The Relationship between the Inspectorial System and ...eprints.qut.edu.au/20731/1/Eliakim_Apelis_Thesis.pdf · 2.4.2 Teacher Professionalism: The Dimensions 68 2.4.3 Teacher Professionalism:

The Relationship between the Inspectorial System and

Teacher Professionalism

A Papua New Guinea Primary School Case Study

Eliakim Tokacap Apelis, MPS Dip. Sec. Teach.(GTC - UPNG), B.Ed. (UOG), M.Ed. (QUT)

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Queensland University of Technology

September, 2008

Centre for Learning Innovation

Faculty of Education

The Relationship between the Inspectorial System and Teacher Professionalism: A PNG Primary School Case Study

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KEYWORDS

Inspectorial system, Inspectorial interactive strategies, Quality assurance, Professional

development, Teacher professionalism, Dimensions of teacher professionalism, Professional

ethics, Supervision, Teacher compliance, Teacher knowledge, Teacher leadership.


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ABSTRACT

The inspectorial system is a legacy of the colonial era. The functions, responsibilities and

strategies of the inspectorial system in PNG schools were introduced during the colonial era

and since its inception there have been insignificant changes made.

There are perceived problems being experienced due to the growth of the education system

and the complex management of education services as a result of the centralized and

decentralized organizational functions introduced some thirty years ago. The multiple,

conflicting and confusing roles of the inspectorial system developed over the years and the

organizational cultures of agencies responsible for the inspectorial system have further

complicated the work of inspectors. Thus the question of how effectively the inspectorial

system works and how it serves its functions needs to be addressed, particularly on how it

enhances the teaching profession.

Although the inspectorial system was introduced as a means of quality assurance, which is

still being emphasized in PNG, the analysis reveals that supervision and professional

development strategies are applied by inspectors as interactive strategies to pursue better

education standards and quality education. These strategies supposedly ensure teacher

professionalism is sustained and improved in order to impact on the quality of education

provided by the schools. However a lack of clear understanding of teacher professionalism,

despite changes and developments within the education system, may be also having an

influence on how effective the inspectorial system is. The inspectorial system has developed

into a complicated system. Therefore the need for clear demarcations of its functions,

responsibilities and strategies is investigated in this study so that the inspectorial system is

improved or developed into a more functional system that may produce tangible outcomes.

The study explores the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of teachers, head teachers and

inspectors about the inspectorial system, teacher professionalism and their relationships. It

does so by answering the main question, how and to what extent does the inspectorial system

enhance and hinder teacher professionalism in primary schools in PNG, as well as

specifically answering the following key questions:

• How does the inspectorial system operate in primary schools in PNG?

• What are the dimensions of teacher professionalism that are perceived by

teachers, head teachers and inspectors?


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• How are these dimensions of teacher professionalism linked to the

interactive strategies applied by inspectors on teachers and head teachers?

• What redeveloped conceptual framework grounded in the realities of

teachers’, head teachers’ and inspectors’ experiences, beliefs and

perceptions about the inspectorial interactive strategies can enhance

teacher professionalism?

In doing so, the interactive strategies of the inspectorial system (including quality assurance,

professional development and professional ethics) and the dimensions of teacher

professionalism (including teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership,

teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics) are disclosed and their

linkages identified. For example, professional development interactive strategies are linked

directly to teacher professional development as experienced and perceived by teachers, head

teachers and inspectors. This is done so that the direct impacts of each inspectorial

interactive strategy on the dimensions of teacher professionalism are identified, and this

leads to the creation of a conceptual framework for an inspectorial system that enhances

teacher professionalism. The conceptual framework can guide supervisors, either school-

based or externally based, to develop and execute an efficient supervisory system that can

have a direct impact on an evolving teaching profession.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE Papua New Guinea: Introducing the Study 19 1.1 Introduction to the Study 19 1.2 The Origin of the Study 20 1.3 Papua New Guinea 20

1.3.1 Papua New Guinea and Its History 20 1.3.2 Education in Papua New Guinea 22

Traditional Education 22 History and Legacies 23 Contemporary Education 24 Current Education Reform 24 Legislation and Policies 27 Centralized and Decentralized Functions 28

1.3.3 Organizational Structure of the NDOE 29 Organizational Structure 30 Specific Functions of the Divisions 30 Provincial Divisions of Education 32

1.3.4 The Inspectorial System 32 The Inspectorial Functions and Responsibilities 33 Specific Responsibilities of Inspectorial System 34 Conflicting and Multiple Roles of Inspectors 36

1.3.5 Quality Education in PNG 37 1.3.6 Quality Assurance: A task of the Inspectorial System 38 1.3.7 Teacher Supervision and Professional Development in PNG schools 39 1.3.8 Teacher Professionalism in PNG Schools 40

1.4 The Significance of the Study 42 1.4.1 The Problem 43 1.4.2 The Research Question 44 1.4.3 Methodology 44

1.5 Summary 45

CHAPTER TWO Reviewing the Literature 46 2.1 Introduction 46 2.2 Organizational Structures and Cultures 46

2.2.1 Organizational Structures 46 2.2.2 Organizational Culture 48 2.2.3 Organizational Structure and Culture in Educational Institutions 51


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2.2.4 Organizational Structure and Culture: PNG Context 52 2.3 Inspectorial Systems 54

2.3.1 Inspection and Inspectorial System 54 2.3.2 History and Development of Inspectorial Systems 54 2.3.3 The Inspectorial System: An External Supervisory System and its

Implications 57 Supervision: An Inspectorial Interactive Strategy 60 Professional Development: An Inspectorial Interactive Strategy 61 Quality Assurance: Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 64

2.3.4 Inspectorial System: The PNG Context 66 2.4 Teacher Professionalism 67

2.4.1 Professionalism Defined 67 2.4.2 Teacher Professionalism: The Dimensions 68 2.4.3 Teacher Professionalism: PNG Context 72

2.5 Summary of the Literature Review 73

CHAPTER THREE Research Design 76 3.1 Introduction 76 3.2 Philosophical Background 76

3.2.1 Ontology 77 3.2.2 Epistemology 77 3.2.3 The Philosophical Position of this Study 78

3.3 Research Methodology 79 3.3.1 Qualitative Research 80 3.3.2 Case Study Method 80 3.3.3 Intrinsic Study Method 82 3.3.4 Multi-Case Study Method 82

3.4 Data Sources 83 3.4.1 Selection of Multi-Case Study Cases 83 3.4.2 Pilot Case Study 84 3.4.3 Participants 84

3.5 Data Collection Procedures 85 3.5.1 Interviews 85 3.5.2 Focus Group Interview 87 3.5.3 Documents 88

3.6 Data Analysis 90 3.6.1 Data Analysis 90


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3.6.2 Data Analysis in Qualitative Research 90 3.6.3 Data Analysis in Case Study Methods 91 3.6.4 Content Analysis 92 3.6.5 Cross-case Synthesis 92 3.6.6 Summary of Data Analysis 95

3.7 Validity and Reliability 96 3.8 Ethical Issues 98 3.9 Position of Researcher 101 3.10 Problems and Limitations 102 3.11 The Research Plan and its Implementation 103

3.11.1 Phase 1: Selection of Case Studies and Participants 103 3.11.2 Phase 2: Data Collection and Analysis 103 3.11.3 Phase 3: Conclusion Stage 104

3.12 Summary of the Research Design 104

CHAPTER FOUR The Research Findings 107 4.1 Introduction 107 4.2 Overview of the findings 107

4.2.1 Stages of Data Analysis 107 4.2.2 Outcomes from the stages of data analysis 108 4.2.3 Common features of the Case Studies 108

4.3 Case Study 1: Findings of a Provincial Inspectorate and a Remote Government

School 109 4.3.1 Background information 109 4.3.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Participants 110 4.3.3 Perceived Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 113

Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers 118 Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Head Teacher 119 Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Inspector 120 Synthesis of the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 122

4.3.4 Perceived Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism 123 Teacher professionalism: Views of Teachers 128 Teacher professionalism: Views of Head Teacher 130 Teacher professionalism: Views of Inspector 132 Synthesis of the Views: Teacher Professionalism 134

4.3.5 Perceived linkages between the inspectorial interactive strategies and the

dimensions of teacher professionalism 135


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Perceptions of the Linkages: Views of Teachers 135 Perceptions of the linkages: Views of Head Teacher 139 Perceptions of the Linkages: Views of Inspector 140 Synthesis of the Views of Linkages 142

4.3.6 Summary of Case Study 1 143 4.4 Case Study 2: Findings of Provincial Inspectorate and Urban Church Agency

School 145 4.4.1 Background information 145 4.4.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Participants 146 4.4.3 Perceived inspectorial interactive strategies 150

Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers 156 Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Head Teacher 158 Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Inspectors 160 Synthesis of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 163

4.4.4 Perceived Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism 165 Teacher Professionalism: Views of Teachers 173 Teacher Professionalism: Views of Head Teacher 176 Teacher Professionalism: Views of Inspectors 179 Synthesis of Views: Teacher Professionalism 182

4.4.5 Perceived linkages between inspectorial interactive strategies and

dimensions of teacher professionalism 183 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Teachers 184 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Head Teacher 190 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Inspectors 194 Synthesis of Views of Linkages 199

4.4.6 Summary of Case Study 2 200 4.5 Case Study 3: Findings of Provincial Inspectorate and Urban Government

School 202 4.5.1 Background information 203 4.5.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Participants 204 4.5.3 Preamble to the findings of Case Study 3 208 4.5.4 Perceptions of teachers, head teacher and inspectors: Inspectorial interactive

strategies 208 Synthesis of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers, Head

Teacher and Inspectors 214 4.5.5 Perceptions of teachers, head teacher and inspectors on the dimensions of

teacher professionalism 216


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Teacher Professionalism: Views of Teachers 221 Teacher Professionalism: Views of Head Teacher 222 Teacher Professionalism: Views of Inspectors 223 Synthesis of Views: Teacher Professionalism 225

4.5.6 Perceived Linkages between the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies and the

Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism 226 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Teachers 227 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Focus Group 229 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Head Teacher 230 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Inspectors 232 Synthesis of Views of Linkages 235

4.5.7 Summary of Case Study 3 236 4.6 Case Study 4: Findings of Provincial Inspectorate and Rural Government

School 238 4.6.1 Background information 239 4.6.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Participants 239 4.6.3 Preamble to the findings of Case Study 4 242 4.6.4 Perceptions of teachers and inspectors: Inspectorial interactive strategies242

Synthesis of the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers and

Inspectors 247 4.6.5 Perceptions of Teachers, Head Teachers and Inspectors: Dimensions of

Teacher Professionalism 249 Synthesis of Views: Teacher Professionalism 253

4.6.6 Perceptions of the participants on the linkages between the inspectorial

interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism256 Perceived Linkages: Views of Teachers 256 Perceived Linkages: Views of Inspectors 258 Synthesis of the Views of Linkages 260

4.6.7 Summary of Case Study 4 261

CHAPTER FIVE Cross-Case Findings and Synthesis 264 5.1 Introduction 264 5.2 Cross-Case Participants’ Demographic Characteristics 264

5.2.1 Locations of the Schools and Inspectorates 264 5.2.2 Cross-case participant demographical characteristics: Similarities and

differences 266


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5.2.3 Similarities and differences of inspectorial interactive strategies: Teachers’

views 274 5.2.4 Similarities and differences of inspectorial interactive strategies: Head

teachers’ views 275 5.2.5 Similarities and differences of inspectorial interactive strategies: Inspectors’

views 275 5.2.6 Similarities and differences of dimensions of teacher professionalism:

Teachers’ views 276 5.2.7 Similarities and differences of dimensions of teacher professionalism: Head

teachers’ views 277 5.2.8 Similarities and differences of dimensions of teacher professionalism:

Inspectors’ views 277 5.3 Linkages between Inspectorial Interactive Strategies and Dimensions of

Teacher Professionalism: Views of Cross-case Participants 277 5.3.1 Cross-case participant linkages: Views of teachers 278 5.3.2 Cross-case participant linkages: Views of head teachers 280 5.3.2 Cross-case participant linkages: Views of inspectors 282 5.3.4 Synthesis of Cross-Case Participant Findings 284

5.4 Cross-case Findings 286 5.4.1 Demographic differences of the case studies and participants 286 5.4.2 Cross-case analysis 287 5.4.3 Common findings 289 5.4.4 Differences in findings 289

5.5 Input, Process and Output Structure of the Findings 291 5.6 Summary of Cross-Case Findings 295

CHAPTER SIX Synthesis of the Findings 296 6.1 Introduction 296 6.2 Functions of Inspectorial System 297 6.3 Inspectors as External Supervisors in Schools 297

6.3.1 Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 298 Supervision for Quality Assurance 307 Supervision for Professional Development 308 Professional Ethics of Inspectors: Emerged Interactive Strategies from

Supervisory Practices 310 6.4 Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism 311

6.4.1 Teacher Compliance: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism 311


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6.4.2 Teacher Knowledge: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism 315 6.4.3 Teacher Leadership: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism 317 6.4.4 Teacher Professional Development: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism

321 6.4.5 Teacher Professional Ethics: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism 322

6.5 Influence of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies on Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism 328 6.5.1 Quality assurance and teacher professionalism 328 6.5.2 .Professional Development and teacher professionalism 329 6.5.3 Professional ethics of inspectors and teacher professionalism 330

6.6 Organizational Culture: How it can impact on Inspection System and Teacher

Professionalism 331 6.7 How Inspectorial System can Enhance Teacher Professionalism 333

6.7.1 An improved Inspectorial System that Enhances Teacher Professionalism

333 6.7.2 A Reviewed Responsibility of the Inspectorial System 334

6.8 Summary of Synthesis and Conceptual Framework 335 6.9 Implications and Conclusions 339

6.9.1 Research questions and answers 339 6.9.2 Implications of the study on current inspectorial system and teacher

professionalism 340 6.9.3 Future of Inspectorial system 341

References 365

Figures

Figure 1.1: New Reform Structure for National Education System (After 1993) 26 Figure 1.2: Old Structure for National Education System (Before 1993) 26 Figure 2.1: Connections between Functions, Strategies/Processes and Outcomes of

Inspectorial Systems 59 Figure 2.2: The Faces of Teacher Professionalism 72 Figure 2.3: The Initial Conceptual Framework 75 Figure 3.1: Proposition 1 – Linkages between the Inspectorial Functions and

Strategies 93 Figure 3.2: Proposition 2 - Teacher Professionalism and its Dimensions 94


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Figure 3.3: Proposition 3 – Linkages between the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies

and the Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism 95 Figure 3.4: Fieldwork procedure for data collection and analysis 104 Figure 3.5: Summary of the Research Design 106 Figure 4.1: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 136 Figure 4.2: Teacher Focus Group Perceptions of Linkages 137 Figure 4.3: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 139 Figure 4.4: Inspector Perceptions of Linkages 141 Figure 4.5: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 184 Figure 4.6: Focus Group Perceptions Linkages 189 Figure 4.7: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 190 Figure 4.8: Inspector Perceptions Linkages 195 Figure 4.9: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 227 Figure 4.10: Teacher Focus Group Perception of Linkages 229 Figure 4.11: Head Teacher Perception of Linkages 231 Figure 4.12: Inspector Perception of Linkages 233 Figure 4.13: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 256 Figure 4.14: Inspector Perceptions Linkages 259 Figure 5.1: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 1 278 Figure 5.2: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 2 278 Figure 5.3: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 3 278 Figure 5.4: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 4 279 Figure 5.5: Conclusion for Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 279 Figure 5.6: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 1 280 Figure 5.7: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 2 280 Figure 5.8: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 3 281 Figure 5.9: Conclusion for Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 281 Figure 5.10: Inspector Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 1 282 Figure 5.11: Inspector Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 2 282 Figure 5.12: Inspector Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 3 283 Figure 5.13: Inspector Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 4 283 Figure 5.14: Conclusion for Inspector Perceptions of Linkages 283 Figure 5.15: Inspectorial System and Teacher Professionalism - Structure of Findings 293 Figure 6.1: Conceptual Framework - Relationships between the Inspectorial System

and Teacher Professionalism 338


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Tables

Table 4.1: Demographic Characteristics of Participants of Case Study 1 111 Table 4.2: Inspector Responsibility Load 113 Table 4.3 Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:

Quality Assurance 114 Table 4.4: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:

Professional Development 115 Table 4.5: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:

Professional Ethics of Inspectors 116 Table 4.6: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism: Teacher Compliance 124 Table 4.7: Process of Establishing Themes of the Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism: Teacher Knowledge 125 Table 4.8: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism: Teacher Leadership 125 Table 4.9: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism: Teacher Professional Development 126 Table 4.10: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism: Teacher Professional Ethics 127 Table 4.11: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case Study 1 143 Table 4.12: Demographical Characteristics of Participants for Case Study 2 147 Table 4.13: Inspector Responsibility Load 150 Table 4.14: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:



Professional Ethics 153 Table 4.17: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism: Teacher Compliance 166 Table 4.18: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism: Teacher Knowledge 168 Table 4.19: Process of Establishing Themes of the Dimensions of Teacher


Professionalism: Teacher Professional Development 170


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Table 4.21: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism: Teacher Professional Ethics 171 Table 4.22: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case Study 2 201 Table 4.23: Demographic Characteristics of Participants for Case Study 3 205 Table 4.24: Inspector Responsibility Load 207 Table 4.25: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:








Professionalism: Teacher Professional Ethics 220 Table 4.33: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case Study 3 237 Table 4.34: Demographical Characteristics of Participants for Case Study 4 241 Table 4.35: Inspector Responsibility Load 242 Table 4.36: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:

Quality Assurance 243 Table 4.37: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies

: Professional Development 244 Table 4.38: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:




Professionalism: Teacher Leadership 251


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Table 4.42: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher


Professionalism: Teacher Professional Ethics 252 Table 4.44: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case Study 4 262 Table 5.1: Cross-Case Demographic Characteristics of Teachers 267 Table 5.2: Cross-Case Demographic Characteristics of Head Teachers 270 Table 5.3: Cross-Case Demographic Characteristics of Inspectors 272 Table 5.4: Cross-Case Participant Findings of Themes and the Linkages 285 Table 5.5: Cross-Case Analysis of Themes and Linkages 288 Table 6.1 Examples of Themes of Quality Assurance Interactive Strategies 300 Table 6.2: Examples of Themes on Professional Development Interactive Strategies 302 Table 6.3: Examples of Themes of Professional Ethics of Inspectors 304 Table 6.4: Examples of Themes of Teacher Compliance 313 Table 6.5: Examples of Themes of Teacher Knowledge 316 Table 6.6: Examples of Themes of Teacher Leadership 320 Table 6.7: Examples of Themes of Teacher Professional Development 323 Table 6.8: Examples of Themes of Teacher Professional Ethics 326

Appendices

APPENDIX 1 Map of Papua New Guinea: The provinces and towns 342 APPENDIX 2 Structure of NDOE 346 APPENDIX 3 Samples of Protocol Documents 346

APPENDIX 4 Interview Guidelines 352

APPENDIX 5 Samples of the Four Stages of Analysis 355


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STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP

The work in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or diploma at any

other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, this thesis

contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due

reference is made.

Signature: __________________________ Date: ____ / ____ / _____


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study explored and drew upon the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of teachers, head

teachers and school inspectors in primary schools in Papua New Guinea (PNG). I would like

to thank the former Secretary for Education, Mr. Peter Baki, OBE, for recognizing my

potential to pursue this study. His recognition was consistent with his vision in ensuring that

the Department of Education revitalizes its human resource capacity to ensure it provides

quality education and services to the people of PNG. I also thank Dr. Joseph Pagelio, the

current Secretary for Education, for the support he has given to me throughout my study. I

am grateful to Mr. Damien Rapese, the Deputy Secretary for Teaching and Quality

Education (formerly Standards and Human Resource Development), for his continuous

support. He has been an inspiration throughout my study.

I am grateful to my principal supervisor, Associate Professor Bob Elliott, who has given me

confidence from the beginning to the end of my PhD journey. I acknowledge his guidance

and professional support, particularly in providing critical analysis of my work that allowed

me to be challenged throughout my journey. I also acknowledge the assistance I received

from Dr Jan Millwatter, my associate supervisor, her guidance has contributed to my work. I

also convey my special thanks to all academics and administrative personnel of the Centre

for Learning Innovation who made me part of the family from the start of my study.

A special thanks to the participants of the study in the National Capital District, West New

Britain Province, Madang Province, Eastern Highlands Province and Central Province who

had contributed immensely to the success of my research. I am also thankful to Iamo Vui,

Jenny Wak, Jude Avorosi and Carolyne Apelis-Avorosi who transcribed and assisted in

translating tape recordings and written texts which validated the data. To the officers of the

Inspections and Guidance Division, a special thanks for their encouragement. I am also

grateful to Zui Neofa who has been a brother to me since he came to join me in his PhD

program. He has been a very helpful colleague in difficult times.

Finally, I am thankful for the love from my wife, Rossa, my children, Carolyne, ToWalaur,

Natalie and Graham-Murray. I thank them for their patience, support and understanding for

being away from them for over three years to pursue this study. To my sister Olga Apelis

who has given me all the moral support throughout my academic life for without her I would

not be where I am today.


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DEDICATIONS

I dedicate this thesis to my late father and mother, ToWalaur Apelis and Tinmalit Lina, who

both could not live to witness this milestone in my life. I had been their precious child out of

the five surviving children that they had. I also dedicate this thesis to my late brother and

sister, Larava Aisak and IaPidik Biana, who had been the driving forces behind my initial

education. To my brother Lois Sakias and sister IaPadaun Tammy and the people of Innolo

Village, Duke of York Islands, East New Britain Province, I dedicate this thesis to them for

the respect they have given me throughout my life. To my mother in-law and father in-law,

Theresa Babato Masa and Dinnas Vavaka Masa respectively, I also dedicate this thesis to

them and thank them for their prayers. To all the above, I owe them all that I have achieved

academically and professionally. Lastly, I thank God for His many Blessings that He has

given me throughout my life, for without Him I would not accomplish this milestone.


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CHAPTER ONE

Papua New Guinea: Introducing the Study

1.1 Introduction to the Study

This thesis reports on how teachers, head teachers and school inspectors perceive the

inspectorial system in primary schools in Papua New Guinea (PNG). In particular it identifies

how the current functions and interactive strategies of the inspectorial system influence

teacher professionalism. It culminates with the synthesis of findings and the literature reviews

about the phenomenal issues that lead to the development of a contextual and conceptual

framework of the inspectorial system that enhances teacher professionalism in the final

chapter.

The history of PNG, the education system and its legacies highlight past and present

developments resulting from colonialism. The inspectorial system is a component of this

development. The current organizational structures and cultures in the National Department

of Education (NDOE) are analyzed as fundamental bases for changes and development in the

education system.

Qualitative research theories, principles and practices, in particular a case study research

methodology, were necessary for this study because it required analysis of beliefs, attitudes,

feelings and behaviors of teachers, head teachers and school inspectors about the functions and

interactive strategies of the inspectorial system and the teaching profession in PNG.

The study reveals significant experiences, beliefs and perceptions held by teachers, head

teachers and school inspectors concerning the inspectorial system, specifically the issues

associated with the interactive strategies of supervision for quality assurance, supervision for

professional development of teachers and head teachers, and supervision for professional

ethics of teachers and head teachers. The study also reveals the dimensions of teacher

professionalism as viewed by teachers, head teachers and school inspectors. These views are

linked in the theoretical conclusions to create ‘relationships between the inspectorial system

and teacher professionalism’.


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1.2 The Origin of the Study

I have had over twenty-eight years of experiences as a teacher, head teacher and school

inspector in several provinces of PNG, and the position I held before I decided to pursue this

study was Assistant Secretary of the Inspections and Guidance Division of NDOE.

While as a teacher and head teacher, I always looked forward to the inspectors’ advisory and

inspection visits to improve my performance, administratively and professionally, I always

had doubts about the influences of these visits on my profession. My reflection posed a

major question whether I benefited from the inspectorial system during my teaching career,

or whether, it was through the efforts I put into my own professional development. As an

inspector I thought that the inspectorial system worked more for the benefit of the

bureaucratic system (addressing the expectations and requirements of NDOE and the

Teaching Service Commission) rather than addressing the professional needs of teachers and

head teachers. These thoughts continued to be of concern to me and further raised the

question of whether the inspectorial system influenced the PNG teaching profession in

anyway. While I was recognized because of my efforts through the inspectorial processes I

also wondered what had happened with many of my former colleagues who experienced the

processes of the inspectorial system. I also noted that the operation of the inspectorial

system had never been explored thoroughly in PNG in order to identify its strengths and

weaknesses in relation to its impact on the teaching profession. Thus the assumption that the

inspectorial system can do more to enhance teacher professionalism than what it is currently

doing influenced me to pursue this study.

1.3 Papua New Guinea

This section reviews the history of PNG and its education development, the organizational

structure and other aspects of the National Education System including the inspectorial

system. It also covers issues of teacher supervision and professional development, quality

assurance and teacher professionalism. These issues are discussed in order to clarify the

PNG context of the problem that this study pursues.

1.3.1 Papua New Guinea and Its History

The major part of PNG occupies the eastern part of the island of New Guinea which is

located north of Australia, while the Indonesian province of West Papua occupies the

western part. PNG is a geographically and demographically diverse society (Thomas &

Postlethwaite, 1984, pp. 31-33). It has four main island masses; New Guinea, New Britain,

New Ireland (and Manus) and Bougainville, all part of PNG.


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The first Papua New Guineans were believed to be immigrants from Southeast Asia and

have lived in PNG for over 50 000 years (Thomas & Postlethwaite, 1984; Waiko, 1993).

Thus “the modern and colonial period has been very short in duration” (Thomas &

Postlethwaite, 1984, p. 30). The first known European contact was by the Portuguese and

Spanish explorers and traders, dating back to the 15th century followed by the Dutch,

English and French (Waiko, 1993). The first permanent European settlers arrived in the

1870s when groups of missionaries and traders settled in the islands of PNG (Thomas &

Postlethwaite, 1984; Dorney, 1990). The formal colonization period began in the late 1800s

by the British and Australians in Papua and the Dutch and Germans in New Guinea

(Harrington, 1987; Dorney, 1990; Waiko, 1993). After World War 2, in 1946, PNG then

‘Papua’ and ‘New Guinea’, became a joint territory and was administered by Australia. In

1975 the country gained its independence from Australia.

Before the 19th century, “what is now PNG society was a large number of diverse tribal

groupings with no centralized political system” (Thomas & Postlethwaite, 1984, p. 30).

With today’s political development, the PNG constitution, enacted in 1975, vests executive

power in the National Executive Council headed by the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister

is the leader of the majority party in the single-chamber National Parliament. The British

monarch continues to be the Head of State and is represented by a Governor-General who is

a citizen of PNG. Though PNG now has a centralized political system with a Westminster-

styled parliament and democratic institutions (Dorney, 1990) which it inherited from its

colonial background, it maintains its traditional cultures. This is indicated by over 850

languages spoken by many ethnic groups that make up the country’s population of over five

million people. The number of ethnic groups on each island varies depending on how large

the island is. For example, the New Guinea Island has the Motuans, Goilalas, Sepiks,

Simbus, Hulis, Engans and many more while New Britain has the Tolais, Bainings, Bakovis

and Koves ethnic groups. Each ethnic group has its own culture and tradition and, to a

considerable extent, these resulted in the establishment of nineteen provinces (East New

Britain, West New Britain, New Ireland, Manus, Autonomous Region of Bougainville

(formerly known as Bougainville), Sandaun, East Sepik, Madang, Morobe, Oro, Milne Bay,

Central, Gulf, Western, Southern Highlands, Western Highlands, Simbu, Enga and Eastern

Highlands Provinces) and the National Capital District during the early post-independence

era (Dorney, 1990; Waiko, 1993) (Appendix 1: Map of PNG). The social, economic and

political development including the provision of education and other social services vary

considerably between provinces. Because of these differences, PNG is a diverse and multi-

cultural society. For this reason establishing and managing organizations, systems and


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institutions to pursue social, economic and political development at a national level, is

considered a complex task.

