

into more manageable

information.

Procedures for protecting

oneself from being burned

are learned as "Stop,

Drop, and Roll".

Imagery*

Student transforms

target information by

creating meaningful

visual, auditory, or

kinesthetic images of

the information.

Visualization of a scene

described in a passage

Mnemonics*

Student transforms target information by relating a cue word, phrase, or sentence to the target information.

My Dear Aunt Sally for the order of mathematical operations (multiply, divide, add, subtract)

Organization

Student categorizes, sequences or otherwise organizes information for more efficient recall and use.

Words in lists are placed in categories.

Cognitive Function Strategy

Cognitive strategies intended to increase the number of links between the information

presented by the existing knowledge through a processing information consciously and

deliberately (generative) with the aim of improving retention.

1.3 Purpose

In order to better comprehend and understand about the courses Home Learning

Strategy. In Home Learning Strategy, there are two categories, namely direct strategies

consisting of (memory strategies, cognitive strategies, and compensation strategies), and

indirect strategies consist of (metacognitive strategies, affective strategies, and social

strategies).

In this paper I discuss the cognitive strategies, and I have a goal, to be able to understand

more about the definite cognitive strategy, the use of cognitive strategy, and on a more

detailed explanation of the parts of the cognitive strategies.

Discussion

2.1 Definition

Cognitive strategies are one type of learning strategy that learners use in order to learn

more successfully. These include repetition, organising new language, summarising meaning,

guessing meaning from context, using imagery for memorisation. All of these strategies

involve deliberate manipulation of language to improve learning. Classifications of learning

strategies distinguish between cognitive strategies and two other types, metacognitive

strategies (organising learning), and social/ affective strategies (which enable interaction).

Cognitive learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge and skill by mental or

cognitive processes — ;the procedures we have for manipulating information 'in our heads'.

Cognitive processes include creating mental representations of physical objects and events,

and other forms of information processing.

2.1 Classification of cognitive strategies

In general, cognitive strategies can be classified into two, namely the main strategy

and supporting strategies (Jonassen, 1987). The main strategy used directly on the material

studied, which represents the information-processing activities. Meanwhile, supporters of the

strategy used to maintain adequate learning climate.

There are two kinds of main strategies: the strategy of processing the material

(information) and active cognitive strategies. Active cognitive strategies include learning

systems such as Murder or SQ3R. Materials processing strategies include cognitive strategies

such note-taking, mengggarisbawahi, and test preparation (such as, ask yourself about the

things being studied). When active cognitive strategies assume a certain cognitive processes

of the material, then the strategy prioritizes the information processing activities directly

processing.

Information processing strategies are grouped into four. The four types of strategies that are

pemrossan recall, integration, organization, and elaboration, each of which includes some

specific strategies (Jonassen, 1987).

Strategies recall concentration on practice repetition. Integration strategy and

organization - called also a recall strategy and transformation - is the processing strategies

that facilitate the transformation of information into a form that is easier to remember. These

strategies help organizations in menstrukturisasikan and restructure one's knowledge base,

which is to see how ideas are connected with other ideas. In the elaboration of strategies,

information elaborated by adding more information to make the material produces images of

physical and mental.

In addition to the main strategies that operate directly on information, individuals also

should use the supporting strategies (Jonassen, 1987). Supporting strategies intended to

support information processing by helping individuals to maintain a good learning

orientation. Supporting strategies include strategies for learning systems, such as goal setting,

time management, management concentration, and relactation techniques, and strategies

metalearning.

2.3 How do we learn cognitive?

In cognitive learning, the individual learns by listening, watching, touching, reading,

or experiencing and then processing and remembering the information. Cognitive learning

might seem to be passive learning, because there is no motor movement. However, the

learner is quite active, in a cognitive way, in processing and remembering newly incoming

information.

Cognitive learning enables us to create and transmit a complex culture that includes symbols,

values, beliefs and norms. Because cognitive activity is involved in many aspects of human

behavior, it might seem that cognitive learning only takes place in human beings. However,

many different species of animals are capable of observational learning. For example, a

monkey in the zoo, sometimes imitates human visitors or other monkeys. Nevertheless, most

information about cognitive learning is obtained from studies on human beings.

2.4 Theories

a) Weinstein and Mayer (1986) at http://journalofresearchandreview.books.officelive.com/Documents/A2V6_2_TIJRR.pdf

Cognitive strategies include rehearsal strategies, elaboration

strategies,

and organization strategies.

b) Oxford (1990) at http://puslit2.petra.ac.id/ejournal/index.php/ing/article/viewFile/16471/16463

Cognitive strategies are the most popular ones with language learners.

