ITC 3785 Footwear Technology and Design

Research Project

The Variety of High-heels

Group Members:

Cheung Yuen Man, Rebecca 08224286D

Jia Menglin, Elaine 07840231D

Zhou Yiyi, Olivia 07806378D

1. Introduction

“Not diamond but heels are a girl’s best friends” William Rossi told to every woman in the

world about the importance of heels. It was for one pair of glass slippers that Cinderella

could be married to Prince Charming; it was also the ruby red pumps that poor Dorothy

could leave OZ. It is no denied that throughout history to the present day, women are

fascinated with shoes, especially with gorgeous high heels. Indeed, “Nothing has been

invented yet that will do a better job than high heels at making a good pair of legs look

great, or great ones look fabulous,” said by famous shoe designer Stuart Weitzman.

There are a great many reasons why women love to wear heels. The lower leg becomes

elongated, and accentuates the appearance of calves; and according to Harper’s Index, the

average increase in the protrusion of a woman’s buttocks when she wears high heels is

25%. Women not only appear taller with heels, which is considered as sensuous, but also

make women feel confident and beautiful mentally.

High-heeled shoes are shoes that raise the heel of the wearer's foot significantly higher

than the toes. When both the heel and the toes are raised, as in a platform shoe, it is

generally not considered to be a "high-heel." High-heels come in a wide variety of styles,

and the heels are found in many different shapes, including stiletto, block, tapered, blade,

and wedge. Most high-heeled shoes have heels between 2" and 3". Less popular are shoes

with higher heels, such as those above 4". Extremely high-heeled shoes, such as those

higher than 5", are effectively worn only for display, and typically for the enjoyment of

shoe fetishists and/or the wearer.

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2. Aim and Objectives

High-heels were originally invented for both men and women. However in modern time,

high-heels are generally wore by women. In this study, the high heels refer to women’s

footwear only. The aim of the study is to explore the design and technologies behind the

heels and predict the possibilities of future heels.

The objectives of this study is as following:

- It is going to research the heel design variety throughout the history, including

shapes, heights, materials, and decorations;

- It is going to discuss the force and technologies involved in high heels;

- It is going to explore future trend of high heels design.

3. Methodology

In order to fulfill the aims and objectives mentioned above, both market research and

literature review will be made. Famous shoe designer’s stores and design will be

reviewed, moreover, literature on fashion history will also be discussed on heels design

and technology. Then book and journal research about the comfort and pressure to feet

will be proceeded in order to find out the technology behind the high heels.

After all the above researches are finished, we are going to explore the future of high-heel

designs. Predictions will be made in the end of the study.

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4. Review of History

The history of high heel could date back to ancient Egypt, in which high heel gave the

wearer considerable social status. This phenomenon was prevalent in ancient Greece.

The modern European fashion for elevated shoes came from an Italian style known as the

“chapiney” or “chopine” in the late middle ages. The shoe were mounted on a tall cylinder

usually 6 to 18 inches high.

Early high heels were louis heels that narrowed from the sole, then widened again at the

base. As the heels became higher, they became straighter, and higher and straighter heels

were considered more elegant.

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Woman's PianellaEarly 17th Century

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, United States

The earliest record of high heels3500 B.C

Ancient Egypt

Brocade louis heel pump, 1880 Baroque ladies mules, 1690-1720

After World War II, the development of modern

high heels started to soar. In early 1950s, French

shoe designer Charles Jourdan created one of the

sexiest and sensuous shoes ever made and

named it “stiletto”. The stilettos is a tall, thin and

spike heel. The “stiletto” is an italian word

meaning a knife with a narrow blade which was

favored by renaissance assassins. Stiletto first

came into use in italy in 1953, but the even

thinner version know as the stiletto heel come two years later in 1955. The shoe designer

Roger Vivier, who was working with the French couturier Christian Dior, introduced the

controversial talon aguille (needle heel) and talon choc (shock heel).