1.3.2 Education in Papua New Guinea

A formal western system of education was introduced in PNG by the missionaries in the late

1800s with the curriculum being based on the teaching of Christian Principles through the

Bible. The languages of instruction were the main languages of particular regions (Selleck,

1975; Thomas & Postlethwaite, 1984; Swatridge, 1985; Harrington, 1987; Waiko, 1993).

When the country became two colonies (‘Papua’ and ‘New Guinea’ separately) and later a

single colony (Papua and New Guinea together as a colony of Australia) two different

systems of education were in place; that of the missionaries and that of the colonial

governments (Selleck, 1975; Harrington, 1987; Waiko, 1993). The different systems were

later integrated as a result of the establishment of the government and administrative systems

in PNG (Selleck, 1975; Thomas and Postlethwaite, 1984; Waiko, 1993).

The introduction of western system of education, though accepted, has not impacted much

on traditional education in PNG. In remote and rural parts of the country, where 80% of the

population live traditional education and cultural practices still exist informally during

ceremonies, celebrations and feasting to honor special occasions.

Traditional Education

Similar to other Melanesian cultures in the Pacific, traditional education in PNG involves

initiations, rituals and recitations of cultural and traditional beliefs and practices,

observations and manual skilled work (Mead, 1943; Coyne, 1973; Selleck, 1975; Stringer,

1984; Le Cras, 1993). Learning begins at an early age by observing the elders going about

their daily work. Children are involved in traditional and cultural activities as soon as they

are able to walk. Through these experiences, knowledge is gained and:

.....understood as a commodity; a skill or ability within the physical, relation

(political) or meta-physical world of the individual. Knowledge is viewed as

a discrete entity. As a commodity this knowledge can be passed-on or

traded with others for some benefit (Le Cras, 1993, p. 20).

At the same time “knowledge is personal; an aspect of personal reality which can not be

understood apart from or considered apart from the social reality which determines and

sustains it” (Les Cras, 1993, p. 20) in a particular culture or context.


23

Through such means, knowledge is transmitted from one generation to another. There is no

systematic approach in traditional education. Traditional and cultural activities are usually

carried out seasonally through the years of knowledge and the experience of natural

‘calendars’. The Yam Festival in Milne Bay Province and the Tubuan Society and its

activities in East New Britain Province are reminiscent of some of these experiences. The

traditional calendar activities involve initiations and are regarded as the ‘formal’ educational

activities while the “informal (unstructured) learning of the skills (technical or social) which

are required for physical survival and for appropriate participation in society” (Le Cras,

1993, p. 24) is achieved through daily life experiences (Louisson, 1974; Selleck, 1975;

Thomas & Postlethwaite, 1984; McLaughlin, 2002).

History and Legacies

Social, economic and political development over the years has had much impact on the

establishment of the formal education system in PNG. Thomas and Postlethwaite (1984),

supported by Swatridge (1985), Harrington (1987) and Waiko (1993) segmented the

successive education development into five periods; the conversion, gradualism, expansion,

nationalism and decentralization. The conversion period of development from the 1870s to

1940s was concerned with initial literacy programs, focusing on converting people to the

European ways of life and Christian beliefs. This was emphasized by the colonial

administrators and missionaries respectively. The gradualism phase of development, from

1940s to 1950s, involved the amalgamation of government and mission education systems

and their functions, including teacher training and core curriculum, with an emphasis on the

blending of culture and rural based education. Included was the pursuance of social and

economic development to keep up with the pace of development of other colonies in those

days. The expansion state of development, from the late 1950s to early 1960s, concentrated

on rapid expansions in most levels of education and supported the development of tertiary

and technical education. The nationalism period, from the late 1960s to 1974, covered

strategies that facilitated an independent PNG. Papua New Guineans were to be educated to

take control of their own affairs with an education philosophy for human power training for

the modern ‘world’. The decentralization strategy, from 1975 to 1980, addressed universal

education with the decentralization of some educational functions to the provinces allowing

them to have control over some educational responsibilities, including the selection and

appointment of teachers to schools.

In the early 1980s, many Papua New Guineans were taking over responsibilities in the

education system resulting in the development of an education system that would suit PNG.

This involved a period of reviewing the curriculum in terms of relevance, vocational


24

orientation and standards or a transitional period of development from a ‘foreign’ to a PNG

‘owned’ education system (Thomas and Postlethwaite, 1984; Swatridge, 1985). There were

also social problems experienced throughout the country in the mid 1980s with the education

system being regarded as the major social and political concern. This concern led to the

establishment of the Ministerial Review Committee on the Philosophy of Education in 1986

that resulted in a new Philosophy of Education and consequently led to the current education

reform (Matane, 1986; Department of Education, 1996a; Department of Education, 1996b).

Despite the successive education developments including the transitional period of

development between 1980s and 1990s and the current education reform, there are

components of the education system that are being maintained with minimal changes. The

inspectorial system and the context of its existence is one such component of the PNG

education system that has changed little and needs to be reviewed so that its strategies and

practices are consistent with current developments both nationally and internationally.

Contemporary Education

Contemporary education in PNG has to be considered and developed by taking account of

traditional and cultural components of learning, both in adults and children. The current

development in elementary education that incorporates traditional and cultural values and

learning activities with the use of local languages as mediums of instruction is consistent

with the National Philosophy of Education that emphasizes cultural contexts of learning

(Matane, 1986; Department of Education, 1999; Department of Education, 2000a). In the

adult learning situation colonialism and organizational cultures are arguably having an

influence on how adult attitudes and behavior change with developments in the education

system and institutions (Pagelio, 2002). Thus, developing strategies for professional

development and growth that integrates traditional, cultural and contemporary means to

continuous learning may be essential to encourage changes in attitudes and behavior of adult

learners.

Current Education Reform

In 1993 PNG introduced a series of educational reforms as a result of the Matane Report

(Matane, 1986). These reforms were the results of a new Philosophy of Education designed

to address both human and social development of the country and aim to:

• provide for the return of the children to the village community, for

employment and for further education or training, and


25

• provide basic schooling for all children (Department of Education, 1996a;

Department of Education, 1996b).

As a result of the new Philosophy of Education the school system was restructured into three

levels – elementary (preparatory to grade 2), primary (grade 3 to 8) and secondary (grade 9

to 12) from the previous structure of community (grade 1 to 6), high (grade 7 to 10) and

national high (grade 11 to 12) school levels (Figures 1.1 & 1.2). The education reform

attempts to address access, relevance and universal education and its main curricula

objectives are to prepare citizens who:

• have a strong moral value system which places emphasis on personal

integrity, the equality of all members of the society, and the importance

and relevance of traditional values in modern life,

• are committed in their own personal development, and view education as a

continuing life-long process,

• are invested with a productive work ethnic and a realization of the value of

both rural and urban community development activities in the context of

national development,

• are prepared for the realities of life in most communities, and

• are capable of providing a basis for effective further training for

manpower needs of the country (Department of Education, 1999;

Department of Education, 2000a).

While the restructure of the school system is progressing with constraints such as a lack of

basic teaching and learning materials experienced in the early years of the 21st century,

curriculum reform is gradually being addressed at all levels of education (Department of

Education, 2000b; Department of Education, 2001a). The curriculum reform includes a

major shift from the objective based curriculum to outcomes based curriculum. The

outcomes based curriculum, in principle, specifically addresses the learning needs of the

school children. In elementary education, a new curriculum is being developed in different

languages selected by the community under the national curriculum guidelines. In primary

education, the curriculum is being revised to suit the objectives of the reform, incorporating

a bridging curriculum component between the local instructional languages used in

elementary schools and English in lower grades. In secondary education, the curriculum is

being revised with some flexibility allowing schools to develop non-examinable subjects that

are consistent with the new Philosophy of Education. There is also allowance for schools

“that wish to introduce school based curriculum to promote skills development” (Department


26

of Education, 2000b, p. 70) as part of the Government Policy on Skills Development being

implemented by the NDOE (Tapo, 2004).

Figure 1.1: New Reform Structure for National Education System (After 1993)

Source: Department of Education, 2005, p. 6.

Figure 1.2: Old Structure for National Education System (Before 1993)

Source: Department of Education, 2005, p. 6.

halla

This figure is not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library

halla

This figure is not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library


27

The NDOE considers teacher development to be vital to the education reform. Teacher

qualifications are being upgraded from a Certificate to a Diploma in Primary Education and

a Diploma to a Degree in Secondary Education (Department of Education, 1994a). The

introduction of the Certificate in Elementary Teaching in elementary education formalizes

what was an informal school level known as the ‘tokples’ schools to a formal school level in

some provinces, including East New Britain and North Solomon Provinces (University of

Papua New Guinea, 1985; The National Research Institute, 1988). The introduction of

elementary education also resulted in the establishment of the elementary inspectorial section

in 2000 (Department of Education, 2000c).

The intention of the new Philosophy of Education and its objectives was to improve the

quality of education provided by the schools by reforming the curriculum, upgrading teacher

qualifications and restructuring the school system. From the national level, the responsibility

of supervising these reform initiatives is within the function of the inspectorial system.

However, despite this increased mandate, there is insufficient development in upgrading

inspector qualifications and improving inspectorial strategies to suit the developments in

education. Some inspectors have lower qualifications than teachers they supervise. Such

lack of attention to inspector professional development and the perceptions teachers have of

inspectors on the basis of qualifications may result in an inappropriate functioning of the

inspectorial system. Such malfunctioning may have an impact on teacher professionalism

thus affecting standards and the quality of education provided by the schools (Tapo, 2004).

Legislation and Policies

Educational legislation in PNG was initially enforced by the colonies in the late 1800s and

early 1900s and catered for the dual systems of education; that of the missionaries and those

of the colonies, the Germans in New Guinea through the 1922 Education Ordinance for New

Guinea (Selleck, 1975) and the British and Australians in Papua through the adapted

Queensland State education legislation (Waiko, 1993). The legislation at the time ensured

the colonies left most of the functions of education to the missionaries because the colonies

felt that the missionaries were “doing a good work, as the conduct of their schools no doubt

introduces many essential features of the western civilization into ordinary village life”

(Selleck, 1975, pp. 19–20). Most of the schools were in villages and, as a priority, were

“encouraged and assisted, persuaded or controlled as the agency of another civilization”

(Selleck, 1975, p. 17) by the missionaries and colonial governments (Swatridge, 1985).

When Australia strengthened its control of the country as its colony, the education system

came under its administration through the Education Ordinance of 1952 (Selleck, 1975).


28

Australian education policies were introduced, including universal education, the

introduction of English literacy and numeracy, and the financing of the school system

through the Native Taxation Scheme and other preceding financial schemes. In 1970 the

National Education System was established under the 1970 Education Ordinance, resulting

in the existence of the Teaching Service Commission (TSC) and the Territory Education

Board, later to be known as the National Education Board (Selleck, 1975; Waiko, 1993).

During this period PNG began political moves for independence with accelerated

localization programs initiated in government departments, including the NDOE (Thomas &

Postlethwaite, 1984; Harrington, 1987; Waiko, 1993). In 1983 and 1988 the Education Act

and the Teaching Service Act were enacted respectively and were both consolidated in 1995

to cater for changes as a result of the introduction of the Organic Law on Provincial and

Local Level Governments (PLLG). These acts are currently used by stakeholders, including

policy makers, as the bases for policy formulation. In reality the Education and Teaching

Service Acts have been used for over twenty years and, questionably, may no longer suit

current environments, including social, economic and political developments. At the same

time, a set of inspectorial strategies previously introduced are now being improved to ensure

education policies and other requirements continue to be implemented by schools

(Department of Education, 1983; Bray, 1985; Teaching Service Commission, 1988;

Australian Government, 2005). However, the context, structure, functions and strategies of

the current inspectorial system have their roots in the colonial legacy and may no longer suit

current educational developments.

Centralized and Decentralized Functions

As noted previously, after independence some functions of the education system were

decentralized to provinces providing the opportunity for provinces to make decisions and

administratively be responsible for education services. The Organic Law on PLLG of 1995

further acknowledges the responsibility of the PLLG for schools and, consistent with the

Education Act, requires PLLG to plan and provide, amongst other responsibilities; financial

support to provincial institutions, including elementary, primary and secondary schools;

support for infrastructure development; housing for teachers; enrolment of students;

selection and appointment of teachers; and administration and governance of schools

(Department of Education, 1983; Government of Papua New Guinea, 1995; Welch, 2000;

Department of Education, 2002a; Department of Education, 2004b; Department of

Education, 2004c).

The above responsibilities are decentralized functions of education while the centralized

functions or responsibilities of NDOE include curriculum development, teacher education


29

and training, inspection, and technical education (Department of Education, 1983;

Department of Education, 2004c).

Both the centralized and decentralized functions are monitored and supervised through the

inspectorial system by the school inspectors. The inspectors are answerable to the Secretary

for Education and have direct influence over the centralized functions. They advise and

report to provinces on decentralized functions and do not have direct influence on decision

making affecting these functions. However, where standards and the quality of education are

adversely affected by lack of attention to the decentralized functions by the provinces and

schools then NDOE is advised to take necessary actions to remedy situations accordingly.

The inspectorial system was established during the colonial era when a centralized system of

education existed in PNG. However, PNG has introduced centralized and decentralized

functions of education and whether the current inspectorial system suits this development is

a matter of contention. The increasing numbers of schools and teachers, and the 20

provincial divisions of education including the National Capital District, and their different

levels of management and development have also complicated the work of inspectors. These

changes have resulted with increased responsibilities for the inspectorial personnel making it

very difficult for the inspectorial system to function effectively. At the same time, how

Provincial Authorities regard the inspectorial system is vital if the inspectorial system has to

impact on teacher professionalism and, consequently, the quality of education provided by

the schools (The National Research Institute, 1988). The inspectorial system and its

influence on teacher professionalism is regarded as crucial to improving the quality of

education in the current context of the PNG education system. It is therefore appropriate at

this time to investigate and evaluate the inspectorial system and where necessary initiate

changes or improvements to cater for both the centralized and decentralized functions of the

education system.

1.3.3 Organizational Structure of the NDOE

The NDOE is the largest Government Department in PNG with a total staff of 776 public

servants and 32 894 teachers in all levels of institution; Elementary, Primary and Secondary

Schools, College of Distance Education, Vocational Centers, Technical and Teachers’

Colleges, and Special Education Centers (Department of Education, 2000a, Department of

Education, 2003a; Department of Education, 2004c).


30

Organizational Structure

The NDOE is part of the PNG Ministry of Education and has the overall responsibility of

providing basic and general education to the people of PNG. Within the Ministry of

Education, there is also the TSC and the Office of Library and Archives whose functions are

to facilitate and monitor employment conditions and entitlements for teachers, and to provide

library and archive services in the country respectively (Appendix 2: Structure of NDOE).

The NDOE is headed by the Secretary for Education who is appointed by the National

Government, with two Deputies – one Deputy responsible for Policy and Administration,

and the other responsible for Standards and Human Resource Development. Under the two

Deputies are four Wings with a First Assistant Secretary responsible for each Wing:

Education Standards; Human Resources Development; Policy, Planning, Research and

Communication; and Administration and Budget (Department of Education, 2003a).

Specific Functions of the Divisions

There are ten divisions under the four Wings of NDOE performing educational, management

and administrative functions (Department of Education, 2003a; Department of Education,

2004c) as shown in Table 1.1.

How efficient and effective divisional functions are performed depends on the organizational

cultures, the quality of leadership and the management practices within each division.

Critical issues are how leadership at NDOE is influenced by continuing colonialism and

whether leadership and management strategies and practices create a culture for change

consistent with national and global developmental trends in education. A study by Pagelio

(2002) suggests that the neo-colonial leadership practices restrict leaders from becoming

transformational and innovative and that the department’s inherited system of leadership has

retained many of the negative features, including leadership that is “patriarchal, patronizing

and unjust towards subordinates” (p. 185). The findings can also be applied to leadership in

institutions of the education system.


31

Table 1.1: Divisional Functions and Responsibilities

Wing Division Function and Responsibilities Human Resources Development

Teacher Education and Staff Development

• Teacher training • Staff development • Inspection (Teachers’ Colleges & Special

Education) General Education Services

• Provincial liaison • National High School • College of Distance Education • School documents

Technical Vocational Education and Training

• Technical and vocational education • Liaison with industries on training needs • Inspection (Technical Colleges & Vocational

Centers) National Capital District Education services in the National Capital District

Education Standards

Curriculum Development • Curriculum development • Examinations • Curriculum materials distribution

Inspections and Guidance • Inspection (Elementary, Primary & Secondary Schools)

• Guidance and counseling services Policy, Planning, Research and Communication

Policy, Research and Communication

• Policy formulation • Research • Publications and media

Planning, Facilitating and Monitoring

• Planning • Facilitating & monitoring implementation of

policies Finance and Administration

Finance and Budget • Budget planning, implementation and monitoring

• Accounting and Auditing General Administration and Personnel

• Personnel and salary administration • Entitlements and conditions of employment

While it appears that there are clear functions and responsibilities expected from each

division, in practice there are duplications of professional functions carried out by several

divisions. For example, teacher professional development is a ‘shared’ responsibility

between the Inspection and Guidance, and Teacher Development and Staff Development

Divisions. Curriculum development, including monitoring and supervision, is a ‘shared’

task between Inspections and Guidance, and Curriculum Development Divisions. How

divisional responsibilities are linked to each other, how divisions consult and liaise with each

other, what the tangible outcomes are and who are the direct beneficiaries of divisional

functions are questions that may need to be addressed in order to facilitate a culture for

learning, sharing and networking within NDOE. The Inspections and Guidance Division and

its associated divisions are no exceptions (Department of Education, 2004c).


32

Provincial Divisions of Education

Provincial Divisions of Education (PDOE) exist under the Provincial Governments and

Administrations and are directly responsible for decentralized functions. However they

consult, liaise and implement both national and provincial education policies. The

Provincial Education Advisors, the heads of PDOE, are appointed by Provincial

Administrations and are answerable to the Provincial Administrators (The Independent State

of Papua New Guinea, 1975). Such arrangement makes it difficult for appointments of

Provincial Education Advisors to be made on merit as preferred by NDOE. Implementing

education policies by provinces and schools, and the monitoring of policies by NDOE

through the inspectorial system therefore is a major concern for NDOE. How provinces

react to advisory reports produced by inspectors on schools, if they respond at all, and utilize

teachers’ appraisal reports in order to improve and remedy problems in schools has also

become an obstacle to development in the education system (Preston, 1989).

It may be argued that the current organizational structures and cultures and the processes of

selecting the officers on merit to manage PDOE are hindrances to changes and the

development of the education system in PNG (Department of Education, 2004b). As a

result, many aspects of the schools, including the maintenance and development of school

infrastructure, are neglected. Such situation calls for effective coordination between NDOE

and PDOE to improve the school system. This can be done through structural reform and

changes in organizational cultures that would allow all stakeholders to work collaboratively

to improve the teaching profession in order to address the quality of education provided by

the schools. Therefore, it is important to have national and provincial education

organizational structures that would cultivate vibrant organizational cultures and

management strategies. This is necessary in order to create an environment for change and

development if the standard and quality of education are to be pursued in schools through the

inspectorial system.

1.3.4 The Inspectorial System

The inspectorial system in PNG education covers all levels of education with each level

having its own inspectorial section. Teacher Education and Staff Development Division is

responsible for inspectorial functions in Teachers Colleges and Special Education Centers.

The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Division is responsible for

inspectorial responsibilities in Technical Colleges and Vocational Centers, and the

Inspection and Guidance Division is responsible for inspectorial duties in Elementary,

Primary and Secondary Schools, including National High Schools and the College of


33

Distance Education. The policies concerning the inspectorial functions and responsibilities

are derived from the Education Act and are implemented across all divisions (Department of

Education, 1983). For the purpose of this study, the functions and responsibilities performed

by the Inspections and Guidance Division is the main focus, that is, the focus is on the

inspectorial system particularly in primary schools.

The Inspectorial Functions and Responsibilities

The Inspections and Guidance Division has three professional sections concerned with

inspectorial functions and responsibilities; Elementary, Primary and Secondary Inspections.

The inspectorial functions and responsibilities performed by inspectors include the

maintenance and improvement of national education standards and requirements in

elementary, primary and secondary school levels; provision of quality control (and

assurance) in the areas of curriculum implementation and teacher performance; facilitation,

monitoring and improvement of professional development and growth of teachers; provision

and facilitation of guidance and counseling services to schools, and improvement of the

school supervision and management systems (Department of Education, 2004a).

With the exception of the provision of guidance and counseling services to schools which is

carried out by the Guidance Officers of the Guidance and Counseling Section of the

Inspections and Guidance Division, all responsibilities are carried out by respective

inspectorial sections.

The inspectors for elementary, primary and secondary schools are based in the provinces and

districts (primary inspectors) but their operations are managed from the Headquarters of

NDOE. There are 198 inspectors based in twenty provinces and the National Capital

District, and of these, twenty are elementary (excluding trainers who are assisting), 156 are

primary and twenty-two are secondary inspectors (Department of Education, 2004a). The

inspectors are appointed to their positions because of their experience as heads of schools

and have proven themselves to be outstanding in their work. Recent developments require

vacant positions to be advertised for head teachers to apply, with qualifications being

considered as one of the important criteria. When considering applications, however, proven

superior level of performance as assessed by the inspection processes is considered as a

major factor in appointing applicants to inspector positions (The Independent State of Papua

New Guinea, 1975; Teaching Service Commission, 1988).

A major concern of most inspectors is a perceived lack of theoretical and practical

knowledge and skills in the inspectorial strategies (from a broader perspective) that include


34

supervision, professional development, quality assurance, teacher professionalism, research

and other relevant educational phenomenon that would enhance performance of inspectors

(Department of Education, 1986a; Tapo, 2004). At the same time the decreasing level of

resources caused by the constraints in the PNG economy over the last fifteen years has

drastically affected the work of inspectors (Department of Education, 1998; Department of

Education, 2002a; Department of Education. 2003b; Department of Education, 2004b;

Australian Government, 2005). For example, inspectors used to pay two advisory visits and

one inspection visit to each school every year. However, over the last fifteen years these

visits have been reduced to one visit (either advisory or inspection) or two visits (one

advisory and one inspection) a year. Some schools are never visited for several years. Such

situations are well documented and are affecting the appraisal of teachers through the

inspection processes (Department of Education, 1985; Department of Education, 1989;

Department of Education, 1994b; Department of Education, 2004c). Teachers and head

teachers are beginning to loose confidence in the roles of inspectors and the functions of the

inspectorial system. Given these constraints, it is important to find out how teachers, head

teachers and inspectors perceive the operation of the inspectorial system and how it

influences teacher professionalism.

Specific Responsibilities of Inspectorial System

Inspectors carry out the inspectorial functions and responsibilities in PNG schools in two

distinct roles, the advisory and inspection (Department of Education, 1978; Guthrie, 1983;

Golightly, 1992; Department of Education, 1997). These roles, as previously stated, require

inspectors to visit each school at least twice a year and provide school advisory reports to

PDOE and NDOE authorities for information and action where appropriate, and produce

teacher inspection reports for ratings purposes (Baki, 2001a; Baki, 2001b).

The advisory role performed by inspectors is a process of assisting teachers in their

profession (Department of Education, 2000c, Department of Education, 2002a; Department

of Education, 2003a; Department of Education, 2004b). Inspectors are expected to check

and provide advice to teachers and heads of schools on the quality of teaching and learning,

subject department administration, management of schools, curriculum requirements, student

services and wellbeing, and school infrastructure requirements, maintenance and

development (Department of Education, 2004a). The advisory role also requires the

inspectors to use their experience, knowledge and skills to help teachers and schools in

identifying training needs and to facilitate, assist and advise in developing training programs

for teacher development at the school, district, provincial and national levels. The advisory

role is usually carried out during the first half of the school year followed by inspection.


35

Though the advisory role is not a prerequisite to inspection it does contribute considerably to

compiling inspection reports on teacher performance (Department of Education, 1983; Baki,

2001a; Baki, 2001b). Given the point made earlier concerning a perceived lack of

knowledge, skills and qualifications amongst the inspectorial staff there are problems

associated with this role (Department of Education, 1986a; Tapo, 2001).

In the inspection role inspectors carry out evaluations and assessments on teacher

performance and produce inspection reports. These inspection reports are used to rate

teachers’ performances at the end of each year by the Annual National Ratings Conference

(recently the Annual National Ratings Conference has changed to Annual Regional Ratings

Conferences). Teachers’ inspection reports are rated as superior, satisfactory or

unsatisfactory. The inspection processes usually begin during the third quarter of the school

year and are a culmination of the year’s performance by teachers being inspected. There are

three types of inspection and these are:

• Compulsory inspection: This is done for new graduates and qualified teachers

for registration as full time teachers; for teachers whose reports had been rated

unsatisfactory the previous year; and for teachers whose performances are

reported by head teachers and PDOE authorities to be in doubt. The latter

covers teachers who may also be disciplined by TSC for unprofessional behavior

and misconduct (Department of Education, 1983; Teaching Service

Commission, 1988; Baki, 2001b).

• Personal inspection: This is done for teachers who apply for personal

inspection reports because they are considered ready for promotion to the next

level of responsibility in that particular level of educational institution (Teaching

Service Commission, 1988; Baki, 2001a).

• Immediate Inspection: This type of inspection of teachers is done immediately

when requested by authorities for disciplinary action, renewal of contracts for

overseas employees and for other reasons. The immediate inspection reports are

not rated but are used to make decisions immediately whenever and wherever

appropriate (Teaching Service Commission, 1988; Baki, 2001b).

Inspectors use common checklists and standardized report formats to carry out inspection

and to compile inspection reports respectively. These are used to allow for consistency and

to control the quality of reporting (Department of Education, 1994b).


36

Inspectors also perform general responsibilities. They are required to “work closely with

provincial authorities, to carry out national (centralized) functions ……….. (and) to ensure

that there is sustainable educational supervision at the school level and that there is advisory

function at the school and provincial levels” (Department of Education, 2000c, p. 2)

concerning the quality of education provided by the schools (Bray, 1985; The National

Research Institute, 1988). The Tololo Review Committee into the Inspectorial System

categorized this responsibility into “administrative, supervisory, advisory, monitoring and

appraisal functions” (Tololo, 1995, p. 3). Given the number of responsibilities to be carried

out by the inspectors there is a question of whether these responsibilities are effectively

carried out and are impacting on teachers, academic standards and the quality of education

provided by the schools.

Conflicting and Multiple Roles of Inspectors

Though current roles of the inspectorial system in PNG are practically identified as

“advisory and inspection”, in reality, inspectors perform many tasks. The advisory role can

be categorized into means of maintaining, improving and developing the school system by

using strategies of supervision, quality assurance and professional development. The

inspection role can be categorized into the means of evaluating and assessing teacher

performance for registration and promotion purposes, disciplining teachers and appraising

teachers for employment and for further training. Thus the advisory and inspection roles

have the potential to create conflicts and dilemmas for teachers and can impact directly on

teachers. However, while the inspector is assisting teachers in the advisory role, the same

inspector is also assessing teachers and possibly creating an atmosphere of suspicion and

raises the question of the reliability of inspection reports (Department of Education, 1978;

Apelis, 1984; Department of Education, 1991; Golightly, 1992). The Tololo Committee

revealed that the nature of the advisory and inspection roles is a means of ‘policing’ the

education system’s requirements in schools resulting in inspectors being perceived by

teachers as “someone whose job was to look for mistakes, and more than often (teachers)

have felt reluctant to query advice offered” (Tololo, 1995, p. 3; Bacchus, 1984), an

indication of the existing conflict. In his study on career development of head teachers in

PNG, Maha (1992) further raised the dominant roles of inspectors that impact on school and

teacher development as a concern in PNG schools.