They are unified by common functions: manipulation and transformation

of the target language by the learners (Oxford, 1990).

c) Rosenshine (1997) at

http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/cgi bin/cgiwrap/specconn/main.php?cat=instruction&section=cs/main

A cognitive strategy serves to support the learner as he or she develops internal

procedures that enable him/her to perform tasks that are complex

d) Rigney (1978) at http://anabrend.wordpress.com/

Cognitive strategies are the operations or procedures that could be used mental

individuals to acquire, hold and retrieve a variety of knowledge and understanding .

e) Jonassen (1987)at http://anabrend.wordpress.com/

concluded that the cognitive strategies of cognitive activities represent a very broad

one that supports learning. Thus, it is clear that the cognitive strategies is essential for

anyone was to achieve a good competency.

f) Hartono (2008) at

http://ebekunt.wordpress.com/2009/04/06/kontribusi-strategi-kognitif-dalam-akselerasi-pembelajaran/

Cognitive strategies are techniques Learners That use to control and monitor cognitive

prosesses Their own" .

g) Robert M. Gagne (1974) at http://somasalims.blogspot.com/2011/03/strategi-kognitif-dalam-pembelajaran.html

cognitive strategies are internally organized capabilities, which can help learners in

the learning process, the process of thinking, solving problems and making decisions.

The types of cognitive strategy he says is (1985): 1) cognitive strategies in Attending,

2) cognitive strategies in encoding, 3) cognitive strategies in retrieval, 4) cognitive

strategies in problem solving; 5) cognitive strategies in thinking.

h) Bell-Gredler (1986) at http://somasalims.blogspot.com/2011/03/strategi-kognitif-dalam-pembelajaran.html

defines cognitive strategies as a process of inductive thinking. When learning

something, someone makes a generalization based on facts or principles that have

been learned.

i) Bruning (1983) at http://slorazki.blogspot.com/2011/02/strategi-kognitif-cognitive-strategies.html

argues that cognitive strategies to facilitate the transfer of information from short-term

memory into long-term memory.

2.5 Why Are Cognitive Learning Strategies So Important?

It is a constant surprise to me to come across middle and senior managers

who, have little or no awareness of how they or other adults learn, and what is

required for them to optimise their own learning.

You are more likely to hear back comments like, "I prefer to learn hands on,"

or "I learn best by solving real problems."

These may be true insights, but fall short of a sophisticated understanding of adult

learning.

Simply, cognitive learning is about being a confident learner. Having an

understanding of the learning process, and specifically how to manage your own

learning increases confidence and encourages independence.

Being more independent empowers learners to take more ownership of their own

learning.A knowledge of their cognitive learning style can help people be more aware

of their own learning, and their current strengths and weaknesses as an adult learner.

In other words ,all the advantages claimed for metacognition, (ie being aware of one’s

own thought and learning processes)can be gained by encouraging all learners to

become knowledgeable about their own learning, and that of others.

2.6 Examples

A learner remembers new words by visualising them represented in a memorable or

ridiculous situation. This makes it easier and faster to recall these words.

At http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/knowledge-wiki/cognitive-strategies

In the classroom Activities which can be described as cognitive strategies include

making mind maps, visualisation, association, mnemonics, using clues in reading

comprehension, underlining key words, scanning and self-testing and monitoring.

At http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/knowledge-wiki/cognitive-strategies

You can compare the teaching of cognitive strategies to teaching a friend to drive in

your hometown. Because you are in your hometown, you know the area, or content,

very well. In addition, the person you are teaching to drive is your friend, so you also

know the learner well. This knowledge can make your teaching more efficient,

because you have two areas of expertise (the content and the learner) at your disposal.

You will use a combination of explicit instructions (turn left on Church Street) and

supports (maps, the rule that "all avenues run North-South") to teach your friend how

to navigate around town. You may also use verbal directions as opposed to maps,

depending on your friend's preferred mode of information. Just as important, you can

avoid situations that could become barriers to learning (and your friendship). For

example, if your friend tends to be anxious, you will NOT begin your instruction

during rush hour!

At http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/specconn/main.php?cat=instruction&section=cs/main

The use of cognitive strategies can increase the efficiency with which the learner

approaches a learning task. These academic tasks can include, but are not limited to,

remembering and applying information from course content, constructing sentences

and paragraphs, editing written work, paraphrasing, and classifying information to be

learned.