The classic stiletto is using a broad base to support the heel that tapers from the back and

the arch of the shoe, then flares again slightly at floor level. The talon choc took the art of

engineering even further, the heel arches forward so the inner face of the heel is an arc,

while the outer face is almost straight, extending diagonally from the back of the shoe.

These style are made possible by a steel pin encased in the heel of the shoe, which carries

the wearer’s weight. the same method of construction is used today. The technology that

permitted its construction was only introduced during this century.

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Stilettos

Pink satin embroidered with metallic thread and sequins

Roger Vivier, ca. 1958, for Christian Dior

The stiletto represents a gradual refinement of a high increasing narrow heel made by

designers in Italy and Paris during mid-fifties.

When it came to 1970s, the glam rock storm has risen the heels into a new height with

glitzy six-inches high platform boots. The platforms started off with a slim sole of about

one-quarter of an inch, but crept higher until soles of two inches were quite common.

Starting from 1980s, shoe designer Manolo Blahnik removed the stiletto from its

associations with sex and even prostitution, and his stalagmite-style heels imbued the

style with extravagance and glamour. Since then, stilettos have become the postfeminist

statement that is an overt display of sexuality and femininity.

The trend of higher heel never goes out of fashion. In 1993, Vivienne Westwood challenged

the convention with her staggering “mock-croc” platform with 12 inches (30cm) heels

designed for her collection Anglomania.

Although the super high heels are prompted warned by healthcare professionals, women’s

obsessing of high heels seems never disappear. There are other shoe designers featured as

high heel masters.

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Manolo Blahnik Vivienne Westwood

Jimmy choo, for example, his shoe is a mixture of sculpture and engineering, is described

as shoes for princesses with chauffeur-driven transport. Christian Louboutin, who always

come up with extreme feminine shoes, combines chic elegance with theatrical fantasy to

create novel and provocative designs.

5. Technology Involved in Heels

5.1 Injection-moulded Heels

Injection-moulded plastic heel is the most common heel type used for making woman

high heel shoes. The cavity-moulded chunky heels and stiletto heels are the main styles of

heel made by the injection-moulded process.

Concerning the cavity-moulded chunky heels, polystyrene, ABS, polypropylene and

expanded plastic are the most common materials. Almost all chunky heels used are

moulded from high-impact, toughened polystyrene in either white or self-colored. The

major fault of chunky heels are brittleness and cracking on attachment. Thus, the best

grades have to be used to avoid the problems.

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Jimmy Choo Christian Louboutin

ABS and polypropylene have different intended uses and characteristics. The former one

is limited to heels intended for electroplating and is harder than most grades of

polystyrene. The pin-holding strength is larger because of greater pressure is required for

insertion of heel-attaching pins. The latter one is used only on a limited scale because of

the difficulty to mould than polystyrene and higher prices. However, it has features of

excellent impact, fatigue resistance as well as not become brittle. For expanded plastic, a

solid insert is recommended to be used in the seat to take the attachment grindery because

of its inadequacy in pin-holding strength.

Plastic chunky heels are moulded in a hot runner mould and are product of traditional

injection moulding techniques. First, heels have to be injected close to the centre of the seat

surface. After that, the heels are to be released from the mould, which are then immersed

in water for cooling.

Stiletto heel is another major style of heel created by the injection-moulded process.

Polystyrene is the most widely adopted plastic in this type of heel. Other materials like

polypropylene and nylon are also used. Most of the strength of a stiletto heel lies in its

steel reinforcement. In order to prevent stem breakage, a plastic compound with enough

impact and fatigue resistance has to be used. There are two ways which breakages in wear

happen, including a sudden sharp impact or wrench. The method dealing with the two

problems are the good fatigue resistance in plastic and avoidance of brittle grades. The

technique producing plastic stiletto heels is the traditional injection-moulding technique.