It may be argued that the conflicting roles result in no tangible outcomes because there is

“considerable confusion within Papua New Guinea over the roles and functions” (The

National Research Institute, 1988, p. 73) of the inspectorial system. There is no evidence to


37

suggest that the current functions and strategies create an environment or culture for change

and development in the school system.

In addition, the inspectorial system is intended to maintain and improve education standards

and the quality of education provided by the schools through its advisory and inspection

roles. However, to address education standards and the quality of education, teacher

professionalism is central. Thus it may not be apparent that the current functions and

strategies lead to enhanced teacher professionalism. Further, if changes in the inspectorial

system are anticipated, it is essential to analyze the context in which strategies and practices

have developed and are currently maintained. Through such an analysis, ideas can be

developed for constructing new strategies that may be more functional. However the central

argument here is that it is unlikely that any changes can be developed unless the context in

which the current inspectorial strategies and practices occur is modified so that it supports

any new or improved strategies of the inspectorial system. This study reveals the

experiences, beliefs and perceptions of teachers, head teachers and inspectors about the

operation of the inspectorial system and the dimensions of teacher professionalism, and their

relationships. It investigates how inspectors carry out their responsibilities when interacting

with teachers and head teachers. It further investigates how teachers, head teachers and

inspectors perceive the dimensions of teacher professionalism. In doing so, the study

concludes with a contextual framework of the inspectorial system that enhances teacher

professionalism. The ultimate outcome of this development is that if teachers and head

teachers are positively influenced by inspectors, the potential for improving education

standards and the quality of education is a certainty.

1.3.5 Quality Education in PNG

Quality is defined as “the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that

can bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs” (Dale, 1994, p. 4) or “exhibitions of

some kind of excellence or distinction that makes something desirable and beneficial”, in

other words a “product or service possesses quality if it helps somebody and enjoys a good

sustainable market” (Hoy, Bayne-Jardine & Wood, 2000, p. 3). Hoy, Bayne-Jardine &

Wood (2000) explain that quality is inherent in a product, however, it can also be argued that

the quality of the product or service depends also on the quality of input and the quality of

the process used in producing the product or service. Saarinen (2005), in analyzing the

evolution and meaning of ‘quality’ in his study on ‘The Bologna Process as an Example of

Transitional Developments in European Higher Education Policy’, reveals ambiguity in the

definition of quality and stresses that “the meaning of quality seems to converge more and


38

more over the years, from varied aspects of customer ideology and ideas of European

openness to technical details ….” (p. 2000). Thus in educational situations the provision of

quality education can be determined by the quality of input (experience, qualifications,

resources, etc) and processes (interactions, learning and teaching methodologies, etc), and to

ensure quality education is enhanced, strategies of quality assurance are essential.

In PNG, the term “quality” is used ambiguously but is generally equated with outcomes of a

physical process, and in a social setting. Such outcomes would relate to positive attitudes

and behavior, and the knowledge and skills gained as a result of changes from a dominant set

of values to a political and cultural condition. Therefore, quality education in PNG is usually

equated to academic achievements and as outcomes of cycles of formal education that are

measured by national examination results (Welch, 2000).

Quality education is however more than academic achievements and relates to educational

processes and products in an educational context (Bray, 1985). Until recently quality

education in PNG was regarded and pursued as a ‘management doctrine’ (Hoy et al, 2000)

with emphasis on qualitative indicators (Throsby & Gannicott, 1990; Welch, 2000;

Department of Education, 2001b). Such qualitative indicators include the availability of

curriculum and basic materials, teacher qualifications and the provision of in-service

activities, school infrastructure and community involvement. Qualitative indicators

however, need to be monitored and their impact and influence on present and future

educational practices are noted so that quality outcomes are achieved. This is where quality

assurance strategies have to be in place. Quality assurance is important in the field of

education, particularly if teacher professionalism has to impact on student learning.

1.3.6 Quality Assurance: A task of the Inspectorial System

In quality assurance, educational qualitative indicators are some of the prime issues that the

inspectorial system in PNG has been focusing on through its stated functions. The

inspectorial system performs the function of “quality control (and assurance) in the areas of

curriculum implementation and teacher performance” (Department of Education, 2004a, p.

5). Quality assurance strategy is an interactive strategy of the advisory and inspection roles

performed by inspectors that detects deficiencies and prevents problems from occurring in

the school system. Checklists, standardized report formats (advisory and inspection) and

handbooks are used to carry out the inspectorial functions to pursue quality assurance

(Department of Education, 1985; Department of Education, 1986b; Department of


39

Education, 1988; Department of Education, 1989; Department of Education, 1990a;

Department of Education, 1990b; Department of Education, 1994b).

However how current quality assurance strategies and practices are impacting on aspects of

the school system including teacher professionalism is uncertain. There are no clear

indications of tangible outcomes. Thus, there is need to review the strategies of quality

assurance of the inspectorial system so that clear and tangible outcomes are identified and

enhanced within the teaching profession.

1.3.7 Teacher Supervision and Professional Development in PNG schools

Teachers in PNG schools are supervised by school supervisors who are heads of subject

departments, senior teachers and head teachers. Senior teachers and heads of subject

departments are supervised by head teachers or delegated staff members while head teachers

are supervised by inspectors though this is done through a generic approach (Department of

Education, 1988; Department of Education, 2003b). Supervision of head teachers by

inspectors is based on general performance that includes the management of school

resources, curriculum implementation and in-service training.

In-service programs (Neuendorf, 1989; Avalos & Neuendorf, 1991) for teachers are expected

to integrate both supervision and professional development strategies that are required by the

inspectorial system and are monitored by inspectors. The specific tasks performed by school

supervisors through the in-service programs include the monitoring of curriculum

implementation, and in-service and training activities. This is done by checking professional

and administrative records, observing lessons and counseling teachers to promote quality

teaching and learning (Department of Education, 1990a; Department of Education, 2000c).

The results of implementing the school in-service programs are usually reported by head

teachers to inspectors during their advisory visits and are included in the advisory reports

which inspectors produce and circulate to school administrations, and PDOE and NDOE

authorities.

As external supervisors, inspectors in their advisory role often duplicate the same

supervisory and professional development tasks performed by school based supervisors.

However other issues such as management of school finances and resources also form part of

inspectors’ supervisory tasks. Generally supervisory and professional development

strategies performed by inspectors are limited to meeting the requirements set by the NDOE

which are consistent with policies concerning education standards (curriculum requirements


40

and assessments) and teacher performance (Department of Education, 1989; Department of

Education, 1991). These requirements include the quality of teaching programs, the

maintenance of daybooks and lesson plans by teachers, the number of staff and subject

department meetings and the number of lesson observations per teacher per term.

The concepts and strategies of supervision and professional development may not be clearly

perceived and practiced as separate strategies by teachers, head teachers and inspectors

because they are integrated into the school in-service programs (Department of Education,

1985; Department of Education, 1986b; Department of Education, 1990a; Department of

Education, 1994b). Because of this, in-service programs may not be considered by teachers,

head teachers and inspectors as significant to teacher development, therefore having little

impact on teacher professionalism. Such arguments require school based supervision and

professional development strategies to be reviewed and practiced separately as part of the

school management and development system rather than as part of the inspectorial system.

In other words, there must be a clear demarcation between supervision and professional

development strategies. Thus any anticipated improvement and changes to the inspectorial

system must identify strategies that enable schools to be empowered and responsible for their

own management, improvement and development, including supervision and professional

development of teachers, rather than relying entirely on the inspectorial system to initiate

and facilitate strategies as presently the case.

1.3.8 Teacher Professionalism in PNG Schools

Teacher professionalism in PNG education relates to ‘everything’ that teachers do and how

they behave in school and in public as required by the NDOE under the Education Act, the

TSC under the Teaching Service Act and by teacher duty statements (Department of

Education, 1983). Sections of the Education and Teaching Service Acts related to teacher

professionalism are interpreted into policies and are circulated for implementation or

information as circulars, instructions and determinations in order to enhance and sustain

teacher professionalism. Such policies include the standards of dressing, teacher conduct,

professional behavior and teacher performance (Department of Education, 1990b).

The Teacher Performance Based Duty Statements (PBDS), developed by the Apelis

Committee in 2003 for all teaching positions in the education system, are also documents

that describe teacher professionalism from a PNG context (Department of Education,

2003b). The PBDS describes the work and the expected outcomes of performances of


41

teachers amongst other basic educational requirements. The following is a summary of the

sections of the PBDS:

• General information about the position: Position and history

• Definition of the position

• Purpose of the position

• Accountability

• Qualifications: Knowledge, skills and experience

• Relevant data: Number of students in particular class, number of teachers

being supervised, teacher student ratio, expected work, time allocation, etc

• Areas of responsibility: major duties, required results and quantitative

performance measurement

• Extra curricular: Duties and activities required by the position

• Internal working relationships

• External working relationships

• Reporting what and to whom.

Teacher professionalism may be perceived by stakeholders as the ‘totality’ of a teacher, that

is, both concerning a teacher’s professional and personal life. However this perception may

relate directly to teacher performance and behavior. These are expectations of NDOE that

are monitored and evaluated by inspectors using checklists and report formats. The

following, for example, are sections of the inspection report format that are used for

monitoring and evaluating teacher performance and behavior:

• experience and qualifications

• preparation and planning

• administrative routines

• teaching effectiveness

• professional development

• relationships

• extra-curricular duties and school duties (Department of Education, 1985).

The sections of the inspection reports formats vary with positions and types of institutions;

elementary, primary and secondary schools. While the PBDS describes the requirements,

expectations and the outcomes of teacher performance, the inspection formats used are


42

means of evaluating whether these requirements and expectations are achieved by individual

teachers respectively.

It can be concluded that there are no clear perceived concepts and understandings of teacher

professionalism when global developments in teacher professionalism are considered. It

seems that teacher professionalism is restricted to compliance with expectations and

requirements of teachers by NDOE and TSC. If this is the case then, it is possible that the

quality of services provided by inspectors for quality assurance, and teacher supervision and

professional development are problematic. It is, therefore, important to consider the

perceptions of stakeholders on teacher professionalism and its relationships with the

inspectorial system in order to enhance the quality of education provided by the schools.

1.4 The Significance of the Study

Personally, this study was a learning experience for me in my career and, importantly, it has

contributed to my professional development and growth. It assisted me to pursue my

interests in an academic life and gave me the opportunity to learn more about myself,

particularly as a researcher (Glesne, 1999). The experience, respect and professional

relationships I have gained will improve my understanding about organizations, institutions

and people that connect with each other in the ‘world of researchers’ which I intend to be a

member of, both locally and internationally. At the same time, the questions pursued in this

study aim to contribute to the improvement and changes to the inspectorial system that

would influence the teaching profession and educational changes in PNG, and in countries

where inspectorial systems or similar systems (external supervision) exist.

In PNG the context of the inspectorial system by which it currently exists has never been

explored for its relevance and suitability to the past, present and future education

developments. The complex management of education services in PNG, brought about by the

growth of the education system and other factors, is considered as a hindrance to achieving

tangible outcomes expected from the existing inspectorial system. At the same time, the

increasing responsibility loads, the administrative constraints and the overhead costs have

contributed to a lack of confidence by teachers, head teachers and inspectors in the

inspectorial system and how it influences the teaching profession. Thus, by investigating the

experiences, beliefs and perceptions of teachers, head teachers and inspectors concerning the

strategies currently used by inspectors and the dimensions of teacher professionalism, this

study intends to identify the relationships between the inspectorial system and teacher

professionalism in primary schools in PNG as a case study.


43

This study seeks to identify how the inspectorial interactive strategies are enhancing or

hindering the dimensions of teacher professionalism by specifically:

• investigating how the inspectorial system operates in primary schools in PNG,

• investigating the issues, including strengths, weaknesses and difficulties as

experienced and perceived by teachers, head teachers and primary school

inspectors within the operation of the inspectorial system,

• investigating how teacher professionalism is perceived by teachers, head teachers

and primary school inspectors,

• identifying the linkages between the inspectorial interactive strategies and the

perceived dimensions of teacher professionalism by teachers, head teachers and

primary school inspectors,

• using the linkages to identify the strengths, weaknesses and difficulties perceived

by teachers, head teachers and inspectors and to analyze the appropriateness of

the inspectorial system in relation to teacher professionalism,

• using the findings to develop a new contextual framework for existing

inspectorial systems, and

• using the findings to recommend directions for a new contextual framework for

current inspectorial systems.

The study contributes knowledge to the current literature on inspectorial systems and teacher

professionalism, in particular, the linkages between the inspectorial interactive strategies and

the dimensions of teacher professionalism. The linkages or relationships between the

inspectorial (or external supervisory) strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism

is currently underdeveloped. This study contributes immensely to these underlying concepts.

Although this study develops a theoretical framework that is drawn mainly from practices, it

places the linkages between the inspectorial strategies and the dimensions of teacher

professionalism on a conceptual foundation. This developed conceptual foundation will be of

significance to the supervisory strategies applied by external supervisors (including inspectors)

and to the present and future education and development of teachers.

1.4.1 The Problem

Despite changes and modifications in many countries to the inspectorial systems, and PNG is

no exception, the legacies of the colonial era remain. Such legacies include the functions of

the inspectorial system, that of maintaining, improving and developing school systems, and


44

the strategies of the inspectorial functions, that of supervision, quality assurance and

professional development. The problem is that the inspectorial system in its current PNG

context is an out of date system. It needs to be reformed so that its operation is impacting on

the teaching profession and is consistent with developments in the education system.

1.4.2 The Research Question

The above problem raises the question whether the existing inspectorial system, its functions

and interactive strategies are enhancing or hindering teacher professionalism, and in what

ways this may be occurring. Therefore, the main question that is pursued through this study

is: How and to what extent does the inspectorial system enhance and hinder teacher

professionalism in primary schools in PNG?

The specific questions that address the main question are:

1. How does the inspectorial system operate in primary schools in PNG?

2. What are the dimensions of teacher professionalism that are perceived by


3. How are these dimensions of teacher professionalism linked to the interactive

strategies applied by inspectors on teachers and head teachers?

4. Do the teachers, head teachers and inspectors openly recognize the links between

the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher

professionalism? What are the relationships?

5. What redeveloped conceptual framework grounded in the realities of teachers’,

head teachers’ and inspectors’ experiences, beliefs and perceptions about the

inspectorial interactive strategies that can enhance teacher professionalism?

1.4.3 Methodology

This study investigates the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of teachers, head teachers and

school inspectors concerning the interactive strategies of the inspectorial system and the

dimensions of teacher professionalism, and their relationships. Because of this, a qualitative

research methodology that involved the interpretivism approach through a case study method,

was used to investigate the ‘real world’ (schools and inspectorates) experiences of the

participants. The PNG context of the problem required the characteristics of Papua New

Guineans as appropriate for the study because their experiences, beliefs and perceptions can

not be influenced and transferred into other means but can only be presumed (Crossley &

Vulliamy, 1996). Thus the qualitative case study method was appropriate for this study.


45

1.5 Summary

Teachers and head teachers are expected to adhere to educational requirements and

expectations of stakeholders. They are expected to perform their duties responsibly. To

ensure this is so, teachers’ and head teachers’ performances are monitored and assessed

through the inspectorial system and its processes. However, for teachers and head teachers

to perform their duties successfully, they must be supported and assisted in all aspects of

their teaching profession (Day, 2004). The inspectorial system also exists for this purpose,

and that is, to support and assist teachers and head teachers through professional

development strategies.

The nature of the teaching profession is changing and evolving into new dimensions with

changes in society. This requires teachers and head teachers to be responsive and innovative

to the changes and uncertainties of the educational environment. Therefore, investigating the

dimensions of teacher professionalism and relating these to the functions and strategies of

the inspectorial system will assist with improving the effectiveness of the teaching

profession in this ever changing world.

This chapter has introduced the main reason for the study, namely to investigate the

relationships between the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher

professionalism. The identified relationships will form the basis for the development of a

conceptual framework for the inspectorial system that will enhance teacher professionalism.

The contextual background of the study has focused on the history of PNG and the

developments in the education system culminating with the problem being highlighted. In

Chapter 2, a review of literature is done to illustrate current developments of the phenomenal

issues being studied including the inspectorial systems and teacher professionalism. Chapter

3 discusses the research design and highlights the philosophical background, the research

methodology and methods used in this study. In Chapter 4, the research findings are

discussed followed by cross-case findings in Chapter 5. The synthesis of the research

findings, culminating with literature reviews, is elaborated on in Chapter 6 and concluded

with a theoretical framework of the study. Chapter 6 also concludes the study by

highlighting the implications and the future of the inspectorial system.


46

CHAPTER TWO

Reviewing the Literature

2.1 Introduction

This chapter focuses on the two main concerns and foci of the study, the inspectorial system

and teacher professionalism and the relationships between them. It begins by discussing the

theories and models of organizational structure and culture that are significant in

maintaining, improving and developing aspects of organizations, including educational

institutions. The chapter specifically elaborates on supervision, professional development

and quality assurance as interactive strategies of the inspectorial system, strategies that are

considered to influence or enhance teacher professionalism. The dimensions of teacher

professionalism are also explored to allow for a better understanding of this concept. The

review also explores and identifies the relationships between the inspectorial interactive

strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism. The key ideas from the current

context of the PNG inspectorial system and teacher professionalism (Chapter 1) and the

review of literature are then integrated to develop an initial theoretical framework for the

study. This is summarized at the end of the chapter.

2.2 Organizational Structures and Cultures

This section discusses organizational structure as a complex element of formal organizations

and stresses its importance in achieving organizational goals. It is argued however that

organizational goals cannot be achieved alone through organizational structure and changes,

but that organizations have to embrace organizational culture if they are to succeed in

serving their purposes.

2.2.1 Organizational Structures

Organizations generally exist as hierarchical structures and as social or open systems

depending on the functions and nature of their existence (Hanson, 2003; Fincham & Rhodes,

2005). Organizations grow in size and complexity with changes and developments and by

doing so, increase the potential for functions to be centralized and decentralized within their

settings (Mullins, 2005). Organizations exist to achieve goals, and to fulfil this,

organizations must have structures that minimize problems and maximize performance. The

elements of the organizational structures, including personnel, planning, management

services, public relations, and quality control and maintenance, amongst other structural

factors such as division of labour, authority, departmentalization, and span of control, must


47

therefore be examined so that the effects on morale, productivity and effectiveness are

sustained (Bolman & Deal, 2003; Mullins, 2005; Ivancevich, Konopaske & Matteson, 2008).

Organizational structures can be conceived as “dynamic evolving phenomena, unfolding

through dialectical processes” that “provide a stable framework for control” (Stacey, 1996,

pp. 95-96). At the same time, a major theme in organizational theory is the “the interaction

between the organizational structure and people” (Owens & Valesky, 2007, pp. 123),

implying that the structures of organizations can determine the behavior of people or vice

versa. In other words organizational structures can shape the views, attitudes and behavior

of people within the organizations, while “training people in a more effective group process”

(Owens & Valesky, 2007, pp. 124) can bring changes in organizations. Thus, structural

adjustments and restructuring are generally necessary to address the issues of control and

management, and to achieve goals. However, in enhancing performance, improving

efficiency and achieving goals it is essential that the relationships between the structural

elements and their impact on anticipated outcomes are examined. This means that

organizations that have good control mechanisms and management strategies that cater for

human relations, processes for managing changes and developments, “enable strengthening

of the organizations, competitiveness, continuity and day-to-day activities that are carried out

in an orderly and effective manner” (Stacey, 1996, p. 132).

There are many metaphors and models of organization: from organizations as machines,

organisms, political systems or cultures (Dunford, 1992) to organizations as legal systems of

bureaucracies having simple, functional and divisional structures (Hales, 1993; Stacey, 1996;

Hatch, 2006). From organizations as types of outlets for various parties or stakeholders,

“which find that they have something to gain by cooperating and bargaining with each other”

(Lansbury & Spillane, 1992, p. 3) and to organizations as a form of knowledge management

that applies organizational learning, sense-making, quality management and critical theory as

measures within their organizational setting (Souder, 2001; Thomsen & Hoest, 2001;

Elkjaer, 2001; Rossett & Donello, 2001; Palumbo & Killian, 2002; Lehr & Rice, 2002;

Gupta & Sharma, 2004).

Ivancevich, Konopaske & Matteson (2008) reveal three structural models that are useful for

this study. These structural models emphasize individual and group or department

responsibilities, and delegation of authority that encourage professional development of

personnel, greater responsibilities and a degree of specialization that would result with

success. These structural models include a mechanistic model that emphasizes productivity

and efficiency, an organic model that encourages adaptability and development, and a matrix


48

model that superimposes a product (or project-based strategies). These models of

organizations imply that organizational structures must be consistent with changes and

developments in society but changes in structure or restructuring must consider human

resource functions (Bolman & Deal, 2003). Thus in the field of education, organizational

structures that consider human relations, human behavior and values are significant to

achieving organizational goals that meet the demands of the stakeholders and clients

(Fincham & Rhodes, 2005; Mullins, 2005). However, irrespective of organizational

structural theories and models, if organizations are to keep up with changes and

developments, organizational cultures that are conducive to changes and developments are

necessary. This implies that instead of simply changing structures, changes must be made in

the corporate ethos, images and values that form actions within the organizations. In other

words if changes have to be made in organizations they have to be made at the cultural level

(Fincham & Rhodes, 2005), for any change in organizational structures alone “ignores the

human and emotional elements of organizational life” (Hatch, 2006, p. 179).

2.2.2 Organizational Culture

Culture was initially defined as a social group of people geographically distinguished from

other groups because of their different systems of values, beliefs and practices. More

appropriately, culture can be regarded as that which holds and unites people around shared

values and beliefs that design the way they do things in their own society (Schein, 1997;

Bolman & Deal, 2003; Keyton, 2005; Fincham & Rhodes, 2005). These ideas evolved into

cultures that are conceived as learnt, shared and that defined the boundaries of national

groups, and eventually national identities. In this sense culture relates to religion, attitudes,

aesthetics, language, legal factors and education (Ivancevich, Konopaske & Matteson, 2008).

Fincham & Rhodes (2005) reveal that culture can be analyzed in terms of evaluative

elements, material elements and social interaction. Evaluative elements concern social

expectations and standards, that is, the values and beliefs that people hold and that unite

them. Material elements concern signs and symbols by which groups are recognized and

social interaction relates to the medium of communication, including languages that

constitute the particular group. Thus culture, within this context, is both a product and a

process because, as a product it represents accumulated wisdom from past members of a

group, and as a process it is constantly renewed and recreated as new comers learn the old

ways and become members themselves in particular groups (Bolman & Deal, 2003; Keyton,

2005). Consistent with this, Mullins (2005) reiterates culture as having influence over

behavior and actions of members of particular groups. Organizations are groups, thus

culture in organizations is a collection of elements encompassing traditions, values, policies,


49

beliefs and attitudes that constitute a common framework through which members of the

organizations think and act.

Organizational culture is based on belief systems, social interactions, cultures, group

behavior and individual psychology that are integrated into a “social and normative glue

which holds together a potential diverse group of organizational members” (Pedersen &

Sorensen, 1989, p. 5) to work together to achieve common goals (Stacey, 1996; Hatch,

2006). Keyton (2005) and Mullins (2005) synthesized theories on organizational culture as a

“complex and continuous web of communication amongst members of organizations”

(Keyton, 2005, p. 20), and believe that it emerged from interactions between members of

organizations in order to pursue personal and professional goals that are related to the goals

of the organization. These interactions include artifacts or primary artifacts which relate to

visible and tangible norms; values which include goals, strategies, qualities, behavior,

wealth, control, respect, commitment and prestige; and assumptions which concern beliefs

that are taken for granted by members of the organization. Thus organizational culture sets

one organization apart from another through unique processes of interaction or as

productions of interaction. Ivancevich, Konopaske & Matteson (2008) argued that

organizational culture cannot be seen but can be felt and sensed in members of organizations

through their attitudes, emotions and perceptions. As part of an organization’s life, culture

influences behavior, attitudes and the overall effectiveness of the performances of members

of organizations. It is how members perceive and how this perception creates patterns of

beliefs, values and experiences within organizations.

Organizational culture encourages stability by attracting, developing and retaining quality

members of organizations. It maintains pride and fosters success through shared core values

and beliefs by members. However organizational culture is difficult to deliberately create

because creating a culture can result in adverse effects including decrease in morale, increase

turnover and poor performance (Hatch, 2006). Organizational culture can only be evolved

over time through carefully developed intervening conditions, and can change by

redeveloping people’s behavior through communication, socialization of new members and

removing existing members. Importantly for organizations, organizational culture is an

important ingredient for improving performance, effective leadership and organizational

development (Fincham & Rhodes, 2005; Ivancevich, Konokaspe & Matteson, 2008).

Hatch (2006) further synthesized various theories and models of organizational culture into

three perspectives that are particularly relevant for this study. These perspectives are

modernism, symbolic-interpretivism and postmodernism. A modernism perspective of


50

organizational culture emphasizes that only when members of organizations see themselves

benefiting from within the organizations, then “values are taken for granted and absorbed

into unconscious assumption” (Hatch, p. 189), implying that assumptions and values can

influence their behavior. Such behavior can be expressed in terms of norms and values by

members of organizations communicating and interacting through artefacts including stories,

symbols, tradition and custom. In other words, modernism “interpret(s) knowledge about

culture as a tool of management, and culture itself as a variable to be manipulated to enhance

the likelihood of achieving desired levels of organizational performance” (Hatch, 2006,

p. 213). Therefore, culture influences organizational performance through organizational

members’ performances when it helps to adapt or anticipate change or interfere with

adaptation. This means that culture must support adaptation by aligning relationships

between strategies and culture.

A Symbolic-interpretive perspective of organizational culture stresses that cultures are

constructed “as interacting individuals interpret what is going on around them and thereby

collectively create meaning. Thus meaning produces culture even as it is the product of

symbolic behavior” (Hatch 2006, p. 192). This implies that organizational members make

meaning from within their roles in their workplace and that meaning is dependent on the

context in which the artefacts and symbols are encountered. In this way individuals produce

culture through the social construction of reality. In other words when members of

organizations use and speak about what they normally do, these have effects on them and

others, and by doing so, culture is understood from within the organization. Thus a

symbolic-interpretivism perspective of organizational culture defines culture as a context for

making meaning and interpretation that allows members of the organizations to know

themselves in relation to others and what is meant by various aspects of culture of the

organization including objects, behavior and verbal language. As Owen & Valesky (2007)

emphasize, culture is “not a study of behavior but through observation of behavior one can

develop understanding of systems of knowledge, beliefs, customs, and habits of people”

(p. 193).

A Postmodernism perspective of organizational culture relates to the application of

intertextuality as “treating culture, identities, organizational members, symbols and actions

as interwoven texts that create one another via mutual ongoing referencing” (Hatch 2006,

p. 202). Intertextuality implies that no text exists in isolation and that all texts are

interwoven, meaning that there are many ways to challenge organizational cultures where

language systems including quotation, allusion, description and inscription are used to create

meaning. Other means of challenging organizational culture include the use of metaphoric


51

form of analysis and fragmentation. In all these challenges, the idea of a shared

understanding becomes an illusion. Thus understanding organizational cultures within the

postmodernism perspective continues to become an illusion (Hatch, 2006).