In a classroom where cognitive strategies are used, the teacher fulfills a pivotal role,

bridging the gap between student and content/skill to be learned. This role requires an

understanding of the task to be completed, as well as knowledge of an approach (or

approaches) to the task that he/she can communicate to the learner.

At

http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/cgi

bin/cgiwrap/specconn/main.php?cat=instruction&section=cs/main

Conclusion

Describes the strategies that can be done to realize the direct strategy, in particular

cognitive strategies (cognitive strategies). The first strategy is to practice. In practicing things

that need to be considered is the existence of repetition, the practice of formally using a

system of oral and written, to recognize and use the formula / formulas and examples, re-

incorporation, and practice it with naturally.

Cognitive strategies are one type of learning strategy that learners use in order to learn

more successfully. These include repetition, organising new language, summarising meaning,

guessing meaning from context, using imagery for memorisation. All of these strategies

involve deliberate manipulation of language to improve learning. Classifications of learning

strategies distinguish between cognitive strategies and two other types, metacognitive

strategies (organising learning), and social/ affective strategies (which enable interaction).

Cognitive Strategies for Special Connections

Strategy Type Brief Description Examples

Orienting

Strategies

Student's attention is

drawn to a task

through teacher input,

highlighted material,

and/or student self-

regulation.

Teacher cue to "listen

carefully"Boldface type

Specific Aids for

Attention

Student's attention is

maintained by

connecting a concrete

object or other cue to

the task.

A special pencil cues the

student to pay special

attention to punctuation

when he is writing

sentences.

Specific Aids for

Problem-Solving

or Memorization

Student's problem-

solving is enhanced by

connecting a concrete

object or other cue to

the task.

Concrete objects are used

in solving math problems.

Rehearsal

Student practices

(rehearses) target

information through

verbalization, visual

study, or other means.

Students practice

vocabulary and definitions

through games where they

must orally repeat target

information.

Elaboration

Student expands target

information by

relating other

information to it (ex.

creating a phrase,

making an analogy).

Students relate the life of

an ant colony to their

community.

Transformation Student simplifies Procedures for protecting

target information by

converting difficult or

unfamiliar information

into more manageable

information.

oneself from being burned

are learned as "Stop,

Drop, and Roll".

Imagery*

Student transforms

target information by

creating meaningful

visual, auditory, or

kinesthetic images of

the information.

Visualization of a scene

described in a passage

Mnemonics*

Student transforms target information by relating a cue word, phrase, or sentence to the target information.

My Dear Aunt Sally for the order of mathematical operations (multiply, divide, add, subtract)

Organization

Student categorizes, sequences or otherwise organizes information for more efficient recall and use.

Words in lists are placed in categories.

References

http://reeozora.blogspot.com/2009/07/teori-belajar-bahasa-language-learning.html

jam 08:16 , tanggal 8 , juli , 2011 , hari jumat

http://puslit2.petra.ac.id/ejournal/index.php/ing/article/viewFile/16471/16463

jam 07:57, tanggal, 8, juli , 2011 , hari jum’at

http://journalofresearchandreview.books.officelive.com/Documents/

A2V6_2_TIJRR.pdf jam 07:34 tanggal 8 , juli , 2011 , hari jum’at

http://www.leopard-learning.com/cognitivelearning.html jam 07:31 , tanggal 8 , juli ,

2011 , hari jum’at

http://ezinearticles.com/?Definition-of-Cognitive-Learning&id=365039 jam 19:26 ,

tanggal 8 , juli , 2011 , hari jum’at

http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/knowledge-wiki/cognitive-strategies

jam 19:13 , tanggal , 8 , juli , 2011 , hari jum’at

http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/specconn/main.php?

cat=instruction&section=cs/main

jam 19:06 , tanggal 8 , juli , 2011 , hari jum’at

http://anabrend.wordpress.com/ jam 09:23 , tanggal 10 , juli , 2011 , hari minggu

http://ebekunt.wordpress.com/2009/04/06/kontribusi-strategi-kognitif-dalam-

akselerasi-pembelajaran/ jam 09 : 36 ,tanggal , 10 , juli , 2011 , hari minggu

http://somasalims.blogspot.com/2011/03/strategi-kognitif-dalam-pembelajaran.html

jam 09:43 , 10 juli , 2011 , hari minggu

http://puspitariana.wordpress.com/2008/02/14/strategi-kognitif/ jam 09:45 , tanggal ,

10 , juli , 2011 , hari minggu

http://slorazki.blogspot.com/2011/02/strategi-kognitif-cognitive-strategies.html jam

10:13 , date , 8 , juli , hari minggu