A wide variety of reinforcing insert are available. Among the types, steel is the most

preferred. Extreme heel shapes are permitted by using steel as the reinforcing insert. For

lots of heels, medium-hard steel insert is the most suitable. It is because when failure

happens during wear, medium-hard steel insert usually bend rather than break, helping

reducing injury for wearer.

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It is noticeable that the hard steel has to be correctly heat treated as those unsuitable heat

treated steel break readily, especially when the plastic breaks.

Concerning the types of steel insert suitable for stiletto, solid rods, tension pins and solid

rod inserts with top-pieces attached are the most suitable.

5.2 Heel Attachment

It is needed to be careful towards heel attachment as wrong heel attachment method can

lead to injury of wearer. Thus, correct attachment method has to be used for a particular

style and the heel has to be secure in the finished shoe.

There are two basic heel attachment methods, including the inside method and the outside

method. Concerning the inside method, nails, staples and screws are inserted from the

inside of the shoe. For the outside method, heel can be attached in different methods.

Regardless of the attachment method for the outside method, the nails or rivets are

inserted into the insole from the outside, which often clench over a last plate. Comparing

the two methods, the inside method is much more widely used for fashion shoes.

5.3 Assessment of the Strength of Heel

In order to assess the strength of an attached heel, the heel pull-off test can be adopted.

Shoe is put into a tensile machine, which the load is required to pull the heel off

backwards. Normally the heel is pulled off in a backward direction as most wear failures

are the result of the heel being detached at the breast first. Concerning the forepart of the

shoe, it is fixed into one jaw of the tensile machine and the heel into another by a swivel

pin and cradle. Then, the load required to remove the front nails or staples is recorded as

the heel is detached.

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The result can be compared with the Heel Attachment Recommendations and the Typical

Attachment Loads. A load with at least 50kg is believed to have enough attachment in the

Heel Attachment Recommendations. High heel shoes have higher level of requirement

than those of lower heels.

5.4 High-heeled Clogs

When wearing high-heeled shoes, high strains are available in the waist region of high-

heeled clog units which is subject to routine strain measurements. Styles having lower seat

angles are recommended on the basis of their heel heights. If the curve between waist and

seat is sharp, negative effect is resulted on the strain of the unit in wear.

If the seat angle is high, the weight of the body is transmitted to the clog by the heel and

forefoot. If the seat angle is low, a certain amount of the body weight is transmitted

through the arch of the foot to the waist of the unit in front of a heel. As a result, a positive

strain is resulted as the heel tip is pushed backwards.

5.5 Heel Covering

Through cementing heel cover to the heel, heels can be covered to match the material of

the upper part. The type of cement used has to be depended on the material of both the

cover and the heel.

The cement used should also process the following qualities. In order to hold the cover

tightly to the heel during wear, the adhesive should have a strong bond. Second, when

covering a heel, the cover often requires repositioning in case of creases form or the cover

is laid incorrectly. Thus, the adhesive used should enable the cover to be lifted and re-

stuck, which is the ability to second-stick.

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Third, the adhesive used do not age or perish as well as being able to keep its strength

during the life of the shoe. Fourth, the adhesive should process good open time, which is

the time available between the cementing and the laying of the cover and heel should be

as long as possible. Finally, the adhesive should not stain and attack the material used in

heel cover and heel.

Most of heels are made of wood. When dealing with wooden heels, they are either dipped

in latex, allowed to drip dry. Rubber solution is also applied to the heel and heel cover.

Nowadays, there are also many plastic heels which are high-impact polystyrene or

polypropylene. As latex and rubber solution do not generate good result, neoprene

adhesives must be applied in plastic heels. The heels are dipped in a neoprene solvent-

adhesive. Neoprene latex is also brushed or sprayed on to the cover. In case of covering

PVC heels, a urethane adhesive is necessary to be used.