In summarizing the perceptions of organizational culture, Fincham & Rhodes (2005)

simplified culture as the essence, the reality of the organization – what it is like to work

there, how people deal with each other, and what behaviors are expected from members of

the organizations. As a process or product, culture is hardly planned or predictable. It is the

result of social interaction, and as a process, it evolves and emerges over time, and as a

product, it is the residue of countless events and actions experienced by members of the

organizations.

2.2.3 Organizational Structure and Culture in Educational Institutions

Organizational structure and culture in educational institutions have similar characteristics

or dimensions to structures and cultures in other organizational disciplines such as

‘production’ and ‘service-provider’ organizations. However, in educational institutions,

including schools, organizational culture embraces organizational structure because of the

nature of these institutions, and that is, they deal directly with people. The ideal relationship

between structure and culture in educational institutions is summarized clearly by Schmuck

& Schmuck (as cited in Owens & Valesky, 2007) when defining organizations as a general

system theory:

An organization is an integrated system of interdependent structures and

functions. An organization is constituted of groups and a group consists of

persons who must work in harmony. Each person must know what the

others are doing. Each one must be capable of receiving messages and

must be sufficiently disciplined to obey ... (Owens & Valeskey, 2007,

p. 124).

Organizational culture in educational institutions relates directly to shared values or what is

important to people, beliefs or what people think is true and behavioral norms or how people

do things. In this sense culture is a process and a product, as argued above, and is of a

practical nature to the members of the institutions. As Owens & Valeskey (2007)

emphasize, culture is “a body of solutions to external and internal problems that has

consistently working for a group” (p. 193) and that has developed over a period of time. At

the same time, as with organizations in other contexts, culture within educational institutions


52

including schools, provides stability, fosters certainty, solidifies order, and creates meaning.

It is a belief about what works and what does not work, and as earlier stated, it is an

observation of behavior through which people can develop understanding of systems of

knowledge, beliefs, customs and habits of people. Thus there are two major key themes of

culture in educational institutions as identified by Owens & Valesky (2007): the norms

which relate to the standards the social system (organizational structure) pursues through

unwritten rules that are expressed through group members’ appropriate and acceptable

behavior resulting with a good standing; and assumptions which deal with what people in the

organization accept as true and what is false in the world, what is sensible and what is

absurd, and what is possible and what is not possible.

However, organizational culture in educational institutions must also evolve and adapt to

changes in society including technology, and the economic and political environments if

institutions have to achieve their goals (Fincham & Rhodes, 2005; Ivancevich, Konokaspe &

Matteson, 2008). Cultural changes in educational institutions, including schools, therefore

are inevitable as educational institutions strive to address demands by stakeholders including

better education and getting value for their money. At the same time, cultural changes must

enhance networking and inter-organizational strategies (Buono, 2003; Fincham & Rhodes,

2005; Vuegelers & O’Hair, 2005) if educational institutions have to sustain changes and

developments. It is therefore significant for stakeholders of educational institutions to

identify best practice processes for designing and installing comprehensive sets of norms and

assumptions to change organizational cultures that facilitate changes and developments. As

Tam & Cheng (2003) argue, changes in organizational culture in educational institutions,

including schools, happen when there is an environment of learning through appropriate

internal and external supervision, quality assurance and professional development strategies

that ensure educational institutions produce high educational standards and quality

education.

2.2.4 Organizational Structure and Culture: PNG Context

PNG was portrayed in Chapter 1 as a geographically and demographically diverse society

with over 850 languages being spoken in twenty provinces including the National Capital

District. This depicts the many ethnic cultures that exist in PNG. The effects of western

cultures and Church Missionaries, when PNG was initially colonized and Christianized

respectively, on the many ethnic groups remain to be seen today. These effects have resulted

with English, Pidgin and Motu being spoken as common languages beside the local

languages. At the same time, the establishment of government organizations and institutions


53

has retained ‘colonial’ cultures, reminiscent of the influence of foreign cultures on PNG

ethnic groups, organizations and institutions. This makes it difficult for restructuring and

managing existing organizations. Unless ethnic cultures are considered and adapted to suit

changes brought about by technological, social, economic and political developments

managing organizations in PNG would remain a difficult task. It is therefore vital for

organizations to consider the characteristics of culture including the norms, values and

behavior of Papua New Guineans, and to strengthen these with shared understanding of

issues from PNG contexts to ensure organizations achieve their goals (Sullivan, 2002).

The NDOE, PDOE, TSC and educational institutions in PNG face the same situation as

stated above in that culture in general, has minimal consideration when it comes to

developing strategies to address educational issues. Consequently, most educational

institutions retain colonial legacies despite changes in technology, social, economic and

political environments over the years. At the same time, leadership and management

approaches in organizations including educational institutions remain as foreign concepts or

as colonial legacies (Pagelio, 2003). The PNG context of organizational culture that emerges

with the many ethnic cultures brought about by members of organizations need to be

addressed if progress has to be made in the education system. There is a lack of evidence to

show that PNG culture in general has been a cause for concern in changes and developments.

The management of the education reform (which has been going on for over fourteen years)

is an example of a change that has very little consideration for many ethnic and

contemporary cultures that exist in societies and organizations in PNG.

The current education reform in PNG has resulted in the restructuring of NDOE and the

school system into what was hoped to be more functional organizations that identify roles

into systems of maintenance, improvement and development (Dwyer, 1988; Hopkins, 2002;

Department of Education, 2004b; Department of Education, 2004c). It was anticipated that

these would allow for changes to take place as priority because of the need for educational

institutions to be more highly organized to cater for the increasing and complex

responsibilities brought about by the centralized and decentralized functions of the education

system (Section 1.3.2). However such restructure in the education reform has not considered

any existing or investigated organizational theories and models that embrace the PNG

context of culture for changes to be made. At the same time, a lack of ‘learning

environments’ at the leadership and management levels in the NDOE and at the institutions

has created uncertainty in achieving the goals of the education reform (Pagelio, 2003). It is

also vital that the need to enhance networking and inter-organizational strategies to facilitate

changes in this modern era is considered if development in the PNG education system has to


54

prosper (Buono, 2003; Vuegelers & O’Hair, 2005). Apart from the schools, the present

organizational structures and cultures of the divisions of NDOE, including that of the

Inspections and Guidance Division, and the teaching profession are aspects of the National

Education System that need to be addressed (Section 1.3.3).

2.3 Inspectorial Systems

This section outlines and discusses the historical development of the inspectorial systems in

education. It elaborates on the significant changes to inspectorial systems, identifies the

functions, strategies and processes of the inspectorial systems, and draws similarities and

differences to current inspectorial systems and the ‘changed inspectorial’ systems. The

section also identifies the common practices adapted by inspectors when interacting with

teachers and head teachers that underpin the existence of inspectorial systems over the years.

A summary of the section synthesizes the PNG context (Section 1.3.4) and the literature

review about the inspectorial systems allowing for the ideas to be integrated within the initial

conceptual framework at the end of this chapter.

2.3.1 Inspection and Inspectorial System

Inspection is an “examination, check-up, survey, scrutiny, probe, exploration, observation,

investigation, assessment, appraisal, review (or) an evaluation” (Waite, 2002, p. 459) of

aspects of an organization and the work performances of its members. To inspect is “to look

carefully at or over, or view closely and critically, and to view or examine formally or

officially” (Keneally, 1990, p. 316). These definitions of ‘inspect’ and ‘inspection’ make up

the strategies and processes of the inspectorial systems that exist in organizations.

Inspectorial systems therefore, consist of strategies and processes that are of formal and

critical examinations of social and scientific factors, practices and outcomes that are applied

by inspectorial personnel within a given context.

2.3.2 History and Development of Inspectorial Systems

The school inspectorial system has been part of the western formal education system since

the 1800s, developing from systems with no formal processes whereby designated personnel

simply used their experiences to models based on Great Britain’s Her Majesty’s Inspectorate

system (Wilcox & Gray, 1996; Learmonth, 2000; MacBeath, 2006; De Grauwe, 2007).

When the English colonized the ‘new’ world, including Australia and PNG, they introduced

the phenomenon of inspection quite unproblematically resulting in the current contexts of the

inspectorial system (Ball, Cunningham & Radford, 1961; Guthrie, 1983; Golightly, 1992; De

Grauwe, 2007). The main purpose of the inspectorial system in the past was to “identify


55

strengths and weaknesses in schools so that they may improve the quality of education

offered and raise the standards achieved by their pupils. It is a form of quality assurance

carried out by an agency external to the school ……” (Woods & Orlik, 1994, p. 11). This

fundamental purpose of the inspectorial system in many places has remained to this day

despite changes to its basic functions (Learmonth, 2000; Watson, 2001; MacBeath, 2006; De

Grauwe, 2007).

Accounts of how school inspectorial practices were carried out by inspectors since 1862 in

Victoria, Australia, and the current practices in PNG and other developing countries, reveal

many similarities, including checking teaching documents, observing teachers’ lessons, and

inspecting school resources and monitoring the prescribed curriculum requirements (Ball,

Cunningham & Radford, 1961; Guthrie, 1983; Tololo, 1995; Grubb, 2000; MacNab, 2004,

De Grauwe, 2007). This legacy has remained part of the development of education systems

in many countries including New Zealand, PNG, Lesotho, Senegal and Tanzania

(Department of Education, 1971; MacNab, 2004; De Grauwe, 2007). In many countries

including Australia, Netherlands, Singapore and Uganda however, the inspectorial systems

have been replaced by different and more comprehensive quality assurance systems

consisting of specifications for teacher standards and enhanced roles for school supervisors

(Gurr, 2003; MacNab, 2004; De Grauwe, 2007). In other words the original inspectorial

model of quality assurance applied by specifically designated personnel, which is still the

basis of current PNG practices, has been replaced by alternative processes in these other

contexts. Such changes and developments have also incorporated new theories and models in

school organization, leadership and management at the institutional level that support the

‘new inspectorial systems’ (Early, Fidler & Ouston, 1996; Learmonth, 2000). These changes

have also allowed organizational cultures of educational institutions, including schools (and

classrooms as subcultures), to change and adapt accordingly (Chapman, 2001; MacNab,

2004).

In New Zealand, ten years of education reforms have resulted in the improvement of

strategies in the inspectorial system. The changes have introduced a means of assurance

(compliance) through audits and effective reviews that measure academic performance, and

accountability reviews that judge whether schools are satisfying their chartered objectives

(Kenen, 2000; Smith, 2000; MacNab, 2004). In the United States of America, development

in education has resulted in a system-inspection approach where the Office of Inspector

General (OIG) assists and responds to educational issues and concerns at a national level,

including improving financial management, improving the management of information

technology and improving performance measures, amongst other responsibilities


56

(US Department of Education, 2001; US Department of Education, 2002). The OIG reports

directly to Congress on mandated educational responsibilities. This advanced development

is necessary because of the strong school based systems of management including school

based curriculum, professional development and supervision, and strong institutional

leadership.

In Great Britain the HMI system has undergone major changes, with the introduction of the

Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED) in the late 1990s. The OFSTED style of

external inspection facilitates inspectorial functions by reporting on four main areas (Dwyer,

1988; Early, Fidler & Ouston, 1996; Webb & Vulliamy, 1998):

• the educational standards achieved in the school,

• the quality of education provided by the school,

• whether the resources available to the school were managed efficiently,

and

• the spiritual, moral, social and cultural development of students at the

school.

The changes in the inspectorial system from HMI to OFSTED in Great Britain are consistent

with introduced strategies in the school system that includes school development and

strategic planning for school improvement. Lately further developments have incorporated

school self-evaluation processes whereby schools and stakeholders participate in the

inspection processes. These developments emphasize self-evaluation, review, audit, self-

assessment and self-inspection done by the school and the designated inspectors or personnel

to improve academic standards and the quality of education and at the same time involve all

stakeholders in the lives of the schools (MacBeath, 2006).

In Queensland, Australia, Dwyer (1988) reviewed the inspectorial system of the Department

of Education resulting in the replacement of the Queensland school inspectorial system with

a ‘performance measures and performance indicators’ system that empowers heads of

schools to collaboratively plan developmental plans and strategies and to monitor, appraise,

evaluate and report on school and teacher performance through the Office of School

Performance (Queensland Government, 2004). Other states in Australia have their own

‘inspectorial systems’ but mainly focusing on accountability through school self-review

systems whereby student achievements and school effectiveness are the main agenda that are

reported to the State and Federal Governments, and school community for information and

follow up (Gurr, 2007).


57

Such changes to the inspectorial systems experienced in many countries have led to

improvements and developments in school organization, leadership and management

resulting with new approaches to supervision, professional development and quality

assurance. These changes have also embraced new monitoring, appraisal, evaluation and

assessment practices in schools that allow for school cultures to evolve and adapt to the

technological, social, economic and political environments (Dwyer, 1988; Early, Fidler &

Ouston, 1996; Chapman, 2001; MacNab, 2004; De Grauwe, 2007).

2.3.3 The Inspectorial System: An External Supervisory System and its Implications

A school inspectorial system in PNG and elsewhere was generally regarded as an external

and independent component of the education process that has many functions, strategies and

processes including quality assurance, teacher appraisal, teacher development and school

improvement (Ball, Cunningham & Radford, 1961; Dwyer, 1988; Woods & Orlik, 1994;

Early, Fidler & Ouston, 1996; Wilcox & Gray, 1996; Webb & Vulliamy, 1998; Mooney &

Munton, 1999; Campbell & Husbands, 2000; Grubb, 2000; Smith, 2000; Gurr, 2003;

MacNab, 2004; Swaffield & MacBeath, 2005; De Grauwe, 2007). These functions,

strategies and processes were intended to assist the schools to improve academic standards

and the quality of education, and to ensure there was accountability. School personnel are

required to justify the academic standards and quality of education they provided to the

students according to the resources available (Learmonth, 2000). However, while there are

indications of positive impacts of such inspection processes on school planning,

management, improvement and development to ensure the academic standards and the

quality of education are sustained or enhanced (Earley, Fidler & Ouston, 1996; Wilcox &

Gray, 1996; Earley, 1998), there are also problems experienced. The complex, conflicting

and dominant roles of inspectors (Ball, Cunningham & Radford, 1961; Maha, 1992; Tololo,

1995; Dwyer, 1998; MacNab, 2004), the methodology, validity and processes of inspection

including inconsistencies of reporting (Wilcox & Gray, 1996; Watson, 2001; Elegbeleye,

2005), the demeaning effects of the inspection processes on teachers and inspectors

(England, 1973; Learmonth, 2000), and the ‘no lasting impact’ on what teachers do in the

classroom (Case, Case & Catling, 2000; Chapman, 2001; Watson, 2001; De Grauwe, 2007)

are some of the problematic effects on the teaching profession. Such evidences have given

rise to the need to empower school staff to be more responsible for the provision of academic

standards and the quality of education at the school level. These have been major

contributing factors for changes and developments to the inspectorial systems. The question

is how the inspectorial systems influence teachers (MacNab, 2004). It is argued that if


58

tangible outcomes of school systems have to be achieved through the inspectorial systems

then it has to be the teachers who make a prime difference. Though recent studies have

considered teachers’ perceptions of inspectorial systems with changes taking place

(Chapman, 2002; Grauwe, 2007) including the impact of inspection on classroom

supervision (Akbaba, 1997; Case, Case & Catling, 2000; Chapman, 2001) and generally on

the school (Kelchtermans & Vandenberghe, 1998; De Grauwe, 2007), there has been less

consideration and evidence on the influence of the inspectorial processes on specific

dimensions of teacher professionalism. In other words, the notion of how specific strategies

undertaken by inspectors influence teachers and head teachers directly is an issue of

contention.

In analyzing the history, changes, developments, functions, strategies and processes of the

inspectorial systems, as external school supervisory systems, it emerged that its main

functions is to improve school systems so that schools are able to achieve their intended

goals. However, in improving school systems the notion of maintaining and developing

aspects of the school system also emerges as a phenomenal issue. This is because in reality,

if improvements have to be made, current strategies have to be reviewed, maintained and

developed so that tangible outcomes are achieved. At the same time, developments that take

place would indicate that these are results of improvements resulting from teachers being

influence by the inspectorial strategies. These functions, strategies and processes are

pursued through activities that involve direct interactions between inspectors and school

personnel, and other stakeholders. This implies that when inspectors, as external

supervisors, interact with teachers, they use strategies and processes that relate to supervision

(monitoring, teacher development, performance audit, evaluation, assessment), professional

development (teacher development and growth, appraisal), and quality assurance (audit,

accountability, evaluation, assessment). Thus supervision, professional development and

quality assurance can be regarded as interactive strategies of an inspectorial system. These

interactive strategies, with related processes, are interrelated and within them are specific

activities such as communicating and interacting with teachers, providing advice on the

quality of teaching and learning, monitoring the curriculum as required by agencies, and

auditing school finances and school facilities. For example, supervision and professional

development are both concerned with the improvement of work performance for the benefit

of individuals and schools. This is consistent with the view that inspection is a tool for

improvement (Woods & Orlik, 1994; Campbell & Husbands, 2000). At the same time,

quality assurance and supervisory strategies identify and prevent problems through the

evaluation, assessment and monitoring aspects of schools allowing for effective school

improvement and development to take place. Thus maintaining, improving and developing


59

the school system through the supervision, professional development and quality assurance

interactive strategies should result in desired academic standards and quality of education

being achieved. However, the inspectorial systems, the functions, interactive strategies and

processes being applied by inspectors are not “simply a set of methods and procedures but

(also) a complex social practice which has developed over time” (Wilcox & Gray, 1996,

p. 127). It is this complex social practice within the inspectorates and schools, and between

the inspectors and teachers, that needs to be fully understood if the inspectorial systems are

to sustain and enhance academic standards and quality education in schools. The

connections between the functions, strategies and processes of the inspectorial systems are

shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Connections between Functions, Strategies/Processes and Outcomes of

Inspectorial Systems

(4) Strategy & Processes

• Professional development

• Teacher development • Appraisal

(5) Outcomes

• Academic Standards • Quality of education


• Supervision • Monitoring • Teacher development • Performance audit • Evaluation • Assessment

(1) Functions of Inspectorial System • Maintenance • Improvement • Development


• Quality assurance • Audit • ‘Accountability’ • Evaluation • Assessment


60

Box (1) represents the functions/purposes of the inspectorial systems, boxes (2), (3) and (4)

represent the inspectorial interactive strategies and processes applied or occurring between

inspectors and teachers, and box (5) represents the intended outcomes as resulted from

interactive strategies and processes of the inspectorial systems.

Supervision: An Inspectorial Interactive Strategy

Inspectors are external supervisors and carry out supervisory processes when interacting with

school personnel. The history of supervision, as revealed by Glanz (1994), described

inspection as one of the seven models of supervision besides efficiency, democratic,

scientific, leadership, clinical and with changing concepts of inspection that later defined

supervision as a managerial function. Various research studies have inclusively embraced

supervision as an element of the inspectorial systems, implying that the processes that are

applied by inspectors in performing tasks, such as monitoring curriculum implementation,

checking of teaching documents, observing lesson presentations, and evaluating and

assessing teacher and school performances, relate directly to supervision (MacNab, 2004; De

Grauwe, 2007). Thus supervision is concerned with management approaches in schools that

include monitoring, assessing and evaluation of performance of school personnel.

Supervision is making sure individuals, while complying with what is required of them,

perform to expectations in order to increase productivity and to ensure schools achieve their

intended goals. However, Sergiovanni and Starrat (1993) also argued that productivity and

outcomes are not only achieved through compliance but also through human relations

management approaches that are applied by external (including inspectors) and internal

supervisors. In many organizations, including educational institutions, supervision involves

human relationships and meeting the needs of individuals. This is consistent with the

emergence of management strategies from a scientific management approach in the past, or

corporate management approach which considers supervision as “the means by which it

(organization) achieve its ends”, and to a human resources strategy which considers

supervision as having “a higher regard for human need, potential, and satisfaction”

(Sergiovanni & Starratt, 1993, p. 14).

Supervision has also evolved from practices that are concerned with quality improvement,

school development and professional development of teachers (Garman, 1982; Sergiovanni,

1982; Sergiovanni & Starratt, 1993; Barak, Pearlman-Avnion & Glanz, 1997; Duffy, 2000;

Sullivan & Glanz, 2000; Agnew, Vaught, Getz & Fortune, 2000; Yendol & Fichtman, 2001).

Studies have revealed that there are many approaches of supervision. For example, the

‘developmental supervision’ approaches which explored approaches to improve instruction


61

(Barak, Pearlman-Avnion & Glanz, 1997; Glickman, Gordon & Ross-Gordon, 2005); the

‘Tao’ of supervision strategy which applied approaches to educational supervision that were

seen as applied science (Glanz, 1997); the interpretive-practical and the

critical/emancipatory, and collaborative supervision which has a four-phase model that

includes the building of readiness, directed supervision, reflective supervision and teacher

inquiry to improve the quality of teaching and learning in schools (Yendol & Fichtman,

2001). Other supervision approaches include mentoring, use of portfolios for differentiated

supervision, peer coaching and action research (Sullivan & Glanz, 2000; Hillman, 2006)

although these approaches may also be considered aspects of professional development.

Despite the many ideas about supervisory approaches, they are all concerned with

improvements and developments of schools and individuals. However, such approaches

require relations and interactions between supervisors and supervisees and, from an

inspectorial perspective, between inspectors and teachers. Significantly, supervision is vital

to the survival of schools and the achievement of school goals. Sergiovanni and Starrat

(1993), supported by Howard (2003), in his investigation of a ‘Path Model’ of supervision

that has a profound impact on teachers’ commitment and efficacy levels, however

emphasized the need for an appropriate combination of supervision approaches. They

argued that “successful supervision is shaped by the circumstances which the supervisor

faces, and at different times different models may be appropriate” (Sergiovanni and Starrat,

1993, p. 21).

Professional Development: An Inspectorial Interactive Strategy

One of the purposes of inspectorial systems is to develop the school system so that they are

able to meet the challenges and demands of the ever changing societies. However the

development of aspects of schools relies entirely on the work of teachers (and other school

personnel), school leadership and management processes. Thus professional development of

teachers is vital if changes and developments are to be pursued at the institutional level.

Current developments in inspectorial systems provide the opportunity through professional

development programs and appraisal practices that are facilitated and/or undertaken by

inspectorial personnel when interacting with teachers (Ali, 1998; Learmonth, 2000).

Professional development therefore, is an interactive strategy of the inspectorial system

because, irrespective of whichever processes inspectors use when interacting with teachers,

there is bound to be learning taking place (Mclaughlin, 2001).

With professional development being conceived and incorporated as an inspectorial

interactive strategy, both teachers and inspectors have the opportunity to develop


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professionally and this can be indicated if there are positive changes in performances,

behavior and attitudes towards their work. However, to achieve changes in performance,

behavior and attitudes, the strategies and processes of the inspectorial systems that relate to

professional development must be perceived by teachers, head teachers, inspectors and other

stakeholders as directed towards professional development. Thus, the need to relate and

understand professional development as an interactive strategy of the inspectorial system is

critical to how the professional development approaches can influence the teaching

profession.

Professional development is a process that encourages teachers, head teachers and other

school personnel to develop and improve in their profession. This is consistent with the

current context of inspectorial systems as a means for improvement and development

(Dwyer, 1988; Earley, Fidler & Ouston, 1996; Ali, 1998; Grubb, 2000; Mclaughlin, 2001)

and is considered important because teachers are the “greatest assets” to the schools. As

defined by Day (1994), professional development includes:

those conscious and planned activities, which are intended to be of direct

benefit to the individual, group or school and which contribute through

these, to the quality of education in the classroom. It is a process by

which, alone and with others, teachers review, renew and extend their

commitment as change agents to the moral purposes of teaching; and by

which they acquire and develop critically the knowledge and skills

essential to good professional thinking, planning and practice with

children, young people and colleagues through each phase of their teaching

lives (p.2).

Harris & van Tassell (2005), in supporting Day (1994), further emphasize that professional

development should facilitate and create a learning atmosphere and environment in schools

that encourage focus on the moral purposes of teaching, life-long professional and personal

development, quality education and a synthesis to prevail. Cardno (1992) confirms that in

schools:

.....professional development is about the improvement and growth of

professional people which in turn has an impact on what happens in the

classrooms and in schools generally. Each member of a collective

contributes to the corporate effort that makes a mission statement a reality

(p.16).


63

School mission statements, visions and goals with teacher inputs are therefore very critical to

professional development. Fullan (cited in Guskey & Huberman, 1995), in re-

conceptualizing professional development, stresses that “radical changes are required in how

teachers learn and in their opportunities to learn” and suggest that “focusing on the

interrelationship among moral purpose, professional cultures, and teacher education

continuum provides a powerful framework for making professional development central to

the work of all teachers” (p. 266). However in analyzing problems in professional

development from a philosophical, theoretical and practical point of view, Smyth (cited in

Guskey & Huberman, 1995) summarizes the need for “teachers to become real partners in

education by allowing them to reflect upon the social, economic and political factors that

shape and reshape their work” (p. 87) if professional development approaches are to impact

on teachers’ work.

There are many models of professional development that are used in educational institutions.

Recent studies and developments identify mentoring as significant where, through self-

reflection and mutual collaboration both the mentor and the person being mentored benefited

from the mentoring process (Sullivan & Glanz, 2000; Diaz-Maggioli, 2004; Lopez-Real &

Kwan, 2005; Hillman, 2006); and portfolios for different supervision, peer coaching and

action research approaches (Sullivan & Glanz, 2000; Townsend & Bates, 2007). Other

models of professional development include the continuing professional development

models of input/output and benefits that look at professional development from the

professional associations’ perspectives as part of lifelong learning, a means of gaining career

security and a means of personal development amongst other teacher benefits (Friedman &

Philips, 2004; Townsend & Bates, 2007) and structured induction for new teachers that

resulted with increased reflection, improved collegiality, greater teacher autonomy, self-

growth and personal efficacy amongst other findings (Guskey & Huberman, 1995; Smethem

& Adey, 2005). Furthermore, there are also professional development programs that address

teachers’ subject matter through training, workshops and activities for active learning

(Guskey & Huberman, 1995; National Centre for Education Statistics, 2005) and inquiry-

oriented approaches that integrate various professional development practices including self-

examination, reflective discussion, exploratory observation, lesson planning, clinical

supervision and collaboration. The inquiry-oriented approach addresses a shift to the

community and uncertainty that supports learning communities through the engagement of

dialogue with colleagues and other professionals (Hyun & Marshal, 1996; Snow-Gerono,

2005; Townsend & Bates, 2007). The approaches discussed here are also considered as

processes of supervision because both supervision and professional development strategies,


64

irrespective of the nature of the specific activities, deal with improving the professional

capacity of individuals as well as the leadership and management of educational institutions

(Learmonth, 2000; Diaz-Maggioli, 2004).

However, for professional development programs to be effective, they must be adapted and

planned to address the school context (MacBeath, 2005). Furthermore, they need to be

delivered using strategies that increase learning opportunities that enhance the likelihood that

teachers will want to take up opportunities (Hodkinson & Hodkinson, 2005). At the same

time, professional development strategies must have specific foci that address and facilitate

changes and developments in teacher professionalism (Firestone, Mangin, Martinez &

Polovsky, 2005). For example, as recent studies have shown, professional development

approaches that address: anti-racist professional development (Lawrence, 2005); professional

development for powerful learning (Leistyna, 2001); professional development for

multicultural education (Philips, 2003); and professional development for outcomes based

education (Onwu & Mogari, 2004) illustrate specific professional development strategies

that address specific educational agenda in the school system. It is also argued that

professional development programs can be successful when efforts of individuals and

stakeholders are acknowledged, when new knowledge and skills for participants are gained

and implemented, when activities used value the participants as contributors (Reeses, 2005)

and where ‘a school of professional development’ atmosphere and a culture of learning exist

(Philips, 2003; Harris & van Tassell, 2005) in the schools. Thus professional development

as an interactive strategy of the inspectorial system can contribute to the achievement of

school goals if the approaches used by inspectorial personnel are focused on specific issues

that are related to educational changes and developments but are within the school context

and where a school culture of learning and professional development exists.

Quality Assurance: Inspectorial Interactive Strategies

As previously defined (section 1.3.5 – 1.3.6), quality assurance strategies ideally detect and

prevent problematic situations in organizations respectively (Hoy, Bayne-Jardine & Wood,

2000; Lim, 2001) allowing for problems to be resolved immediately and for solutions to be

identified and strategies planned and implemented to avoid anticipated problems. Quality

assurance pursues quality as “themes, outcomes and conditions” (Smith & Ngoma-Maema,

2003, p. 351) with approaches that identify and detect problems and weaknesses so that

improvements, changes and developments are made (Hoy, et al, 2000, Learmonth, 2000).

Quality assurance is also concerned with the maintenance and enhancement of quality of

goods and services through policies that create a philosophy about work, people and human

relations that build around shared values; performance that is exceptional; and availability to


65

provide value for money and to be publicly accountable amongst other desirable results

(Lim, 2001; Travers, 2007). As interactive strategies of the inspectorial system, quality

assurance strategies embrace evaluation, assessment and monitoring and has continued to be

a major focus for the existence of the inspectorial systems in many countries (Webb &

Vulliamy, 1998; Campbell & Husbands, 2000; Norton, 2000; Smith, 2000; Gurr, 2003;

Department of Education, 2004a; Swaffield & MacBeath, 2005; MacBeath, 2006; van

Amelsvoort, Bos, Janssens, Klaver, Lelyveld & Pol, 2006). At the same time quality

assurance strategies and processes within the inspectorial systems also cater for public

accountability, implying that quality assurance for accountability purposes is not only a

means of control but also a means of prevention (Maclaughlin, 2001; van Amelsvoort, et al,

2006).

Quality assurance interactive strategies of the inspectorial systems relate directly to the

evaluation, assessment and monitoring processes carried out by inspectors concerning what

teachers do and accomplish in pursuing academic standards and the quality of education.

This is done through quality assurance activities that include communicating and interacting

with teachers, using checklists to evaluate, assess and monitor quantitative indicators (such

as required number of infrastructure facilities including classrooms, recreational areas and

class sizes) and qualitative indicators (such as used of textbooks, teacher qualifications, in-

service training) of quality education (Welch, 2000).

However, in many countries the strategies and processes of quality assurance have changed

or modified to embrace school based strategies that include school self-evaluation and self-

assessment which are also considered as processes of supervision (MacBeath, 2006).

Despite such changes and modifications, the legacies and principles of inspection for quality

assurance through means of evaluation, assessment and monitoring for compliance and

accountability have remained. For example, as earlier emphasized, in New Zealand the

focus of the inspectorial system for a decade has been on compliance with and accountability

to the provision of student academic performance and the quality of education (Kenen, 2000;

Smith, 2003) while in the United Kingdom and other European countries, the focus is on

quality improvement, accountability and the developmental aspects of schools and school

personnel (Stanley & William, 1998; Webb & Vulliamy, 1998; Maclaughlin, 2001; van

Amelsvoort, et al, 2006). In some higher educational institutions including universities, the

focus of quality assurance is on internal improvement and external accountability or on the

processes of evaluation and self-assessment (Maassen, 1998; Mora & Vidal, 1998;

Westerheijden, Stensaker & Rosa, 2007). Such emphasis allows for institutional personnel


66

to be answerable to and accountable to the academic standards and the quality of education

provided by the educational institutions.

While studies have revealed positive impacts of the quality assurance strategies of the

inspectorial system on school management and development (Earley, Fidler & Ouston, 1996;

Earley, 1998; Wilcox & Gray, 1996; Gibb, 2003), there is a lack of evidence to illuminate

what quality assurance strategies and processes have on aspects of the teaching profession.

This is one of the gaps in the literature that this thesis seeks to address.

2.3.4 Inspectorial System: The PNG Context

The inspectorial system in PNG continues to use the ‘traditional’ supervision and quality

assurance strategies, with recent developments that have embraced professional development

strategies (Bray, 1985; Department of Education, 2000c; Department of Education, 2004a;

Mel, 2007). Through these strategies applied by inspectors the inspectorial system continues

to concentrate on the evaluation, assessment and monitoring of education standards and the

quality of education (Welch, 2000; Tapo, 2004; Matsuura, 2004). Despite such

developments in supervisory and quality assurance practices (e.g. changes in the inspector as

an evaluator to an advisor), the functions of the inspectorial system remain the same. Such

functions of the inspectorial system include maintaining and improving national education

standards, facilitating professional development of teachers, improving school based

supervision and management, and providing quality assurance services through inspectors’

advisory and inspection roles (section 1.3.4). The advisory role encompasses supervision,

professional development and quality assurance strategies (particularly the monitoring

process) while the inspection role encompasses the quality assurance strategies (particularly

the evaluation and assessment processes) (Mel, 2007). As minor changes have taken place

over the years, the processes used by inspectors in dealing with teachers remains

unchallenged despite concerns raised through various studies about the conflicting,

confusing and multiple roles of inspectors (section 1.3.4). The reality is that there are no

clear demarcations between supervision, professional development and quality assurance

interactive strategies and how these influence teachers.

It is noted that in PNG, school based supervisors and inspectors as external supervisors,

carry out their responsibilities without clear outcomes because inspectorial advisory and

inspection processes have remained mandatory and have probably taken on ritual qualities.

This implies that teachers continue to be restricted to traditional practices that are

compulsorily required of them with limited flexibility to be innovative in their profession.


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As mentioned earlier, in practice the evaluation and assessment (inspection) roles performed

by inspectors continue to dominate because of the need to assess teachers’ competence for

promotion (Guthrie, 1983; Lahui-Ako; 2001; Mel, 2007). Such arguments are beginning to

question the effectiveness of the inspectorial system and its impact on teacher

professionalism. It is therefore necessary to analyze the supervision, professional

development and quality assurance strategies and examine how these strategies link to the

dimensions of teacher professionalism. This study investigates the perceptions of teachers,

head teachers and inspectors on the interactive strategies of the inspectorial system and

relates these to the perceived dimensions of teacher professionalism so that the inspectorial

system can have a focused role in enhancing teacher professionalism at the school level.

Doing this should establish clear purposes and outcomes that take precedent over mandatory

and ritual practices.

2.4 Teacher Professionalism

This section defines professionalism from an historical perspective and reviews the current

status of teacher professionalism in the literature, and in doing so, identifies the dimensions

of teacher professionalism. It culminates with a synthesis of the PNG context of teacher

professionalism (Section 1.3.8) and the reviewed dimensions of teacher professionalism.

The identified dimensions of teacher professionalism are further discussed in the summary of

this section (Section 2.4.2) to illustrate relationships that exist with the interactive strategies

of the inspectorial system (Section 2.3).

2.4.1 Professionalism Defined

Historically, professions were defined as the “broad and privileged class of occupations

characterized by highly trained expertise, selection by merit, and subject to peer

surveillance” (Bacon, Groundwater-Smith, Nash & Sachs, 2000, p. 3). Professionals

therefore were experts with specialist knowledge and skills in both economic and social

power settings, separating them from ordinary groups of workforce. This early notion of

professions and professionals transpired into professionalism as a legitimated “high status

(which include prestige and esteem) and well rewarded activity, where practitioners share

common cultural capital with their clients based on class membership” (Bacon et al, 2000,

p. 3; Hoyle, 2001). However, with different developments in class structures of service

industries the notions of “exclusivity and abstract knowledge (have) remained the foundation

for determining what was to be a professional” (Bacon et al, 2000, p. 3). Despite this,

professionalism also continues to be a form of occupational control and is an affirmation of

expertise where specific knowledge, skills, professional conduct, autonomy and


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responsibility are applied in a particular field of profession (Busher & Saran, 1995;

Furlough, Barton, Miles, Whiting & Whitty, 2000; Whitty, 2006). Furthermore

professionalism relates directly to persons displaying in one’s public (and private) life types

of behaviors likely to meet with the approval of the community in which one practices one’s

professional skills. Thus one “behaves in a professional manner ….. (and is) competent to

practice without interference” (Kompf, Bond, Dworet & Boak, 1996, p. 5) in one’s own field

of expertise. Robson (2006) relates professionalism as a discourse implying that

professionalism is culturally and socially constructed. It is a “constitutive and regulatory

‘discourse’, a cultural and social practice” (p. 9) that supports and reproduces power

relations in order to secure control of a body of knowledge in particular institutions. This

implies that professionalism evolves and is a collective symbol that consists of ideas that are

interrelated to produce a way of thinking about occupations (Robson, 2006). The teaching

profession is no exception.

Professionalism also concerns professional ethics within professional disciplines.

Professional ethics are moral principles, rules and conventions that govern and guide what

people do, how people behave and act, and as such, cannot be separated from

responsibilities. In general, the concept of professional ethics refers to ‘what is right or

wrong’, ‘what is good or bad’ and ‘what ought to be done’. It differentiates between what is

socially accepted from what is not socially accepted. In other words, it is a commitment to

good and is a concept of what makes up a profession’s purposes and the activities undertaken

by members of the profession to produce what is expected by the community (Strike &

Ternaskey, 1993; Bagley & Johanson, 2003; Becker & Weldon, 2004). Professional ethics is

influenced by “external ideological, political and economical factors (that) impose their own

influences on personal, professional and organizational integrity” (Chadwick, 1994, p.145).

These influences arise at all levels of organizations and involve individuals in the areas of

management, leadership and decision making. In other words, individuals in organizations

(including schools) are always under pressure from social, economic and ideological forces

that require them to respond to societal pressures. At the same time, “constant concern for

fair resource allocations, identifying priorities and informed decision making, which will

have many varied influences, (are) directly affecting members of the organization’s

community” (Chadwick, p. 155). Such a situation requires Codes of Professional Ethics that

provide guidance and instill confidence in the competence and standards of members of a

profession so that the results they produce can be measured for the public to redress and to

ensure the highest standards of the profession exists (Strike & Ternasky, 1993).


69

Professional ethics in educational settings relate to whether policies and practices are right or

whether they serve the intended educational goals. They include moral education that

models respect for law, democratic values and skills, tolerance, norms and principles that

govern the conduct of teachers, head teachers, inspectors and others within the education

system. Professional ethics encourages fairness in monitoring, assessment and evaluation of

performance, and address equitable distributions of resources, including time and money.

Importantly, professional ethics is a dynamic process that requires personal and professional

codes that influence actions by educational personnel and that work to the best interests of

the students (Shapiro & Stefkovic, 2005).

2.4.2 Teacher Professionalism: The Dimensions

How teacher professionalism is defined depends on the historical and cultural contexts (that

is its definition is different with different historical and cultural contexts) of a given

situation. This implies that the status, dimensions, characteristics, perceptions and concepts

related to teacher professionalism vary with the level of education development and other

developments of a developed or developing country (Ganser, 2001; Whitty, 2006; Robson,

2006; Smith, 2007; Rizvi & Elliott, 2007). For example, Ganser (2001) when quoting

Hargreaves & Fullan in his discussion paper on the observations of teaching as a profession

from an international perspective, categorized the development of teacher professionalism

into four phases; the pre-professional age (before 1960s) which relates a teacher to being “a

practical model – watching a teacher teach and then imitating what he or she does” (p.4), the

age of the autonomous professionals (beginning 1960s) which reflects the improved status of

teachers where new knowledge and skills became part of their daily practice, the age of the

collegial professionals (beginning in the mid-1980) which includes the notion of teachers

working in collaboration through “professional learning, especially teachers learning from

one another, ….to replace traditional methods of staff development …”, (p. 5) and the

professional age (beginning in the late 1990s) where teachers are exposed and influenced by

social, economic, political, and cultural transformations and the involvement and

participation of parents and other stakeholders were predominant. These observations are

the results of changes in the population of students attending schools, changes and

innovations in schools, tensions between centralizing and decentralizing schooling, and new

unionism.

In Pakistan, Rizvi (2003) investigated teacher professionalism within the context of the

education reform in Pakistan. To do this she identified teacher efficacy, teacher practice,

teacher collaboration and teacher leadership as dimensions of teacher professionalism.


70

Furlough, et al (2000) defined teacher professionalism in terms of the capacity to use

knowledge to perform work while Lyons (1998) described it as what teachers plan, conduct

and how teachers evaluate their work. Beck & Murphy (as cited in Rizvi, 2003) defined

teacher professionalism as a “complex construct, one that includes numerous components,

such as commitment, satisfaction, and efficacy” (Rizvi, 2003, pp. 40-50). Kompf et al

(1996), supported by Verloop (2001), relate teacher professionalism to the quality of

teachers’ work but with multiple roles and how professional knowledge is organized and

used and the importance of school culture on teacher professionalism (professional

development, professional knowledge base of teaching and development and use of teacher

expertise) and advocate that there is “a close relationship between the concept of knowledge-

base of teaching and the social position of teaching as a profession” (pp. 20-32). Teacher

professionalism, within the social position of teaching, further relates to moral

professionalism that include moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation and moral

character which are essential education in personal development in schools (Beninga, 2003).

Sachs (2001) and Robson (2006) further discuss and identify teacher professionalism as a

collective symbol incorporating three concepts that are interrelated; the autonomy concept

that relates to the practice of teaching as having considerable scope for autonomous decision

making with the ability to implement knowledge and appropriate skills, the professional

knowledge concept which implies that teachers have a coherent body of ‘professional

knowledge’ that is unique, and the responsibility concept that requires teachers to relate and

be responsible to students, to employers, and to the values and practices of the teaching

profession.

The concepts of teacher professionalism as discussed here indicates the continuous

rethinking of the teaching profession as a result of the global changes in industrial, business

and professional activities that are consistent with social, economic and political

developments (Bryan, 2004; Ekiz, 2004). At the same time, the concept of managerial and

democratic professionalism in the teaching profession is coming into contention (Sachs,

2003). This means that teacher professionalism in any given context can be influenced by

various factors and evolves with developments. In support of this Sachs (2003), in

comparing and summarizing the old ideas of teacher professionalism (teacher knowledge and

beliefs about teaching, learning and subject matter, accountability, responsibility, teacher

performance) with the new teacher professionalism (ethics of truth, subjectivity, reflective

integrity, humility and humanistic education), argued that teacher professionalism is not

static and stresses that:


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Developing new forms of teacher professionalism demands the

development of new skills by teachers. In order to move beyond old forms

of teacher professionalism the work of teaching needs to be redefined.

This is not only in terms of skills required in the classroom to ensure

effective learning outcomes by students, but also in terms of the needs of

teachers as adult learners (p. 4).

Teacher professionalism requires continuous rethinking in a way that is consistent with

social, economic and political development, implying that those involved with the teaching

profession must negotiate and renegotiate meanings and processes in order to engage

teachers to a ‘broader project’ of teacher professionalism (Sachs, 2000; Robson, 2006).

Teacher professionalism therefore evolves and needs rethinking with each context and level

of education in each setting. Not withstanding this point, Sachs (1999) appropriately

summarizes teacher professionalism by emphasizing that:

….the development of teacher professionalism is an ongoing struggle that

goes beyond the struggle for meaning: it is the struggle for the profession

to be in control of its own future. It is the profession itself that provides

the moral and intellectual leadership to ensure that student learning is of

high quality and that working conditions of teachers are enhanced (pp. 85-

86).

Figure 2.2 is a ‘show case’ of the dimensions of teacher professionalism as reviewed and that

vary within the contexts of different levels of education development in each country or

setting.


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Figure 2.2: The Faces of Teacher Professionalism

2.4.3 Teacher Professionalism: PNG Context

The PNG education system is currently focusing on the education reform (Section 1.3.2).

However there has been little consideration of teacher professionalism and how it can be

defined or redefined so that it can play a pivotal role in implementing educational and

government policies. It seems that teacher professionalism within the PNG context still

maintains the old teacher professionalism status (Sachs, 2003). It has been static and,

although teacher qualifications and other professional development strategies are in place to

address current developments (Neuendorf, 1989; Department of Education, 1990a; Avalos &

Neuendorf, 1991; Department of Education, 2000c), there is no specific focus to signify the

development of the teaching profession that would be consistent with the education reform.

The PBDS, the TSC and the Education Acts basically require teachers to perform and meet

the requirements and expectations of the authorities. In other words teacher professionalism

is more extrinsic whereby teachers rely heavily on outside influences from authorities,

including inspectors, to maintain, improve and develop the teaching profession. At the

school level there remain old practices of maintaining the profession through in-service

activities that incorporated supervision and professional development strategies that have

little or no sustainable effects on the teaching profession (Case, Case & Catling, 2000;

Chapman, 2001; Watson, 2001; De Grauwe, 2007). However despite this situation and the

many developments that have transpired over the years there is no evidence of any changes

Teacher

Professionalism

Teacher ethics

Teacher efficacy

Teacher performance

Teacher accountability Teacher professional development

Teacher knowledge

Teacher conduct

Teacher beliefs

Teacher practice Teacher satisfaction

Teacher self-evaluation

Teacher morale

Teacher plan Teacher responsibility

Teacher commitment

Teacher leadership

Teacher collaboration

Teacher expertise

Teacher quality work Teacher autonomy

Teacher organization


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to the teaching profession. This study investigated and generated the dimensions of teacher

professionalism from the PNG context and related these to the strategies of the inspectorial

interactive strategies allowing for a new conceptual framework for an inspectorial system

that enhances teacher professionalism.

2.5 Summary of the Literature Review

Inspectorial systems are external and independent means of supervision, professional

development and quality assurance of school systems. While the inspectorial systems have

remained in some countries, including PNG, as legacies of the past, other countries have

established new external supervisory, professional development and quality assurance

strategies that are consistent with relevant developments in education, economics and

politics. Despite these changes, the inspectorial systems still maintain three main functions.

These are maintaining, improving and developing aspects of school systems. Thus, as

external school supervisors, inspectors interact with teachers and head teachers through three

major inspectorial interactive strategies, that of supervision, quality assurance and

professional development of teachers and head teachers. These interactive strategies are

intended to influence teachers and head teachers so that the academic standards and the

quality of education are improved or sustained to meet the levels required and expected by

stakeholders. However to what extent teachers and head teachers are influenced by the

inspectorial interactive strategies is uncertain.

This review reveals that the inspectorial interactive strategies influence schools’

effectiveness, management, academic standards, curriculum, accountability, leadership,

instruction, and communications and relationships with stakeholders (Earley, Fidler &

Ouston, 1996; Wilcox & Gray, 1996; Akbaba, 1997; Barak, Pearlman-Avnion & Glanz,

1997; Earley, 1998; Kelchtermans & Vandenberghe, 1998; Learmonth, 2000; Case, Case &

Catling, 2000; Chapman, 2001; Glickman, Gordon & Ross-Gordon, 2005; De Grauwe,

2007). Directly with teachers, it is noted that teachers’ efficacy levels and commitment, and

improved instructions have been some major influences (Sergiovanni and Starrat, 1993;

Howard, 2003). Though literature predominantly posits these general influences, there is

insufficient evidence and knowledge about the specific relationships between the inspectorial

interactive strategies (supervision, professional development, quality assurance), and each of

the specific dimensions of teacher professionalism (Figure 2.2).

However, for inspectorial interactive strategies to influence teachers and head teachers, the

status of teacher professionalism in given situations needs to be assessed so that strategies


74

applied by inspectorial personnel can have sustainable influence on teachers and head

teachers. This requires consideration of organizational cultures that influence teachers, head

teachers and inspectors in their profession. A culture that emphasizes a learning

environment for teachers and head teachers to change their beliefs and values is essential for

changes and developments to take place in the school system (Tam & Cheng, 2003). This

requires teachers, head teachers and inspectorial personnel to perceive clearly the functions

and strategies of the inspectorial system and how this would influence the dimensions of

teacher professionalism either individually or collectively through the inspectorial interactive

strategies. In other words there must be clear demarcations between the inspectorial

interactive strategies and how each of these influenced the dimensions of teacher

professionalism. At the same time, the evolution of teacher professionalism has to be

consistent with social, economic and political developments. This requires continuous

rethinking of teacher professionalism. It is argued that the inspectorial system can play a

major role in any improvement to the status of teacher professionalism because of its major

functions within a school system.

The literature relating to organizational culture, inspectorial systems and teacher

professionalism, indicates that there is a need for these issues to be investigated in PNG.

This would allow for a re-contextualized framework for the inspectorial system to focus on

specific dimensions of teacher professionalism as its priority. Drawing on these conclusions,

Figure 2.3 illustrates the initial conceptual framework and conceptualized, guided and

outlined the issues that were investigated in this study. It indicates the main functions of the

inspectorial system with its input processes (inspectors, management issues, etc), the

interactive strategies as processes applied by inspectors (supervision, professional

development and quality assurance), and teacher professionalism as the outcome. Teacher

professionalism and its dimensions were investigated within the PNG context. How these

were related to the inspectorial interactive strategies is of significance to this study. Both of

these, the dimensions of teacher professionalism and the ‘relationships’, are represented by

‘question marks’.


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Figure 2.3: The Initial Conceptual Framework

INSPECTORIAL SYSTEM

Maintenance Function Improvement Function Development Function

QUALITY CONTROL & ASSURANCE

Detection of problems Prevention of problems

SUPERVISION Mentoring Evaluation Assessment of teacher

performance and standards

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Appraisal of teachers Improvement of teacher

performance Development of teachers

? ? ?

TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM

INT

ER

-AC

TIV

E S

TR

AT

EG

IES

(Ins

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ors &

Tea

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s)

TE

AC

HE

RS

INSP

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RS

INPU

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PRO

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OU

TC

OM

ES

OR

GA

NISA

TIO

NA

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?


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CHAPTER THREE

Research Design

3.1 Introduction

This chapter outlines the research methodology used in this study and begins with a

discussion on the philosophical background of the nature of reality and knowledge.

Ontological and epistemic assumptions that distinguish quantitative and qualitative research

are considered. The rationale for a qualitative methodology as the preferred approach for

this study is then presented, followed by the justifications to use multiple case study

methods. The methods for collecting data, including interviews, focus group discussions and

document examination, are discussed followed by the methods of analysis. Issues related to

validity and reliability, ethics, problems and limitations are discussed before the chapter is

summarized.

3.2 Philosophical Background

The study of ontology and epistemology in the western world evolves from the Greeks

beginning with Thales in the sixth century B.C. and through to Socrates, Plato and Aristotle

(Guthrie, 1967; Olen, 1983) and to more recent western philosophers including Kant,

Compte and Hegel (Knox, 1967; Singer, 1983; Murphy, 1994; Cicovacki, 2002). However

parallels also exist in China and India, and in many other cultures (Waley, 1939; Moore,

1980; Reese, 1980). In science and social sciences thinking seeks to reason and find answers

to problems by examining at empirical circumstances of phenomena. Knowledge is

therefore created through testing for truth and empirical adequacy by identifying and

defining concepts and investigating them through human inquiry. Popper and Eccles (cited in

Keeves, 1997) identify three different worlds involving inquiry - the ‘real world’ with its

entities which include physical objects and structures such as schools; the ‘world of

subjective experiences’ or the ‘learner’s mind’ which is concerned with individual mental

states that comprises conscious and unconscious states of mind of individuals, and the

‘objective world’ or the ‘body of language’ which is the product of human minds. Research

therefore is concerned with the process of inquiry that involves the acceptance and adoption

of a systematic approach. This is necessary because of the need to understand issues and to

establish valid evidence about human behaviors and beliefs. Research allows the researcher

to investigate a phenomenon rather than simply recording the likes and dislikes or the rules

of a context. Thus the objective of any systematic research is to create knowledge through


77

ontological and epistemic activities which enquire about reality and knowledge of human

behavior and beliefs respectively.

3.2.1 Ontology

Ontology is concerned with the nature of reality, and in social sciences, it refers to social

reality, that is, what is social reality and how it can be studied. Positivism “assumes that

there is objective reality subject to natural laws such as cause and effect and there are

universal truths that can be discovered through inquiry” (Imel, Kerka & Wonacott, 2002,

p. 3; Peca, 2000). The positivist “characterizes the world as made up of observable,

measurable facts” (Glesne, 1999, pp. 4-5) and “incorporates methods and principles of

natural science for the study of human behaviour” (Burns, 2000, p. 4). From observations,

the positivist recognizes events and inducts laws and theories, and through deduction,

explains what is real and predicts human issues.

However with alternative paradigms to positivism, including interpretivism, social reality is

assumed to be constructed through interaction and communication with the participants

about their perceptions within the participants’ social setting (Glesne, 1999). Through these

processes the interpretivist understands that “reality is a human construct” (Wellington,

2000, p. 16) and, through exploring, elaborating and sharing the “multiple socially

constructed realities” (Emel, et al, 2002, p. 3), the researcher develops insights into situations

(Wellington, 2000). Thus the interpretive social research paradigm interprets and

understands human behaviors and beliefs because human beings have reasons for their

actions and reactions to social situations, and how they construct their lives and the meanings

they attach to their constructed lives. The interpretive social research paradigm guides this

study.

3.2.2 Epistemology

Epistemology addresses the questions such as “what is the relationship between the knower

and what is known? How do we know what we know? What counts as knowledge?” (Imel,

et al, 2002, p. 4). In the positivism paradigm, the object of the study is taken to be

independent of researchers thus implying that knowledge is discovered and verified through

direct observations of measurements of phenomena. The facts are established by taking

apart a phenomenon to examine its components (Peca, 2000; Imel, et al, 2002). The

positivist therefore believes in the “objective knowledge of external reality which is rational

and independent of the observed” (Wellington, 2000, p. 16) and generally aims to seek

generalization and ‘hard’ quantitative data as answers to problems (Wellington, 2000).


78

With alternate paradigms to positivism, including interpretivism, knowledge is established

through the meanings that are attached to the phenomena being studied and through the

interaction between the researchers and the subjects of the study to obtain data (Imel, etal,

2002). Knowledge therefore is sourced through dialogue, logical reasoning and empirical

experience implying that the truth is a product of a particular ‘language game’, something

that is contextual, conventional and relative. The interpretivist therefore accepts pragmatic

views of reality, understands, models, explains and theorizes it with extreme explanations of

existing evidence which may not match reality but approximate it (Hanfling, 1967;

Parkinson, 1967). Concepts, models and schemes are invented to make sense of experience,

and are continually tested and modified with new experiences. Thus knowledge is derived

from consensus concerning what is real, what is useful and what meanings knowledge has,

especially meanings from action and for further action (Lincoln & Guba, 2000). Knowledge

therefore is influenced by activities, contexts and cultures within its use, and is time

dependent. Knowing and reality are confirmed to be dependent human practices that are

constructed through interactions between human beings and their world (Crotty, 1998). In

the interpretivism approach the inquiry also changes the behavior and beliefs of both the

researcher and the subject of the research, which is unlikely in the positivism approach.

Thus the interpretivism approach inquiry is considered relevant and vital to this study.

3.2.3 The Philosophical Position of this Study

This study investigates and analyses the perceptions of teachers, head teachers and primary

school inspectors, and the cultural and empirical bases of the inspectorial system and teacher

professionalism in PNG primary schools. It adopts the philosophical view of interpretivism

to explore the socially constructed nature of reality that influences the participants’ beliefs

and behaviors. It is argued that the nature of reality is not constant but is a function of

interaction and perception that is highly subjective and is in need of exploration and

interpretation. The study assumes that there are multiple constructed realities of the system

under discussion that can be studied holistically. This initial argument convinced me, as the

researcher and practitioner, to use the interpretivism paradigm to guide me in this study.