6. Future Trend of High Heels

6.1 Introduction

Fashion in 21st century is an extremely fast-moving, heterogeneous system where more

people than ever before are able to participate. High heels, as one of the most evocative

areas of fashion, would certainly follow the general trend which has been facilitated by

the the communication revolution with the widespread adoption of the internet, the

breaking down of international trade barriers and the technological refinement.

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6.2 Internet

With the widespread of e-commerce, the trend for online shopping has a huge impact on

wardrobes worldwide. The internet has revolutionized the culture of fashion. One’s

location, age, mobility or fashion experience does not preclude participation in fashion

shopping. The internet, which facilitated the development of e-commerce and innovative

marketing, helps the mass production to be flourishing as well.

It also has long been true that when a women was feeling a little blue or simply wanted to

spoil herself, there was no better tonic than buying a fabulous pair of shoes. With the help

of internet, shoe shopping became more convinient. It an reasonably be argued that mass

production still is a major trend in fashion, therefore, more affordable basic style of high

heels will definitely going on.

6.3 Celebrity Heels

We are, it is said, living in an age of celebrity, in which

there is a heightened fascination with and unquenchable

appetite for information on where they go, what they do

and what they wear. Celebrities always could have a

huge influence upon contemporary fashions. Magazines

and internet are filled with celebrity fashion and provide

commentary on their style and offer step-by-step guides

to getting the look. For example, armadillo shoes wore

by Lady GaGa in her bad romance video were design by

Alexander McQueen from his Spring 2010 collection. These heel-less Platforms were

wearable art, called “nude nightmares”. These shoes wore by famous people would

certainly influence designer and consumers.

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Lady Gaga

6.4 Fashion-forward Heels

Despite the emphasis on mass production and standardization, many shoe designers have

continued to produce original and exciting designs. Take designer Alexander McQueen

for example, he created many inspiring unconventional heels.

Carved Heels are also popular during these years. Detailed carve gives heels a interesting

twist. Moreover, other eye-catching heels have been created by designers. For example, the

red sphere heels by Sergio Rossi 2008 used three balls as heels, and Christian Siriano’s

spring 2011 collection use a curved heel instead of straight traditional heel.

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Carved Heels

Alexander McQueen’s Designs

Sergio Rossi

Fabulous Red Sphere Heels 2008Christian Siriano

Spring 2011

7. Conclusion

Shoes are one of the most evocative areas of fashion, while heels dominate a large market

in women who admire beauty. The aim of the study is to explore the design and

technologies behind the heels and predict the possibilities of future heels.

From ancient Egypt to the present day, women are fascinated with shoes, especially with

gorgeous high heels. A variety of design has been reviewed in this study, such as chopine

in the late middle ages, louis heels in 19th century, stilettos and platform shoes in 20th

century.

The technologies involved in high heels have also been discussed. Injection-moulded heels

are the most common heel type used nowadays. Cavity-moulded chunky heels and stiletto

heels were reviewed in this study. Heel attachment, the strength of the heel, heel clogs and

heel covering were also discussed.

Future trend of high heels are correspond with fashion trend. Internet, celebrity heels and

fashion forward heels have been predicted in this study. Shoes in this century will still

play an important role in fashion industry and the special magic of heels will still be

captivated by women and a great many men.

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8. References

Girotti, E. (1997). Footwear - La Calzatura. San Francisco : Chronicle Books.

Harvey, A. J. (1982). Footwear Materials And Process Technology. N.Z: Leather and Shoe Research Association.

Walford, J. (2007). The Seductive Shoe - Four Centuries of Fashion Footwear. NY: Stewart, Tabori & Chang.

Pattison, A & Cawthorne, N. (1997). A century of shoes : icons of style in the 20th century. Edison, N.J. : Chartwell Books.

Pedersen, S. (2005). Shoes : what every woman should know. Newton Abbot : David & Charles.

Pratt, L. & Woolley, L. (1999). Shoes, colour photography by Sara Hodges. London : V&A.

Trasko, M. (1989). Heavenly soles : extraordinary twentieth-century shoes. New York : Abbeville Press.

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