This position is taken because of the following reasons:

• In order to understand the nature of constructed realities, I had to interact

with participants of the research about their experiences, beliefs and

perceptions of the inspectorial system and teacher professionalism.


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• I am concerned with the local context of the problem. I considered the

ontological and epistemological assumptions and characteristics of

interpretivism as more appropriate for the PNG context as a developing

country. This means that the context of the problem from a western or

developed country’s perspective cannot influence or be transferred to the

PNG context but can only be considered as presumptions (Crossley &

Vulliamy, 1996).

• The interpretivist recognizes that the human experience as complex that is

shaped by many factors. Through a holistic approach the factors that

underpin teachers’, head teachers’ and primary school inspectors’ beliefs,

values and behavior about the focus of the study are explored and

addressed.

• The interpretivist is concerned with understanding and interpreting human

experiences as opposed to explanation and predictions. The aim of this

study is to understand the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of teachers,

head teachers and primary school inspectors about the context of the

inspectorial system and teacher professionalism, and the relationships

between them.

• The ‘world’ of the participants is of central concern in this study, and the

individual and multiple perspectives of participants are the major focus.

At the same time my own experiences and background on the inspectorial

system and teacher professionalism support the study and are considered

vital to the outcomes of the research.

For these reasons, an interpretivism approach and a qualitative research methodology was

chosen as appropriate for this study.

3.3 Research Methodology

Research in the social sciences has been traditionally dominated by quantitative approaches

that are associated with the philosophy of positivism (Peca, 2000; Imel, et al, 2002). This

has raised the question “whether the positivist approaches used in physical sciences were

appropriate for the study of social and human issues” (Imel, et al, 2002, p. 3). Thus, the

alternative approaches to the positivism approach that include constructivism/interpretivism,

critical, feminist and the use of qualitative approaches, has increased in some disciplines

(Imel, et al, 2002). This study adopted a case study method where schools and inspectorates

as organizations of the ‘real world’, the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of the research


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participants in the ‘world of subjective experiences’ and the collective analysis of

individual’s minds as the ‘objective world’ were explored to find answers to the research

questions.

3.3.1 Qualitative Research

Qualitative research methodology encompasses biography, phenomenology, grounded

theory, ethnography and case study with each having its own intellectual history and

methods of collecting and analyzing data (Creswell, 1988). Qualitative research values

personal meanings that result from the context of direct experiences of participants and that

can lead to the discovery of deeper levels of meaning of the issues being studied. The

important task is to capture what people say and do, as a product of how they interpret the

complexity of their world, and to understand events from their views (Glesne, 1999; Burns,

2000). While there are relevant features of qualitative research methodologies, the three

major features that are relevant are data, context and inductive analysis. Qualitative

approaches to collecting data allow for very rich and in-depth information to be collected

and analyzed. Such approaches are able to be ‘sensitive’ to the social, historical and

temporal setting of the issue being investigated and allow for the exploration of the data

through opened dialogues between the researcher and the participants (Best & Kahn, 2003).

This study uses case study as the research method to reveal the behavior, thoughts, feelings

and perceptions of participants (Glesne, 1999; Burns, 2000; Best & Kahn, 2003) about

various aspects of the relationship between the inspectorial system and its interactive

strategies, and teacher professionalism and its dimensions. The participants’ behaviors and

beliefs about experiences as a result of the interactive strategies of the inspectorial system,

and their understanding of the dimensions of teacher professionalism are explored,

elaborated and interpreted individually and collaboratively in pursuing the objective of the

study. This allows for the linkages between the interactive strategies of the inspectorial

system and the dimensions of teacher professionalism being identified and conclusions made

about their relationships. This allows the conceptual and contextual framework of the

inspectorial system to be developed as one of the main outcomes of the study.

3.3.2 Case Study Method

Case study has been a controversial research methodology beginning with its definition as a

method of collecting data within the paradigms of quantitative and qualitative research to its

current status as a separate research strategy within its own assumptions. It can involve

quantitative and/or qualitative approaches depending on the nature of the research question


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and its design. However the ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions are usually the essence of case study

research methodology (Burns, 2000; Yin, 2003a).

Case study is thus “a generic term for investigation of an individual, a group, or

phenomenon” (Keeves, 1997, p. 61). However to “qualify as a case study it (the case) must

be a bounded system – an entity in itself” (Burns, 2000, p. 460). Thus, case study is a

specific, complex and functioning, integrated system, a setting, a single subject, a single

depository of documents or a particular event (Stake, 1995; Wellington, 2000). This implies

that in case study “people and programs are prospective cases” (Stake, 1995, p. 2).

Importantly case study research methodology is “concerned with the rigorous and fair

presentation of empirical data” (Yin, 2003a, p. 2). Case study is an empirical inquiry that

“investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the

boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not clearly evident” (Yin, 2003a,

pp. 13-14). It deals with the “technically distinctive situation …… and as one result, relies

on multiple sources of evidence, with data needing to converge in a triangulation fashion,

and as another result benefits from the prior development of theoretical proposition to guide

data collection and analysis” (Yin, 2003a, pp. 13-14).

Case study research is used to “gain in-depth understanding replete with meaning for the

subject, focusing on process rather than outcome, or discovery rather than confirmation”

(Burns, 2000, p. 460). Thus, collecting very extensive data to produce understanding of the

case being studied is critical to the outcome of the investigation. Stake (1995) stresses that a

“good case study is patient, reflective, willing to see another view” (p. 12) of persons and is

characterized by its outcome that is trustworthy and informed with the potential for

improving situations. Its report is ethical in respect of participants and is meaningful (Pratt

& Swann, 2003). There are different kinds of research methods that can be used for

investigation in case studies. Burns (2000) highlights historical, observational, oral history,

situation analysis and clinical methods that involve historical documents, observation and

interview, interviewing, particular events and in-depth understanding of particular cases as

methods of evidences respectively. These methods are generally non-interventionist and

empathic, with emphasis on particularization and generalization, depending on the nature of

the issue being investigated. However, while a case study may involve a wide range of

different methods and can illuminate and gain insight with a strong sense of reality that can

lead into further studies, it does not attempt to control events (Stake, 1995; Wellington,

2003).


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Stake (1995) and Wellington (2000) categorize case studies into intrinsic, instrumental and

collective approaches. In intrinsic case study research method, learning and gaining an

understanding of a particular case and taking intrinsic interest in the program are vital

ingredients. In instrumental case study research method, accomplishing something other

than understanding ‘people’ through a criterion-referenced means is important. This

provides an insight into a particular issue or hypotheses, an understanding and knowledge of

something. The collective case study (or multi-case study) involves two or more cases that

have similar or contrasting characteristics allowing for theories to be generated and with a

different mode of thinking compared to a single case study.

This study engaged the above principles of the case study because of the nature of the major

question which investigates the behavior, beliefs and perceptions of the participants about

the inspectorial system and its interactive strategies, and teacher professionalism and its

dimensions within the school and inspectorate settings as multi-case study cases.

3.3.3 Intrinsic Study Method

This study used the intrinsic study method where the researcher learned about a particular

case for its own sake rather than being concerned with outside factors and influences. As

Stake (1995) emphasized, “the more the intrinsic interest (we have) in the case, the more we

will restrain our curiosities and special interests and the more we will try to discern issues

critical to ‘the situation’” (p.4). Thus the intrinsic study method allowed for a better

understanding of a particular issue within the phenomenon being studied as perceived by the

participants of the research.

3.3.4 Multi-Case Study Method

This study also used the multi-case study method. This involved a number of cases that had

similar or contrasting characteristics (Burns, 2000; Yin, 2003a) and was considered as

having the same principles as the single case study method. While there are advantages and

disadvantages, its strength is that the collected data and evidences are “more persuasive and

more accessible” (Blaxter, Hughes & Tight, 2001, p. 73). Multi-case study method uses the

‘replication’ process where the first finding or findings can be compared with the second or

third for similarities or contrasts and/or relevance or irrelevance to allow for interpretations

and analysis to be made. If there are contrasts then propositions are revised or retested with

other set of cases and if there are similarities then a richer theoretical framework is

anticipated. Importantly, the multi-case study method allows for interpretations to be


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concluded from a specific instance with data analysis being cumulatively done in producing

results through aggregated replications (Wellington, 2000; Burns, 2000; Blaxter, et al, 2001).

3.4 Data Sources

The four multi-case studies for the research were made up of four primary schools and four

provincial primary school inspectorates in PNG. With the four schools and inspectorates,

one school and inspectorate represented each of PNG’s four regions; the New Guinea

Islands, the Highlands, the Momase (coastal mainland) and the Southern regions. Each

region had similar cultural and geographical background. The teachers, head teachers and

inspectors of each school and provincial inspectorate formed each case study.

3.4.1 Selection of Multi-Case Study Cases

The schools were pre-selected (Stake, 1995, Glesne 1999) based on the following criteria:

• accessibility by transport;

• the schools had been visited by inspectors during the last ten years;

• the head teachers had been in the schools for the last three years; and

• the four schools represented urban and government schools, mission

agency schools, rural schools and remote schools.

Brief background information, including locations, demographic information and

organizational structures of the schools were gathered to assist with data analysis. The pre-

selected schools based on the above criteria allowed for unbiased representations that may be

prompted by the study.

The four provincial primary school inspectorates were pre-selected with no particular

criteria. However, because of the cultural and geographical similarities, each inspectorate

represented each region of PNG. The provincial schools and primary school inspectorates

are selected with the information given in Table 3.1.


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Table 3.1: Selected Multi-Case Sites

Region Province/Inspectorate Primary School Type

New Guinea Islands West New Britain Atus Primary School * Remote

Momase Madang Barata Primary School * Urban -

Mission

Highlands Eastern Highlands Nokondi Primary School * Government

Southern Central Dekenai Primary School * Rural

* Fictitious names

3.4.2 Pilot Case Study

Prior to the actual research a pilot study (Glesne, 1999; Yin, 2003a) was conducted to

establish the suitability and quality of the research instruments including the interview

guidelines, aspects of the semi-structured interviews and focus group interviews

(interactions) and the examination of relevant documents. The findings of the pilot study

assisted in reviewing and improving the quality of strategies, including the semi-structured

interview questionnaire and how to conduct interviews that were used during the main

research (Fellows and Liu, 2003). Six teachers, a teacher focus group, a head teacher and

three inspectors from a National Capital District school and inspectorate were engaged for

the pilot case study.

3.4.3 Participants

A total number of twenty-seven participants were involved in the study of whom, fifteen

were teachers and three were head teachers from the pre-selected schools, and nine primary

school inspectors based in the provinces where the pre-selected schools are located. The

nature of the study, and in particular the research questions, did not require gender issues to

be investigated. Thus there was no deliberate attempt to address gender issues. However,

out of twenty-seven participants, eight were females (representing 30% of all the

participants) and of whom seven were teachers and one was an inspector. All participants

participated on a voluntary basis through prior arrangements, including completion of

consent form and approval from appropriate authorities, before the research began (Appendix

3: Samples of Protocol Documents).


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3.5 Data Collection Procedures

While there are many ways in which data can be obtained in case study approaches, the

interview, focus group discussions and examination of documents were appropriate for this

study. This section justifies the use of these methods of collecting data.

3.5.1 Interviews

Interviews were adopted as the major gathering data instrument. While an interview relates

to conversations between two or more people with a specific agenda, the research interview

is more than a conversation. In research, an interview is held for a specific investigation

purpose and gives the opportunity to the interviewee, a person or group, to give their

perspectives known to them to the interviewer and eventually to the public. An interview is

a verbal interchange, often face to face though other means, including telephone may be used

in which an interviewer tries to elicit information and probe for thoughts, beliefs, opinions,

values, prejudices, perceptions, views, feelings, attitudes, behavior and perspectives from

another person or other persons about or towards a situation. It can elicit versions or

accounts of situations from the experiences of interviewees (Glesne, 1999; Burns, 2000;

Wellington, 2000).

Glesne (1999) stressed that an interview is a “human interaction with all of its attendant

uncertainties” allowing the interviewer to initiate “verbal flights from important respondents

who know what you (interviewer/researcher) do not” (p. 67). Interviewing is a complex

process because it orchestrates many ‘acts’ and for qualitative research, interviewing is a

means of “depth probes – for getting to the bottom of things” (Glesne, 1999, p. 87). At the

same time, interviewing is a social process where data is generated and compiled for

analysis. A researcher using interview methods to collect evidence and data is doing justice

to the complexity of the issue being pursued (Glesne, 1999).

There are three main types of interviews that can be used in research and these are opened-

ended (or unstructured, or non-standardized) interview, structured interview and semi-

structured (or focused) interview (Glesne, 1999; Burns, 2000; Wellington, 2000; Yin,

2003a). An opened-ended interview is an in-depth interaction that enquires about facts and

explores opinions and gathers interviewee’s insights into events and situations. The

interview process contains no list of questions and is very flexible. The interviewee or

respondent becomes an informant and may propose propositions while the interviewer must

prepare to develop new questions to follow unexpected lead during the interview. A

structured interview uses a standardized procedures or questions and has little or no option


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for deviation. It is of value where there are large numbers of respondents. It restricts

respondents, to a large extent, from expressing their ‘total’ opinions, facts and perspectives

about particular issues in question. A semi-structured interview (Burns, 2000; Wellington,

2000), or focused interview (Yin, 2003a), or depth probing interview (Glesne, 1999),

compromises both structured and opened-ended interviews and varies in its degree

depending on the interaction and interview guides and checklists. In this type of interview

all areas of interest are pursued with variant expressions such as ’tell me more’ and ‘explain’

to probe the “’unseen‘ that was, is, will be, or should be” (Glesne, 1999, p. 93). This allows

the respondents to express how they think and feel about issues in question, how they

explain and account for what they experience and to verify or validate certain facts about

situations.

In case study research methodology which this study uses, the interview guides

conversations rather than structured queries and pursues consistencies and inconsistencies

inline with the research question. This allows for flexibility and adaptability in the collection

of evidence and data. Interview is an “essential source of case study evidence because most

case studies are about human affairs” allowing for human affairs to be “reported through the

eyes of the respondents” (Yin, 2003a, p. 92). Stake (1995) reveals that ‘descriptions’ and

‘interpretations’, the two principal uses of case study research, warrant the use of interviews

because they allow researchers to discover and portray multiple views of each case and the

collective cases. Interview is “the main road to multiple realities” (Stake, 1995, p. 64) and,

as stressed by Wellington (2000), interviews can “reach the part which other methods can

not reach” (p. 71).

It has also been noted that interview can be biased, can have poorly recalled information and

can have poor or inaccurate articulation despite well informed respondents providing

important insights into situations (Yin, 2003a). Corroboration of interview data with

information from other sources, including focus group interviews and documents, can avoid

such issues. Thus interview, “as an interpretive tradition, can be the sole basis of a study, or

it can be used in conjunction with data from participant observations and documents”

(Glesne, 1999, p. 68) and while it gives the “opportunity to learn what one can not see, and

to explore alternatives amongst other advantages, it provides affective and cognitive

underpinnings” (Glesne, 1999, p. 93) of the research participants’ perceptions.

This study involved a semi-structured approach for data collection using an interview guide

and a checklist of questions and in conjunction with focus group interviews and documents

evidence collection method (Appendix 4: Interview Guidelines). Individual interviews were


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used to discover realities, feelings, perceptions and behavior of participants (Patton, 1980;

Burns, 2000). The contents and interactions with participants focused on crucial issues of

the study with flexibility that permitted “a more valid response from informant’s perception

of reality” (Glesne, 1999, pp.67-94; Burns, 2000, Burns, 2000). Semi-structured interviews

that involved invention, discovery, interpretation and explanation form the basis for

investigating the research questions (Kirk & Miller, 1986). With this study, the responses

from the interviews were used to establish empirical bases and themes that were analyzed for

each participant, then collectively for each type of participant in each case study, then

collectively for each case study (Chapter 4), and then collectively for the case studies (cross-

case) (Chapter 5) before conclusions were made (Chapter 6).

3.5.2 Focus Group Interview

A focus group-interview “offers the opportunity to interview a number of people at the same

time and to use the interaction with the group as a source of insight” (Blaxter et al, 2001,

p. 72). It assumes that “an individual’s attitudes and beliefs do not form a vacuum: People

often need to listen to others’ opinions and understandings in order to form their own”

(Marshall & Rossman, 1995, p. 84). A focus group interview promotes the participants’

self-disclosure and allows the researcher to identify trends in the perceptions and opinions

expressed in order to gain insight to the focus of the study.

Amongst other advantages, including being a socially oriented process that results in a “high

face validity – because the method is readily understood (and that the) findings appear

believable” (Marshall & Rossman, 1995, p. 84), the focus group interview is also a cost

effective data collection method that gives immediate and desired results. However, there

are disadvantages that can also be experienced including the difficulty in assembling the

participants of the group and the interviewer having to have less or no control of discussions

especially where irrelevant issues to the focus of the study are discussed. The strategy of

having focus questions with firmer control of discussions with a permissive environment for

the interview assists in avoiding such disadvantages.

In this study the focus group interview was used as an alternative or a follow up means of

gathering data to individual interviews where circumstances allowed. Members of the focus

group interview were selected based on certain characteristics that were of relevance to the

focus of the study or that arose during the process of the research and included:


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• those teachers and senior teachers who had been inspected during the last

two years, and

• those teachers and senior teachers who had not been inspected or visited

by the inspectors during the last two years.

Thus there were three teacher focus groups based on the above characteristics used in three

out of four case studies. Each teacher focus group consisted of three to six members. With

head teachers and inspectors, there were no focus groups used because of the fact that

characteristics such as experiences and qualifications that would differentiate the focus

groups were catered for by individual interviewees.

The main reason for the focus group interviews was to elicit participants’ perceptions, beliefs

and understandings about their experiences with the inspectorial system and its influence on

their profession, as well as issues related to the teaching profession that were consistent with

the focus of the study. The focus group interviews were also used as a follow up on issues

that were discussed by interviewed participants. As with individual interviews, the

responses from the focus group interviews were used to establish empirical bases and themes

that were analyzed for each focus group interview, then collectively for each case site, and

then collectively through cross-case analysis before conclusions were made.

3.5.3 Documents

Wellington (2000) categorizes methods of collecting data into primary and secondary

sources of which observation and interview are of primary sources and documents as

secondary sources. Documents for collecting data in research are of two main types; the pre-

existing documents such as annual reports and records of meetings, and initiated and elicit

documents such as diaries and logs. Other documents that fall into any of these two

categories of documents are letters, agendas, budgets, news clippings, photographs, list of

employees or students, government policies, syllabuses and books (Glesne, 1999; Burns,

2000; Wellington, 2000; Yin, 2003a). Such documents are produced for specific audiences

and purposes and therefore may not be accurate or lack bias in research topics. Scott (1990)

(cited in Wellington, 2000) stresses the need for documents to be carefully treated in

research, specifically in the areas of:

• authenticity - whether the document is genuine and is of unquestionable

originality,

• credibility - whether the document is free of errors,


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• representativeness - whether there is evidence that it is typical of its kind,

and

• meaning - whether the document’s content is clear and comprehensible.

Documents can be used as a main focus for analysis and by doing so they become the subject

of systematic research. As such they must be “treated as social products, and therefore can

be the object of analysis” and “on the other hand the study of the documents might be done

in conjunction with other research methods involving primary sources” (Wellington, 2000,

p. 110). However, in keeping with the research assumptions here as ‘social products’,

documents have multiple meanings that are subject to interpretation rather than for search or

discovery of realities. Thus documents are important as a way to corroborate evidence and

to specify events and issues in greater detail. Documents make findings more trustworthy

than other sources (Glesne, 1999; Burns, 2000). At the same time documents may raise

questions about hunches allowing for new directions for observations and interviews. They

provide “historical, demographic, and sometimes personal information that is unavailable

from other sources” (Glesne, 1999, p. 58) and through this they enrich what is seen and

heard. Documents can also be “substituted for records of activity that researchers could not

observe directly – the recorder (in this case) is a more expert observer than the researcher”

(Stake, 1995, p. 68).

In case study research, documents are helpful in verifying issues, including titles,

experiences and qualifications, they provide specific details to corroborate information, and

they make references from documents concerning communications and networking in

organizations. Documents play a major role in explicating evidence and data though over

reliance may affect the quality and relevance of evidence and data collection. Yin (2003a)

warns that it is important to be aware that the contents of documents can be used as

appropriate clues for further investigation “rather than as definitive findings because

inferences could later turn to false leads” (p. 87).

In this study documents were of value and depended on the nature of the interview questions

and the focus of the research. The documents were used to corroborate evidence and data

from both the individual and focus group interviews. The main objective was to complement

the interview data and to conclude and consolidate the research by enriching the write up

(Wellington, 2000). Documents, as having a corroborative role, provided both historical and

contextual dimensions to interviews. For this study, documents such as duty statements,

policies on inspectorial functions and teacher professionalism, professional development and

supervisory programs, checklists that were used as means of quality assurance, documents


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on inspectorial practices, and teacher performance and school reports, were included as

sources of evidence. The use of documents confirmed or improved the quality of data and

was also used as means of triangulation (Stake, 1995; Burns, 2000).

3.6 Data Analysis

This section deals with data analysis methods beginning with the general definition of data

analysis in research, data analysis in qualitative research methodology and the data analysis

in case study method including content analysis and cross-case synthesis. With the cross-

case synthesis, the propositions are included. These preferred data analysis methods were

used in this study.

3.6.1 Data Analysis

In general, data analysis in research involves the organization and systematic presentation of

data that is seen, heard and read. Information is organized, not only to record and count

occurrences but also to describe, compare, examine, categorize, explain, hypothesize,

theorize, test, tabulate and demonstrate linkages or evidences to address propositions of

investigations (Glesne, 1999; Burns, 2000; Yin, 2003a). Data analysis allows for

information to be interpreted in order to make a “comparison of meanings within a category”

(Burns, 2000, p. 430) so that insights can be made and demonstrated. It is a matter of giving

“meanings to first impressions as well as to final compilations” (Stake, 1995, p. 17) of data

during and after the process of conducting the research. Data analysis can also begin and

simultaneously takes place with data collection. This helps to focus, shape, reflect, organize

and discover what is being told immediately. Data analysis done later or at the end of data

collection identifies concepts or central ideas within the categorized information and is

referred to as a process of coding which sorts out and defines the collected information

(Glesne, 1999).

3.6.2 Data Analysis in Qualitative Research

In qualitative research the investigator begins with categories as records that are read and put

into groups of similar items. The categories may come directly from informants, depending

on their perceptions and cross-categories to produce types. Thus, as in content analysis,

theory emerges and becomes grounded theory. Grounded theory emerges when there are no

prior theoretical ‘perceptions’ allowing for the creation, revision and refining of the theory in

the light of data collected (Burns, 2000). However, qualitative research produces large

amount of data which are lengthy and are mostly in the form of words and a qualitative case


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study is no exception. Wellington (2000) suggested three possibilities of dealing with such

large amounts of data:

• Priori: In this possibility the categories of data analysis, as per literature review,

are decided before data collection begins. Data then is analyzed accordingly.

• Posteriori: In this possibility there are no pre-established categories and

categories are derived from data themselves. It is a process of induction

(inductive coding).

• Mixture of a Priori and a Posteriori: This possibility is arguably the most

rational to use in qualitative research and includes both categories that are pre-

established and categories that are derived from data collection and analysis.

In addition, Marshall & Rossman (1995) and Wellington (2000) suggested three stages of

data analysis which allow data to be fairly, clearly, coherently and attractively accepted:

• Data reduction where data is collated, summarized, coded and sorted out

into themes, clusters and categories,

• Data display where data is organized and assembled into pictorial,

diagrams and visual form. This then leads to conceptualizing the data,

leading towards interpretation and conclusion, and

• Conclusion, and in this stage, the interpretation of the data is done through

immersion, reflection, analyzing, recording and synthesizing before

reaching a conclusion.

3.6.3 Data Analysis in Case Study Methods

In case study research however, according to Yin (2003a), “analyzing case study evidence is

especially difficult because the strategies and techniques have not been well defined”

(p. 109). While it is difficult the need to know what to analyze and why it is vital in order to

focus on the propositions of the study is necessary. Yin (2003a) suggested three strategies

that can be used in case study research:

• Relying on theoretical propositions,

• Setting up a framed based on rival explanations, and

• Developing case descriptions.


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These three strategies allow data analysis to be done using five specific techniques; either

through pattern making, explanation analysis, time-serves analysis, logic models, and/or

cross-case synthesis (refer also Section 3.6.5). Yin (2003a) argues however that irrespective

of which strategies and techniques used in case study analysis, it is important that high-

quality analysis is produced but it is also important to have a general strategy of analyzing

data before data is collected.

Stake (1995) also suggested two strategies in case study data analysis and that is, “the direct

interpretation of an individual instance and the ‘aggregation’ of instances until something

can be said about them as a class” (p. 74). Case study should rely on these strategies, in

particular where intrinsic case study principles within the multiple case study strategies and

natural generalizations methods of data analysis are concerned, because they make case

representation valid and understandable.

3.6.4 Content Analysis

In content analysis, the analyzed information is used to identify themes, concepts and

meaning. It is a form of classifying content and is “more art than science” (Burns, 2000,

p. 434) because it produces irregularities and recurring ideas and themes that the researcher

has to deal with in a setting or with the subjects of the study. In interview, the ‘content’ of

the interview is analyzed for themes or topics with successive interviews revealing emerging

ideas that can strengthen or weaken the research focus. Information in content analysis can

be organized into numerical terms, meanings, categories or patterns in themes and ideas that

are evidences of the focus of the study. The themes and ideas can then be used to evaluate

the ‘plausibility’ of the emerging hypotheses and test them against further data allowing for

further positive or questionable instances that can be used to challenge the hypotheses and

categories derived from data themselves. It is a process of induction (inductive coding)

(Burns 2000) that is consistent with qualitative data analysis.

3.6.5 Cross-case Synthesis

The specific and appropriate technique to be used for the multiple case study is the cross-

case synthesis because “it is easier” and the “findings are more robust” (Yin, 2003a, p. 133).

In cross-case synthesis, individual case studies conducted independently have their findings

analyzed collectively, or the individual case studies as having been pre-designed as part of

the same study, as is the case with this study. At the same time, the principles of intrinsic

case study and collective case study methods were used to pursue in-depth evidences from


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individual participants that were analyzed into each case analysis (Wellington, 2000; Yin,

2004).

Using the cross-case synthesis analysis approach for the multiple cases, individual case

studies are treated separately. However, the methods of collecting data and data analysis

used for individual cases are the same. The findings are aggregated for individual

participants across the case studies allowing for separate data base to be created as per

research question and/or proposition for each case study. These data bases show similarities

or differences and though the process may be complex, the data bases cover broader issues

and are used for ‘cross-experiment interpretations’ that cater ‘strongly for argumentative

interpretation’ in compiling “cross-site reports” for final analysis (Marshall & Rossman,

1995; Yin, 2003a).

The cross-case analysis pursued the propositions with individual participants for each case

study as highlighted in the literature review (Figures 2.1, 2.2 & 2.3). This was done so that

the pre-empted functions and interactive strategies of the inspectorial system were

established and linked from the participants’ perspectives as shown in Figure 3.1 below.

Figure 3.1: Proposition 1 – Linkages between the Inspectorial Functions and Strategies

System Functions Interactive Strategies

Maintenance Supervision

Inspectorial Improvement Professional Development

System Development Quality Assurance

Proposition 1 related inspectorial system as having three main functions, that of maintaining,

improving and developing the school system. These functions are performed by inspectors

through supervision, professional development and quality assurance interactive strategies to

accomplish the functions.

The second proposition established the participants’ understanding of teacher

professionalism. This was done after the dimensions of teacher professionalism were

identified from the perspectives for each participant, each type of participant and each case

study, and eventually from the cross-case analysis. Rizvi’s (2003) dimensions of teacher

professionalism are used here to ‘show-case’ the processes of the possible results of analysis

concerning the participants’ experiences, beliefs and perceptions of teacher professionalism.

Figure 3.2 below illustrates this proposition.


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Figure 3.2: Proposition 2 - Teacher Professionalism and its Dimensions

Outcome of Inspectorial System Dimensions of the Teacher Professionalism

Teacher Efficacy

Teacher Professionalism Teacher Practice

Teacher Collaboration

Teacher Leadership

The third proposition linked up the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of

teacher professionalism to allow relationships to be explored, explained and interpreted, and

conclusions made as per major and related questions of the research. The third proposition

also established the specific relationships between each of the inspectorial interactive

strategies and each of the dimensions of teacher professionalism as experienced, believed

and perceived by participants. These relationships are discussed in Chapters 4 and 5 and are

synthesized and interpreted in Chapter 6. Again, Rizvi’s (2003) dimensions of teacher

professionalism is used here to ‘show-case’ the possible results of the analysis concerning

the participants’ perceptions of the relationship between the inspectorial system and teacher

professionalism. Figure 3.3 below shows the processes of the conclusions of the

propositions.

The propositions below established a guide for the data base for each participant, each type

of participants (teachers, head teachers and inspectors), each case study and for the cross-

case analysis. The data bases contained similarities and differences that would be ‘cross-

experimentally’ interpreted for final conclusions to be made. The complex processes

included some use of NVivo (Bazeley & Richards, 2000; Gibbs, 2002) computer-assisted

data analysis program that has the appropriate functions that analyze evidences and data.


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Figure 3.3: Proposition 3 – Linkages between the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies

and the Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism

Proposition 1

Supervision Quality assurance Professional development

Proposition 3: ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? The question marks relate to relationships that were investigated

Teacher efficacy Teacher practice Teacher collaboration Teacher leadership

Proposition 2

3.6.6 Summary of Data Analysis

This study applied and integrated various strategies and techniques of data analysis as

stipulated above but, in particular, used a mixture of a priori and a posteriori approach of

analysis with the three stages of data analysis, data reduction, data display and conclusion

(Wellington, 2000, pp. 133-150). It relied on theoretical propositions, grounded theories and

cross-case synthesis approaches (Yin, 2003a) with direct interpretation and ‘aggregation’ of

instances (Stake, 1995).

Data analysis, including content data analysis, was on-going and simultaneously began with

the individual participant’s interview and ended at the end of the research process through

the analysis of transcripts and records of interviews, and the contents of documents. Each

participant’s data was analyzed to establish initial empirical bases and themes that were

compared with other participants’ data to identify the common empirical bases and themes

within the same case study and with other case studies. As emphasized earlier, the analysis

allowed for themes, concepts, meanings, explanations and interpretations of the data to

support the propositions before the conclusions were made. At the same time grounded

(posteriori) theories emerged to support the pre-empted (priori) theories or propositions

allowing for the final analysis to be made.

Inspectorial System



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3.7 Validity and Reliability

This section covers issues related to the validity and reliability of research in general and

from a qualitative case study perspective. It concludes by highlighting the ‘tests’, ‘tactics’

and the ‘phases’ of the research in which the issues on validity and reliability of this study

occurred.

Validity relates to a degree to which a research “actually measures what is supposed to

measure” (Wellington, 2000, p. 30). In qualitative and case study, validity is concerned with

trustworthiness (Glesne, 1999), credibility, confirmability and data dependability (Yin,

2003a). Reliability relates to the judgment of the extent to which a test, a method or tool

gives consistent results across a range of setting and the “extent to which a piece of research

can be copied or replicated in order to give the same results in different context with

different researches” (Wellington, 2000, p. 31). Glesne (1999) stresses several verifications

that need to be considered when considering validity and reliability in research and that

attending to these leads to increasing trustworthiness. These include:

• prolonged engagement to allow for trust, culture to be learnt and hunches

to be checked,

• triangulation involving the use of multiple data-collection methods,

multiple sources and theoretical perspectives,

• peer review and debriefing that considers external input on the work,

• negative case analysis that is concerned with conscious search for negative

cases and unconfirming evidence so that the working hypotheses is

refined,

• clarification of research bias that ensures the researcher reflects on his/her

subjectivity and how he/she will use this in the research,

• member checking where interview transcripts, analytical thoughts and/or

drafts of the final report are shared with research participants to make sure

their ideas are accurately represented,

• rich, thick description that ensures writing allows the reader to enter the

research context, and

• external audit whereby an outside person examines the research process

and product through ‘auditing’ field notes, analytical coding schemes, etc.


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In support of the above Wellington (2000) reveals that validity and reliability depends on the

condition for the research to take place and the techniques and extent of “understanding,

ability, achievement, numeracy, literacy, learning development, knowledge, IT literacy”

(p. 30) that are used. Burns (2000) further clarifies other aspects of validity and reliability,

particularly when interviews are used as a method of collecting data and these are:

• content validity which is concerned with examinations of instruments used

in the research by competent colleagues,

• valid responses which are assumed because the individuals are interested

in the topic and/or are informed about it, and

• internal consistency which refers to the checking of responses by

rephrasing and repeating interview questions (p. 58).

Other issues that also affect validity and reliability include personality, interaction of

personalities, religious beliefs and social attributes, as well as “sex, age, dress, race, social

class and attractiveness (which) are known to influence the responses and rapport with the

interviewers” (Burns, 2000, p. 585).

Some of the issues related to validity and reliability in case study research method are

already discussed in sections 3.5 and 3.6. However, Yin (2003a) sums up these issues into

four tests with their research tactics and phases of the research that were considered during

the study. These are summarized in Table 3.2 (Yin, 2003a, p. 34).

This study deliberately ensured the four tests and case study tactics, and other related issues

highlighted above were adhered to during the phases of the study. Consistent with these, the

research proposals and its anticipated findings were presented to several conferences and

seminars in PNG to sought views that contributed to validity and reliability of the study.

These conferences and seminars included Inspectors’ Conferences and Workshops, Senior

Education Officers Conferences, National Curriculum Reform Conference and the

International Education Agency’s Principals’ Seminar. Importantly, the study ensured that

there was no doubt about the validity and reliability of the research design, findings, analysis

and the outcome. As Stake (1995) emphasized case study research has obligations to

minimize misrepresentation and misunderstanding and to ensure this prevails. Protocols or

procedures which readers and researchers alike come to expect were observed throughout the

study.


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Table 3.2: Four Tests of Validity and Reliability

Tests Case Study Tactic Phase of Research in which tactic occurs

Construct validity

• Use multiple choices of evidence • Establish chain of evidence • Have key informants review draft case study

report

• Data collection • Data collection • Composition

Internal validity • Do pattern-matching • Do explanation building • Address rival explanations • Use logic models

• Data analysis • Data analysis • Data analysis • Data analysis

External validity

• Use theory in single-case studies • Use replication logic in multiple-case studies

• Research design • Research design

Reliability • Use case study protocol • Develop case study database

• Data collection • Data collection

3.8 Ethical Issues

Ethical problems are likely to occur in social science research since human subjects

are involved. Researchers must be aware of ethical considerations in voluntary and

non-voluntary participation, deception, informed consent, privacy and

confidentiality, the right to discontinue, and obligations of the experimenter (Burns,

2000, p. 23).

The above quote sums up the main ethical considerations that guided the researcher (self) in

carrying out the research activities, including the actual write up of the thesis. Given below

are the details of the ethical issues that were contended with in this study.

Ethics and morality are important parts of social science research. An “ethic is a moral

principle or code which governs what people do” (Wellington, 2000, p. 54) and relates to

peoples’ behavior and action. It refers to moral principles, rules and conventions held by a

group of people or a profession that “distinguish socially accepted behavior from that which

is considered socially unacceptable” (Burns, 2000, p. 17). Thus it is important that

researchers consider ethics in the subject matter, the methods and procedures, including the

planning, conduct and presentation of the study (Glesne, 1999; Burns, 2000; Wellington,

2000). In other words “ethical considerations override all” (Wellington, 2000, p. 54) other

issues related to studies being carried out.


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Ethical rules or guidelines in a form of ‘Code of Ethics or Code of Ethical Conduct’, while

they attempt to govern what people do and how they behave, may also “attempt to define

limits” (Burns, 2000, p. 17) that is being too rigid, may affect the effectiveness of the

research, and eventually denying the researcher knowledge into human behavior of the

research focus. However considerations on ethical issues in research, and in particular social

science, go beyond scrutiny and justify means to focus and attain the outcomes of the study.

Burns (2000) emphasizes two major dilemmas that researchers need to be aware of, that of

confidentiality and research, which implicate such issues as unethical procedures, informed

consent, harm to participants, deception and deliberate falsification of results. Glesne (1995,

p. 114) and Burns (2000, p. 22) suggest the following code of ethics and that is:

• risks to participants are minimized or eliminated,

• risks to participants are outweighed by anticipated benefits of research,

• rights and welfare of participants are protected,

• participation should be voluntary and the participants must be able to

withdraw, without penalty, from the study at any time, and

• the participants have the right to know the nature, purposes and duration

of the study.

Furthermore, Wellington (2000), amongst other issues and in support of the above, reveals

the additional responsibility when conducting research and when dealing with ethical issues:

• informed consent (which contributes to empowerment of research

participants as volunteers),

• seeking permission from the right people using the right channel, and

• honesty and openness to characterize the relationships between the

researcher, participants and institutional representatives (p. 56).

It can be concluded that in research ethical considerations cannot be ignored because they

“are inseparable from everyday interactions with research participants and with your data”

(Glesne, 1999, p. 113). However, the researcher is in the best position to decide what

constitute ethical dilemmas that can be addressed within certain established guidelines. If

these ethical dilemmas are avoided or minimized, it is possible that the subjects of the

research see themselves as partners in the research process and be empowered to contribute

meaningfully without fear or favor.


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Consistent with the Queensland University of Technology Code of Ethics in conducting

research (Queensland University of Technology, 2004), this study considered ethical issues

that have been emphasized above but in particular concentrated on the following ethical

issues (Glesne, 1999; Wellington, 2000; Burns, 2000):

• Voluntary participation: While the participants of the research “may not be free

as the researcher may think”, they were informed that their involvement in the

research was voluntary. Though usually voluntary participants may be more

intelligent, better educated and expert in the focus of the research, attempts were

made to ensure a variety of participants were encouraged to volunteer and

participate.

• Informed consent: Participants were informed of the nature and purpose of the

research and consented to participate in the research without being forced to or

coerced. Participants signed a form indicating that they had been informed of

the purpose, procedures, risks and discomforts, its benefit and the right to

withdraw.

• Deception: This is common in studies that implicate participants’ ‘emotion,

motivation, social behavior and ethnography’. Every attempt was made to avoid

deceptions that may result with the misrepresentation of the purpose of the study

and false diagnoses, secret recording of behavior that participants were not

aware of and negative attitudes and lose of self-esteem that the participant may

have toward the research.

• Debriefing: For each case being studied, a debriefing to disclose the purpose of

the research activities including interviews and checking of documents,

description of possible deception and why it may be used, and attempt to make

the research be respectable and important amongst other issues, was made.

• Privacy and confidentiality: Participants were informed of their right to privacy

(they would decide what was appropriate to communicate to others, including

attitudes, habits, fears and guilt), and that the results of the activities would be

kept confidential and anonymous.

• Right to continue: The right of participants to discontinue with the research at

any stage was respected if there were ‘forces’ that may influence participants to

decide to withdraw.

• Publication of findings: The results of the research were treated openly to

allow for “disinterested colleagues to vet the research and implications” and

misrepresentation and information to be debated. This was done confidentially.


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Controversial issues such as racial discrimination and sexual behavior were

always issues for contention, and discussions at various levels on sensitive issues

were appropriately done to avoid and minimize ethical dilemmas.

In addition, and as a matter of protocol the Secretary for Education, the Assistant Secretaries

of the PDOE of each province and schools involved and the Assistant Secretary of IGD,

were informed and permission sought before the research began. Courtesy calls to these

officers and other authorities were made to avoid misunderstandings. Teacher ethical

protocols and clearances were sought prior to the research. Documents concerning these

ethical and protocol requirements are attached as Appendix 3 - Samples of Protocol

Documents.

3.9 Position of Researcher

The position of the researcher, including the researcher’s professional, personal and

philosophical background, in any study is significant to the nature and quality of any

research. This section briefly discusses the position of the researcher in this study.

Before and during the study I realized that, as an indigenous PNG citizen, there were

difficulties that I had to overcome that related to myself, my context, ‘other-selves’ and

others’ contexts if I were to pursue this study successfully. These difficulties included

ethnical, cultural, political and personal issues (Smith, 1999) that I experienced with myself,

the personnel of NDOE, schools and inspectorates that were involved in the research.

Within the research methodology I considered these difficulties as significant to the outcome

of my research if I had to compare the quality of my research to that of any research done by

an experienced researcher or westerner. The major and immediate concern was my situation

as being an insider within the organizational culture of the inspectorial system. This could

influence the authenticity of the collected data. Thus it was important that I played the

‘outsider’ role in this study, that is, an ‘outsider’ of the school and inspectorial system.

Despite this I also had to employ the insider role ‘within the research and institutions’

(Smith, 1999, p. 5). At the same time, my former and present roles within the NDOE were

expected to influence data collection, and in particular, the assumption that participants

would regard my researcher-role with an “authoritative stance” (Glesne, 1999, p. 176), or as

an exploiter, advocator, intervener/reformer and friend (Glesne, 1999). Though these roles

were inevitable in research, my role as a ‘reformer’ and a ‘friend’ was more suitable

throughout the study. The ethical issues on confidentiality and privacy were considered

seriously throughout the study (Burns, 2000). This was significant because the important


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questions that underpinned my interests in this study, including ‘whose interests does the

study serve’ and ‘who will benefit from the study’, assisted me in avoiding difficulties that I,

as the researcher, experienced. I had to “take considerable sensitivity, skill, experience and

knowledge” (Smith, 1999, p. 10) when I conducted the research to achieve the objectives of

the study.

3.10 Problems and Limitations

In any research there are always problems and limitations. This section elaborates on the

problems and limitations that were experienced in this study.

Apart from the position of the researcher as highlighted above, it is difficult to have

qualitative and case study research data relying on “conventional standards of validity and

reliability” (Burns, 2000, p. 12) because of the nature of data’s subjectivity. Thus problems

and limitations concerning the contexts, situations, conditions, interactions and the ethical

and management issues that were related to the research were considered throughout all

stages of this study (Glesne, 1999; Burns, 2000; Blaxter, Hughes and Tight, 2001). Such

problems and limitations included time required to collect, analyze and interpret data,

possible bias of the researcher and participants and the presence of the researcher that may

have “profound reactive effects on the subjects of the study” (Burns, 2000, p. 13). Glesne

(1999) expresses the need to also consider the peculiarity of the “site and participants

selected for the study that could show the phenomena of interest in some lights but not

others” (p. 152) implying that the multiple cases and the participants for the study must be

carefully considered and selected to avoid possible ethical concerns which may result with

problems and may limit the ‘richness’ of the research. Other problematic and limitation

issues included the implementation of the planned schedules for the research activities,

dealing with key personnel and institutions and their roles in the research, and sharing

responsibility, using formal and informal relationships to support the research between

stakeholders (Blaxter, Hughes and Tight, 2001).

This study intentionally minimized problems and limitations that were anticipated to be

experienced during the course of the study. Time was managed and effectively used,

planned schedules were developed and mutually agreed to, and where necessary, changes

were made that were to accommodate the participants’ convenience. The key personnel and

institutions involved with the study were consulted and liaison was formally, informally and

appropriately done. A deliberate attempt was made to identify possible bias as viewed by

the researcher and participants and clarifications made prior to and during the study.


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Importantly more time was spent in the research that “examine, holistically and aggregately,

the interactions and reactions” (Burns, 2000, p. 13) of the participants and the documents

within the focus of the study. Clarifying problems and limitations in social research

including case study research helped readers to know how to read, interpret, accept and

appreciate the research work, and this was seriously noted and catered for throughout the

study.

3.11 The Research Plan and its Implementation

This section elaborates on the research plan and the specific activities, including

administrative and research work that were carried out before, during and after the fieldwork.

These activities are categorized into three phases; Phase 1 includes the selection of case

studies and participants of the study, Phase 2 comprises the procedures for data collection

and analysis, and Phase 3 is the conclusion of the research. Theories and contextual

background underpinning the fieldwork activities in each phase are already discussed earlier

in this Chapter.

3.11.1 Phase 1: Selection of Case Studies and Participants

The selection of case sites was done prior to the fieldwork. This included the identification

of provinces in each region, schools and inspectorate in each selected province. The senior

primary school inspectors in the selected provinces were assisting by providing appropriate

information about the case sites. The provinces that were selected are NCD as a pilot case,

West New Britain, Madang, Eastern Highlands and Central. Once the case studies

(provinces, schools and inspectorates) were finalized volunteer participants were sought and

information concerning the research was sent to them for their information. During the

fieldwork, other appropriate ethical requirements were acted on, including the signing of the

consent forms. With these activities however the pilot case study was priority. Permission

was sought and brief information about the research was circulated from and to appropriate

authorities respectively before the research began (Appendix 3 - Samples of Protocol

Documents).

3.11.2 Phase 2: Data Collection and Analysis

A minimum of two weeks was spent in each case study (or each province) so that enough

time was given for interviews and document examination. The case studies included schools

(for teachers and head teachers) and provincial inspectorates (for inspectors).


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Figure 3.4: Fieldwork procedure for data collection and analysis

Data collection Teachers/Head Teachers/Inspectors/Focus Groups/Documents

Data analysis 1 Individual Teacher/Head Teacher/Inspector/Focus Group/Documents

Data analysis 2 Type of Participants - Individual school/Individual Inspectorate

Data analysis 3 Provinces/Individual Case Studies/Cross-participant

Data analysis 4 PNG Case/Cross-case participant/Cross-case

As emphasized in sections 3.5 and 3.6 collection of data began with individual interviews

with all participants and then focus group discussions with document examination

continuously done (either as part of the interview or independently) and which was

consistent with the propositions, grounded theories or empirical themes. School and

inspectorate data were analyzed before provincial case studies were analyzed collectively

through cross-case analysis approach method to give a PNG case study analysis. Interview

records, focus group interview records and document examinations were transcribed and

interpreted respectively through these processes. Figure 3.4 above illustrates the procedures

of data collection and analysis.

3.11.3 Phase 3: Conclusion Stage

The concluding phase of this research included the particular explanations and

interpretations of the concepts of the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of

teacher professionalism (Chapter 6). These concepts were derived from literature and the

analyzed data (the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of the participants as per question) to

establish the anticipated conceptual framework. The write up was done simultaneously with

data analysis with the final write up immediately done after the analysis.

3.12 Summary of the Research Design

This study investigated the relationships between the inspectorial system and teacher

professionalism through the perceptions of teachers, head teachers and primary school

inspectors. By doing so, it investigated how the inspectorial system operated in primary

schools in PNG by exploring the interactive strategies, and the dimensions of teacher


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professionalism. Although there were issues related to the inspectorial interactive strategies

and the dimensions of teacher professionalism pre-empted from literature, this study allowed

for further exploration concerning the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions

of teacher professionalism from a PNG context. By doing so, the investigation investigated

the issues that arose from the inspectorial interactive strategies that either enhanced or

constrained the dimensions of teacher professionalism.

The context of the inspectorial system as having the maintenance, improvement and

development functions with the interactive strategies of supervision, professional

development and quality assurance were the empirical bases for this study. Though initial

concepts of teacher professionalism were obtained from literature, the perceptions of the

research participants about the dimensions of teacher professionalism were thoroughly

investigated to ensure there was consistency with and within the PNG context. In any case,

the dimensions of teacher professionalism were considered as outcomes of the functions and

strategies of the inspectorial system. Thus the relationships between the inspectorial

interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism are significant outcomes

of this study.

To pursue the research question, qualitative and case study methodologies formed the bases

for the research design. The study proceeded through multi-case study methods of data

collection and analysis. Interviews, focus group interviews and document examination were

the methods of collecting data, while a mixture of priori and posteriori analysis, content

analysis and cross-case analysis were used for data analysis. Triangular methods through

multiple sources and theories, trustworthiness, tests and case study tactics, and case study

protocols and database addressed the validity and reliability of the study. A summary of the

research design is provided in Figure 3.5 below.


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Figure 3.5: Summary of the Research Design

Conceptual Context

• Inspectorial functions: Maintenance, Improvement & Development

• Inspectorial interactions: Supervision, Professional development & Quality assurance

• Teacher professionalism: Teacher Efficacy, Teacher Practice, Teacher Collaboration & Teacher Leadership

Purpose

Investigate:

• How the inspectorial system (IS) operates • The perceptions of teachers, head teachers and

inspectors on the dimensions of teacher professionalism

• The linkages & relationships between IS & TP

Research Questions

• How & to what extent does the IS enhance or constrain TP? • How does the IS operate in primary schools? What issues do teachers, head

teachers & inspectors perceive as arising from the inspectorial operation? • What are the dimensions of TP & how are these relate to the inspectorial

interactive strategies? • What redeveloped conceptual framework that is grounded in the realities of

teachers’, head teachers’ & inspectors’ experiences & perceptions can be constructed to address the above questions?

Methods

• Qualitative case study methodology • Interpretivism approach • Intrinsic & Multi-case study methods • Data collection: Interviews, Focus group interview

& Document examination • Data analysis: Mixture of priori & posteriori

analysis, Content analysis & Cross-case analysis (assisted by NVivo analysis program)

Validity & Reliability

• Triangulation methods, multiple sources & theories

• Trustworthiness • Tests & Case study tactics: construct,

internal & external validity • Reliability: Case study protocols & case

study database


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CHAPTER FOUR

The Research Findings

4.1 Introduction

This chapter reveals the findings of the 4 cases of the research and describes the processes of

the data analysis used to investigate the relationships between the inspectorial system (through

its operation and interactive strategies) and the dimensions of teacher professionalism as

experienced, believed and perceived by teachers, head teachers and primary school inspectors.

The chapter addresses the questions being pursued, “How does the inspectorial system operate

in Primary Schools? What are the dimensions of teacher professionalism as perceived by

teachers, head teachers and inspectors? How are these dimensions of teacher professionalism

linked to the interactive strategies applied by inspectors on teachers and head teachers? Do

teachers, head teachers and inspectors openly recognize the links between the interactive

strategies of the inspectorial system and the dimensions of teacher professionalism?” These

questions are addressed within the analysis of each of the 4 case studies.

4.2 Overview of the findings

Each case begins with the background information including the geographical locations of the

provinces and schools, and the cultural, socio-economic and political environments that

influence potential development. Within each case analysis the demographics of the

volunteered participants of the research are described. The processes of analyzing the data are

explained and the findings are summarized resulting from the qualitative research and case

study data analysis.

4.2.1 Stages of Data Analysis

There were four stages used in the data analysis and these are explained below (also refer

Section 3.11.2 and Figure 3.4).

• Stage 1: In stage 1, a content analysis of each participant’s transcript, focus

group’s discussion and documents involved the clustering of similar

experiences, beliefs and perceptions. Clusters of similar experiences, beliefs and

perceptions were identified and emerging themes for each participant, focus

group and documents were identified.

• Stage 2: In this stage, the emerging themes for each participant, focus group and

documents were further categorized into emerged themes of the interactive


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strategies of the inspectorial system and the dimensions of teacher

professionalism. The emerged themes answer the question “How does the

inspectorial system operate in Primary Schools? What are the dimensions of

teacher professionalism as perceived by teachers, head teachers and inspectors?”

• Stage 3: Using the results from stage 2, the linkages between the emerged

themes of the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher

professionalism evidenced in the data were identified to answer the question “Do

teachers, head teachers and inspectors perceive the links between the interactive

strategies of the inspectorial system and the dimensions of teacher

professionalism?” Within each school and inspectorate the linkages were

examined for similarities and differences to enable the findings to be concluded

for each type of participant for each case through a cross-participant analysis.

• Stage 4: In this stage the results from Stage 3 were used to identify common

and different linkages through cross-case participant and cross-case analysis to

enable the findings to be concluded for the whole study. Appendix 5 gives

samples of the four stages of analysis used.

4.2.2 Outcomes from the stages of data analysis

Within each case the finding was synthesized to illustrate the views of the participants. The

views were further used to develop an ‘input-process-output’ structure that supported the

establishment of the conceptual framework. The outcomes for these four stages were used to

produce cross-case participant and cross-case findings that are discussed in Chapter 5.

4.2.3 Common features of the Case Studies

The four provinces selected for the study represents the four regions of PNG, namely the New

Guinea Islands, Momase, Highlands and Southern Regions. Each province has its own

provincial government and administration headed by a Governor and a Provincial

Administrator respectively. The provinces are further divided into local level governments

and districts as part of the political and administrative structure and governance in PNG.

The PDOE in each province, one of several divisions of the each Provincial Administration, is

responsible for the administration of education services, including the management of schools

under the Organic Law on the PLLG (Department of Education, 2004b).

The inspectors, while carrying out national functions, are based in the provinces and districts.

The senior primary inspectors are based in the provincial headquarters and are responsible for


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all matters related to the operation of the inspectorate in the provinces. The provincial

administrations are required to provide office space and other essential services for the

inspectors to perform their responsibilities. The inspectors are answerable to the Secretary for

the NDOE (Section 1.3.4).

4.3 Case Study 1: Findings of a Provincial Inspectorate and a Remote

Government School

The Province of West New Britain (WNBP) is located in the New Guinea Islands of PNG. It

has been selected for this study to represent the New Guinea Islands Region (NGI). Other

provinces that make up NGI are Manus, East New Britain and New Ireland Provinces, and

the Autonomous Region of Bougainville. Atus Primary School, the school pre-selected for

this study, is situated in WNBP and is a remote government school on the South Coast of the

province.

4.3.1 Background information

WNBP has a population of 184 508 people with seven major tribes, namely the Nakanai,

Bakovis, Kove, Unea, Maleu, Kaulong and the Arowe. There are twenty-five languages

spoken in the province. The Christian Church and modern developments have significantly

influenced the lives of the WNBP people although most people continue to respect ancestral

gods. Animalistic beliefs and traditional rituals remain integral parts of the people in many

areas. People continue to live on subsistence agriculture which provides a livelihood for

85% of the population. Its main contributing export produce to the PNG economy is palm

oil.

The province is divided into two districts, Kandrian-Gloucester and Talasea Districts, and is

very rich in natural resources. It has rugged terrain and the high cost of developing

infrastructure has hampered the exploitation of its natural resources. Such situation has also

affected the provision of social services, including education.

Current statistics show that the total number of community and primary schools operating in

the province is 157 with 91 community schools and 66 primary schools. There are 1 006

teaching positions in community and primary schools with 856 teachers on strength and 150

teaching vacancies. The number of students enrolled in community and primary schools is

23 752 with 12 924 males and 10 808 females representing 54% and 46% respectively

(Sources: Inspectors’ Reports).


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Atus Primary school is accessible by road and sea from Kimbe, the capital town of the

province. It was selected to represent the remote government primary schools in PNG. It is

a level 4 school with a staff ceiling of eight teachers, four males and four females. During

the time of the field work, only five teachers, including the head teacher were present. The

others were absent from work. Eighty-eight percent (88%) of teachers are locals and come

from nearby villages. Due to lack of housing for teachers only five teachers reside in the

school while the rest resided in their villages. The school enrolls 164 students in grades 3, 4,

5, 6, 7 and 8 with an average class-size of 27 students per class. Of the 164 students, 98

(60%) are males and 66 (40%) are females. All students come from nearby villages which

are located on very small islands and travel by canoes to school on the mainland (Sources:

School Records).

There are seven inspector positions for the province with the current staff strength of four

and with three positions vacant. The inspector responsible for Atus Primary School is based

about 5 hours travel by motorboat from the school.

4.3.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Participants

The participants of Case Study 1, WNBP, were made up of a teacher, a head teacher and a

primary school inspector. A focus group was also used to collect data. The focus group was

made up of three teachers who were present at the school during the fieldwork.

Table 4.1 shows the demographic characteristics of the teachers, the head teacher, the

inspector and members of the focus group. The teacher was in his second year of teaching

and has a Diploma in Primary Teaching. He never received advisory visits before being

inspected for registration. Though he was inspected the previous year, he was not certain

whether he was a registered teacher because he had not received his inspection report. In

this study, the teacher’s experiences, beliefs and perceptions represented inexperienced

teachers who had little contact with the inspectors and recently graduated with a Diploma in

Teaching in primary schools.


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Table 4.1: Demographic Characteristics of Participants of Case Study 1

Participants Sex Age Qualifications/Position Teaching/Inspector Experience % of Teachers/Inspectors in School/Inspectorate

WVT 1* Male 24 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Teacher

• 2 years • 2 years

Teacher participants: 25% of teachers of the school

WHT 1* Male 38 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Head Teacher

• 19 years • 4 years HT at this school

WFG 1 A Female 44 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Teacher

• 24 years • 7 years at this school

Focus group participants: 37.5% of teachers of the school Total: 62.5% of teachers of the school (25% + 37.5%)

WFG 1 B Male 29 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Deputy Head Teacher


WFG 1 C Female 29 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Teacher


WVI 1* Male 52 • Diploma in Education Studies • Senior Primary Inspector

• 7 years Teaching • 24 years Inspector • 7 years Senior Inspector

Inspectors participants: 25% of inspectors of the inspectorate

Key:

(*) - Interviewed participants WVT – Volunteer teacher WVH – Volunteer head teacher WVI – Volunteer inspector WFG – Focus group


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The Focus Group was made up of three teachers. Their teaching experiences varied from

seven to twenty-four years while their teaching qualifications varied from a Certificate in

Primary School Teaching to a Diploma in Primary Teaching. The focus group was made up

of a teacher, senior teacher and deputy head teacher. The school, despite several changes in

the teaching staff during the last few years, had not been visited by primary school inspectors

for five years. Thus, those teachers who had been teaching in the school for five years had

not been visited by inspectors. The focus group discussion targeted teachers’ experiences,

beliefs and perceptions from previous experiences with the inspectors, either at this school or

province or elsewhere in PNG.

The head teacher was in his fourth year as a head teacher and had nineteen years of teaching

experience. He had not been visited by an inspector since he became the head teacher. He

had a Certificate in Primary Teaching which is a lower qualification than some teachers’

qualifications in the school. In this study, the head teacher’s views represented the

experiences, beliefs and perceptions of head teachers who had not been visited and assisted

formally by inspectors in remote schools.

The qualifications of teachers who participated in the study, including the head teacher,

varied from a Certificate in Primary Teaching to a Diploma in Primary Teaching. Three

teachers had Diplomas in Primary Teaching, representing 60% while two teachers had

Certificates in Primary Teaching, representing 40% of teachers. The teaching experiences of

teachers varied from seven to twenty-four years, while teaching experiences in this school

varied from two to seven years. The ages of the teacher participants varied from twenty-four

to forty-four years.

The inspector was in his twenty-fourth year of inspector experience. He had a Diploma in

Education Studies. He had been in this province for two years, after being an inspector in

different provinces. He was an experienced inspector. Table 4.2 indicates the demographic

responsibilities for the inspector in his inspectorates. This includes the number of schools,

the number of teachers and the number of students that the inspector was responsible for and

the appropriate ratio that applied to each responsibility load.


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Table 4.2: Inspector Responsibility Load

Participant Responsibilities

Inspector No. of Yrs in

Inspectorate

No. of schools

Ratio No. of Teachers

Ratio No. of Students

Ratio

WVI 1 2 30 1:30 327+ 1:327+ 6 148 1:6 148

The inspector was responsible for 30 schools with over 327 teachers and 6 148 students.

This seemed to be a heavy load for an inspector to handle in a year. There was a lack of

policies that related to the workload for inspectors at the national level.

4.3.3 Perceived Inspectorial Interactive Strategies

In response to questions of how the inspectors operate in schools, the activities used by

inspectors to carry out their responsibilities, according to teachers, the head teacher and

inspector were categorized into quality assurance, professional development and

professional ethics of inspectors. These categories emerged from the data through the

processes of clustering. Tables 4.3 to 4.5 illustrate the processes of establishing these

interactive strategies derived from the transcripts and documents analysis.


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Table 4.3 Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Quality Assurance

Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations

Stage 2 Analysis

Emerging Themes Emerged Themes Teacher • Checking teaching files & records, & personal records, delegated duties records. • Observed teacher’s lessons. • Interview teachers on personal character. • Registration of teachers through inspection processes. Head teacher • Inspectors carry out inspection for promotion. • Inspectors write reports on how teachers teach & how they perform their responsibilities. • Inspectors provide information to help head teachers to abide by policies in managing

schools. Teacher Focus group • Inspectors check work programs, workbooks, roll books & lesson plans. • Inspector checks teachers’ work at his own discretion. Inspector • Operational plans cover school visits, supervisory duties and training programs. • Inspector ensures senior teachers are organized in supervising teachers. • Inspector supervises and assesses head teachers as a curriculum leader. • Inspector ensures that Board of Management (BOM) and Parents & Citizens Association

carry out their responsibilities. • Inspectorate office is being used as a communication centre and a source of information by

PDOE and NDOE. • Inspector liaises with the Teaching Service Commission on matters related to teacher

discipline.

• Monitoring teaching standards and curriculum requirements • Teacher Appraisal, Assessment & Evaluation is carried out by

inspectors. • Quality control & assurance is carried out • Through the monitoring of policies & reporting to PDOE and

NDOE authorities. • Inspectors as disciplinarians, carrying out investigations on

disciplinary cases. • Supervision for accountability to ensure resources are used

children’s education.

Quality assurance


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Table 4.4 Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Professional Development


Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes

Teacher : No comments Head teacher • Inspectors observe lessons and provide advice for improvement. • Inspectors provide advice on areas of weaknesses for improvement. • Inspectors help in extending head teacher knowledge in order to administer and

manage schools. • Inspectors help head teachers to formulate school policies. Focus group : No comments Inspector • Inspectors train senior teachers to become Deputy Head Teachers. • Inspectors strengthen head teachers’ and teachers’ supervisory roles ensuring skills

and confidence in supervision and curriculum implementation including teaching methods, knowledge and competence are established and teacher are valuing students’ education.

• Inspectors work with PDOE personnel and other stakeholders in an advisory capacity.

• Supervision for professional development through advisory

and training roles performed by inspectors. • Advisory capacity done by inspectors for provincial

authorities.

Professional development


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Table 4.5: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Professional Ethics of Inspectors



Teacher Operational issues • Teacher visited only once and only for registration. • Unplanned visits done by inspectors. • Inspector did not really do what he supposed to do. • No documents, including newsletters, related to inspector’s expectations of the teacher

were given to teachers. • No feedback from the inspector. Professional issues • Many teachers not performing well but getting good inspection reports for full

registration. • Teachers not performing well because inspectors are not being honest. • Teacher does not know whether he improved or not in his work. • Inspector did not appreciate teacher’s work. Head teacher Operational Issues • Head teacher has not been paid advisory & inspection visits by inspector for 5 years. • Inspectors perform “too much work.” • No appropriate documents provided by inspectors to help the head teacher & teachers

in supervision of teachers, management of schools & writing inspection reports. Professional Issues • Inspector did not look thoroughly at the things teacher expected him to write about. • Inspection done without advisory visit does not help teachers. Teacher Focus group Operational issues • Many changes experienced with the inspectorial operation and with many problems

being experienced, including lack of teaching and learning resources.

• Lack of planning and organization by inspector to carry out

his work. • Inspector’s integrity being questioned and is having adverse

impacts on teachers. • Lack of benefits experienced by teacher from inspector’s

visit. • Lack of commitment by inspectors to visit schools and help

teachers. • Needs of teachers and changes not catered for by inspectors

due to lack of visits to schools.

Professional ethics of inspectors


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• Inspectors observed teachers’ work less in remote schools compared to urban schools. Professional issues • Inspectors concentrate on classroom teaching and deal with weaknesses and provide

alternatives ways of improvement “but they did not do this well”. • Inspectors do not read documents provided by teachers. • Unequal distribution of inspectorial services in remote, rural and urban schools. • Lack of commitment by inspector in assisting teachers. • Inspectors enhanced teacher preparation when they visit schools. Inspector Operational issues • Impact of changes on the lives of teachers in both rural/remote and urban schools not

being catered for by inspectors due to lack of resources. Professional issues • Duplication of supervisory roles performed by school personnel and inspector –

inspector, head teacher and senior teacher supervising based level teachers, etc.

(As above)

(As above)


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Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers

The first theme related to the inspectors’ work concerned quality assurance interactive

strategies. This involved the use of checklists (e.g. lesson observation checklists) and

standard formats (e.g. inspection report formats) by inspectors to check on basic educational

requirements and to carry out the inspection of teacher and head teacher respectively. As

confirmed through experiences by the teacher:

“The first time he (inspector) came, he called me up and asked me if he could

observe one of my lessons. Then he checked my teaching files and programs.

Then he checked my personal statements (records) and delegated duties

records, and lastly he observed my lesson. Then he interviewed me asking

questions related to my personal character.” (WVT 1)

The teacher added that:

“I have noticed that the main aim of his work is to write the inspection report

and he aimed to register myself as a full time teacher.” (WVT 1)

The second theme related to the inspectors’ work was professional development

strategies. Though the use of checklists and standard formats was considered part of the

professional development strategies identified by the head teacher and the inspector,

teachers (including members of the focus group) did not view this to be the case. This

was probably attributed to the lack of advisory visits given to the teachers by inspectors.

The third theme referred to the manner in which inspectors conducted themselves in their

work, including questions raised on their professional behavior as observed by teachers.

Such an observation emerged as an issue that the teacher was concerned with and was

categorized as professional ethics of inspectors. Serious comments on such views were

common and exemplified here by the teacher and members of the focus group:

“I assessed Mr. (Inspector named) on what he did and some of the things that

he did were not good. Some of the things, to be honest, I don’t think he wrote

(the report) according to what he observed and to expected standards but he

just wrote a good report. Well I think this should not be done because it won’t

help at all for the new graduate.” (WVT 1)


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“With me I feel that the inspector came and did his job by observing how the

teacher is doing his/her work. The other teacher said that he just came for a

short time and left. But with me I prepared everything because the inspectors

were coming to inspect me so I make sure things are in order …….. But he

only spent little time in the classroom.” (WFG 1)

Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Head Teacher

With the first theme concerning quality assurance strategies the head teacher included

advisory and inspection written reports as strategies used by inspectors to monitor teacher

performances. Such reports were also used to assist head teachers in adhering to educational

policies. In support of the inspectors’ work the head teacher revealed that:

“Inspectors’ work, as far as I am concern, they are doing something good for

the teachers. They write up report on how teachers teach and how they perform

in school. Their work, as I can see, is good so they should continue with it.”

(WVH 1)

With the second theme concerning professional development interactive strategies, the head

teacher concluded that the advisory activities were also of a professional development

nature. Inspectors observed teachers’ lessons and provided advice on the quality of teaching

and learning. Inspectors also assisted the head teacher in formulating school policies as well

as providing skills in administering and managing the school. As the head teacher

confirmed:

“I feel that the Inspectors help the teachers in many ways and also help them to

better improve their teaching performances and also to improve in other areas

of responsibilities that they are supposed to be committed to. They assist the

teachers and analyze the weaknesses and strengths. Through this experience the

Inspector told me to improve on my performances as a teacher and as a senior

teacher as well.” (WVH 1)

The head teacher admitted that he had benefited from the inspectors’ work through advisory

activities and inspection processes he experienced while teaching in other schools. He

explained:

“Well I feel that what the Inspector was doing was good because the Inspector

was trying to help me somehow to extend the knowledge that I have as an


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administrator or a manager in a school. So the kinds of activities that the

Inspector is doing for me is good because after all they become examples for

me to follow so in that way I would put into practice what the Inspector is

putting across to me.” (WVH 1)

The third theme, professional ethics of inspectors, referred to the manner in which inspectors

behaved and conducted themselves in their work. As similarly observed by teachers, there

were questions raised on inspectors’ professional conduct and in the ways they portrayed

themselves to the public. This included such observations as the inspectors having no plans

for their school visits, inspectors did not provide information about their responsibilities and

inspectors did not thoroughly examine teachers’ documents. There were also no advisory

visits given to teachers prior to the inspection process, and though this was policy (Baki,

2001a; 2001b), it was a serious concern. The head teacher observed:

“Not so much problem that I could see about the inspector’s work but I see

that the inspectors should have proper inspection or visit programs. They

should plan in advance and the plan has to be distributed to schools so that

teachers and head teachers are well aware of their visit times so that they can

always prepare things and get ready for his or her visits………. And also when

they come to pay visits at least they should bring with them some kind of

documents regarding inspections so that they help the head teachers to

implement what is required during the inspection process.” (WVH 1)

“I believe regular advisory visits to schools are better than one or none. An

inspection visit without advisory visits first does not coincide with the

inspection process and the teaching profession well.” (WVH 1)

Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Inspector

With the theme concerning quality assurance interactive strategies, the inspector confirmed

that the operational plans he used included supervisory duties that concerned the monitoring

of curriculum requirements (teaching programs and assessments) and senior teachers’

supervision of base level teachers, the assessments of head teachers as curriculum leaders

and ensuring the schools operate smoothly. Consistent with the teachers’ and the head

teacher’s comments, the inspector confirmed:


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“In my early inspector days, many head teachers thought I was too young for

the job, that is, providing advisory and supervisory roles, writing comments

about their work and performance, …….. and writing inspection reports about

their performance.” (WVI 1)

“I oversee policy implementation in relation to educational standards,

curriculum implementation, inspections and teacher appraisal … ” (WVI 1)

“I make sure that senior teachers are well organized in supervising their

teachers in the current education reform structure, that is, in lower Primary

Grades (3, 4 & 5) and Upper Primary (6,7 & 8), effectively coordinating these

sections.………….I also supervise teachers in lower and upper primary grades

with their responsibilities when I visit the schools. I supervise and assess the

Head Teacher as a curriculum leader. The implementation of the curriculum is

his responsibility and he is also in control of the supervision of the teachers. At

the Administration level, the head teacher is the overall school administrator.

………….. In the school there is also the Board of Management (BOM) which

is responsible for the school under the Education Act of 1983. ……. The BOM

is accountable and responsible to the wellbeing of both students and teachers. I

ensure that there are no problems with funds and funds are used for educating

children.” (WVI 1)

With the theme, professional development interactive strategies, the inspector revealed his

full involvement in strengthening head teachers’ and senior teachers’ supervisory roles at the

school level through planning, facilitating and implementing training programs for teachers

and head teachers. The training programs, including advisory activities, covered changes in

the school system, curriculum issues, administration and management of the schools, and

professional development for teachers. As elaborated (also refer to the above inspector’s

comments):

“As an inspector ............ I like working with teachers and assist them become

competent in their own teaching performance, improve skills, children’s

activities and appraise them to become better teachers.” (WVI 1)

“………..(I am) Focusing more on promoting teacher professional development

programs through strengthening school based, cluster, zone or distance mode


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types of education to reach both teachers in upgrading their professional

competencies individually.” (WVI 1)

As identified by all participants, the third theme related to the inspectors’ work was

identified as professional ethics of inspectors. Professional ethics was related to the manner,

conduct and behavior of inspectors that arose from carrying out the quality assurance and

professional development activities. This theme also relates to organizational issues

including a lack of resources for inspectors to work with and a lack of support from

authorities. As a result the inspectors were not performing to expected standards and, in

general, this had demoralized the status of the inspectorial system. While the inspector fully

supported the existence of the inspectorial system he strongly emphasized the need to

reshape it so that it becomes more effective. He said:

“Inspectorate budgets for inspectors’ operations in many provinces are not

included despite the fact that inspectors continue to overwork. Inspectors

become communication ‘centers’ and provide expert advice to both the NDOE

and the PDOE. Both continue to downplay (the roles of) the school inspectors

and their work.” (WVI 1)

“I suggest we legalize the inspectorate system as an independent entity within

the NDOE, that is, the inspectorate system must be free from undue influence

but work according to its policy framework. It must be arm with teeth (legal

power) resources and support with training programs for inspectors.” (WVI 1)

Synthesis of the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies

Two main interactive strategies that the inspector applied when performing his

responsibilities with teachers and the head teacher in the school were identified as quality

assurance and professional development. These strategies were performed through the use

of inspector’s operational plans, checklists, standard formats and teacher/head teacher

advisory and inspection reports. The strategies involved direct interactions between the

teachers, the head teacher and inspector.

Quality assurance strategies were concerned with maintaining educational requirements and

monitoring the implementation of educational policies including curriculum and assessment,

and the administration and management of resources by teachers and the head teacher in the

school. These strategies were directly concerned with the performances of teachers and the


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head teacher and involved advisory activities (where checklists were used) and the inspection

processes (Section 1.3.4). The professional development interactive strategies involved

planned advisory and training programs that were facilitated and/or implemented by

inspectors. These strategies included observing and providing advice on teachers’ lessons,

records and files; providing advice on the administration and management of school

resources; and acknowledging teachers’ and the head teacher’s performances. However,

while the head teacher and inspector viewed this to be the case, teachers did not share the

same views. This could probably be attributed to the absence of advisory and inspection

visits given to the teachers.

Professional ethics of inspectors emerged as significant behavioral interactive strategies that

resulted from how inspectors behaved and conducted themselves while carrying out their

responsibilities. These behavioral strategies arose from the inspector’s quality assurance and

professional development practices as an external supervisor in the school, and included

organizational factors that influenced the inspector in his work. Such behavioral interactive

strategies demonstrated by the inspector, observed by teachers and the head teacher and

confirmed by the inspector, influenced teachers and the head teacher as members of the

teaching profession.

4.3.4 Perceived Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism

In response to the questions of how teachers, the head teacher and inspector perceived

teacher professionalism, the following results were thematically derived from the analysis.

The teacher perceived teacher professionalism as having the dimensions of teacher

compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher professional ethics. The teacher focus group

perceived teacher professionalism as having the dimensions of teacher knowledge, teacher

professional development and teacher professional ethics. The head teacher perceived

teacher professionalism as having the dimensions of teacher compliance, teacher leadership

and teacher professional ethics. The inspector perceived teacher professionalism as having

the dimensions of teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher

professional development and teacher professional ethics.

Tables 4.6 to 4.10 illustrate the analytical processes through which the above results were

derived using grounded analysis approaches.


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Table 4.6: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Compliance

Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations

Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes

Teacher • Teacher teaching, including preparation of materials, teacher physical appearance, and

teacher performance. • Teachers as good implementers. • Carrying out work well for the students. • Teachers as planners. Head teacher • Teacher professionalism relates to the work that a teacher does. • Teacher must do his/her best in what he/she does. • Teachers having one mind and working together. • Head teacher formulating school policies. Teacher focus group: No comments Inspector • Teacher professionalism is characterized by what is in the job description or duty

statement of each teacher or head teacher. • Teacher practices – teaching, teacher competence, classroom organization and

management practices including curriculum content and context. • Head teachers and teachers as agents of changes. • Head teacher and teacher accountability.

• Teacher performance relates to teaching, preparation and in

performing other duties. • Teacher organization relates to planning and organizing

teacher records and files. • Teacher as agent of change. • Teacher accountability relates to teachers being accountable

to children learning and other responsibilities

Teacher compliance


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Table 4.7: Process of Establishing Themes of the Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Knowledge



Teacher • Teacher qualifications. Head teacher : No comments Teacher focus group • Teacher competence and knowledge relate to teaching competence and curriculum

knowledge. Inspector • Teacher competence – knowledge, methods, skills, content, etc. • Teacher curriculum knowledge – content, context, overview, programs, etc.

• Teacher qualifications. • Teacher knowledge.

Teacher knowledge

Table 4.8: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Leadership



Teacher : No comments Head teacher • Head teacher working at his best to show fellow teachers. • Head teacher taking a lead in all aspects of work in the school. • Leadership is important in Teacher Professionalism. Teacher focus group : No comments Inspector • Head teacher and teacher leadership skills - management, appraisal, organizational

leadership, consultants, etc. • Head teacher expertise in management, organizational and administrative skills.

• Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher taking

a lead in aspects of school operation.

Teacher leadership


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Table 4.9: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Professional Development



Teacher : No comments Head teacher : No comments Teacher focus group • Teacher continuous professional development. • Teacher professional development as a continuing phenomenal in teaching. Inspector • Teacher supervisory roles in subordinate appraisal, conflict resolution, contextual

skills and life skills. • Teacher professional development.

Teacher professional development as a continuing phenomenal in teaching.

Teacher professional development


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Table 4.10: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Professional Ethics



Teacher • Teacher honesty. • Teacher dedication. • Teacher commitment. • Teacher as good role model. • Teacher respecting other teachers. Head teacher • Teacher commitment. • Teacher honesty, teacher being honest in his/her work. • Teacher being dedicated to his/her working life. • Teacher interaction with children, this requires honesty. Teacher focus group • “Teaching is what you do with children”. • Dedication to work. • Commitment to work. Inspector • Teacher-interaction with children, teachers, colleagues, community and parents. • Head teacher integrity and impartiality and leadership.

• Teacher ethics or ethical values including honesty, respect,

commitment and dedication. • Teacher-child interaction relates to what teachers do with

children. • Teacher interaction relates to how teachers relate and

communicate with children, and other stakeholders.

Teacher professional ethics


128

Teacher professionalism: Views of Teachers

The interviewed teacher, who was only inspected the previous year for full registration,

viewed teacher professionalism as having three dimensions. These dimensions were teacher

compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher professional ethics. The interviewed teacher

referred teacher compliance to teachers complying with teaching responsibilities including

preparation of teaching and learning materials, implementing curriculum requirements and

performing well for the students. He said:

“I think teacher professionalism is simply referring to the teacher teaching, his

or her own work including preparation of teaching materials, ...... and teacher

performances, how he or she performs his or her work. This is all about

teacher professionalism.” (WVT 1)

However, the members of the focus group did not believe that adhering to requirements

(teacher compliance) was an aspect of the teaching profession. Their views maybe attributed

to their years of experience where duties had become ‘a norm’ for them. Such perception

maybe caused by the few visitations given to them by the inspectors where their

performances and educational requirements were not monitored. At the same time the views

of experienced teachers raised the issue of how new developments in education, including

the reformed curriculum were being addressed. It was not clear whether teachers were aware

of such developments. A member of the focus group reiterated the problems:

“Many times we do not have resources for the students to use, even the

curriculum involving the Melanesian Series, and later the Pacific Series and

then the new curriculum, many things are very slow (in being implemented by

the schools). And I feel that since the changes in curriculum took place until

now teaching is not so much interesting and many things are changing at

once.” (WFG 1)

The second emerged dimension of the teaching profession concerned teacher knowledge.

The teachers, both members of the focus group and the interviewed teacher believed that

teachers had to have appropriate knowledge and had to be competent in teaching methods

and skills. At the same time, as a member of the focus group argued, teacher knowledge had

to be addressed through continuous professional development.


129

“So the main issues are teachers’ knowledge on the new curriculum and

teacher continuous professional development to address all agenda that relate

to the education reform that PNG is going through now.” (WFG 1)

The interviewed teacher, newly graduated, also noted the importance of teacher

qualifications related to teacher knowledge:

“I think some teachers in this school are performing to their best while others

are struggling because of their teaching qualifications. In this school we have

certificate holders and diploma holders. Thus there is a difference in the

quality of work”. (WVT 1)

The other identified dimension of teacher professionalism is teacher professional

development. The experienced teachers (focus group) believed that teacher professional

development was an important aspect of the teaching profession. However, this was not so

for the graduate teacher. This explained the fact that the graduate teacher was aware of

current changes and did not believe that continuous professional development was

appropriate for him. On the other hand, the experienced teachers relied on continuous

professional development to keep up with developments, including changes in curriculum

and technology. There were, however, serious problems at present in the school, as a

member of the focus group described:

“Teacher professional development concerning curriculum development, the

new curriculum, we have not been targeted, there is no training and in-service

on the new development and this is affecting us in our work. So I see that in

this province these new initiatives will not work well. So the main issues are

teachers’ knowledge on the new curriculum and teacher continuous

professional development to address all agenda that relate to the education

reform that PNG is going through now.” (WFG 1)

The fourth emerged dimension of the teaching profession concerned teacher professional

ethics. Teachers referred to teacher professional ethics in terms of the manner in which

teachers and the head teachers conducted themselves in the school and how this was

paramount to being a teacher. Such manner and conduct were also related to ethic and

values such as honesty, dedication, commitment, respect and teachers being role models for

children, colleagues and the public. As the interviewed teacher emphasized:


130

“Honesty, dedication and commitment are also to do with teacher

professionalism.” (WVT 1)

“What I value as a teacher is that I must respect other teachers, I must help

other teachers and I must carry out my work well for the students.” (WVT 1)

Such beliefs were also expressed by a member of the focus group though he also

categorically described the current status of the teaching profession in PNG.

“….. I think if we are to look closely at this (teaching profession), I believe we

as teachers must dedicate and commit ourselves to our work. After all we know

that what we are giving to the children will allow them to have knowledge and

skills, both for their future career and lives. So I think commitment and

dedication must be part of our work and profession, these are very important

aspects (of being a teacher). Because we are teachers I think work

commitment, dedication and honesty are important areas that we need to

consider in our work. These aspects (of the teaching profession) I no longer see

being displayed by many teachers today.” (WFG 1)

Teacher professionalism: Views of Head Teacher

The head teacher viewed teacher professionalism as having three dimensions. The three

dimensions are teacher compliance, teacher leadership and teacher professional ethics.

With teacher compliance, the head teacher provided similar views as teachers and related

such views from his status as having supervisory responsibilities in the school. He related

teacher compliance to teachers and the head teacher having to abide by educational policies,

and management and professional requirements such as presenting effective lessons,

maintaining appropriate records and files, and managing and accounting for school resources

respectively. The head teacher emphasized that teacher compliance related directly to

teachers and the head teacher adhering to responsibilities. With his own roles concerning

teacher compliance, the head teacher confirmed:

“My current responsibility as a head teacher for this school is to make an

overall plan for the school for the whole year and to make sure teachers are

allocated to the classes to teach, and also to delegate some responsibilities to

them. As a supervisor, I make sure they perform to expectations as teachers


131

and see how they are going with their performances and responsibilities. I help

teachers work in the school and give instructions to ensure students learn to the

expected standards. I also have to supervise teachers and students daily. And

another thing is that I must help teachers in their professional development

through in-services, discussions and meetings. In making sure the school run

smoothly, I also work closely with the Board of Management of the school and

the community as a whole.” (WVH 1)

The other emerged theme of the dimensions of teacher professionalism was teacher

leadership. The head teacher believed that leadership at any level in school was significant

and an integral part of the teaching profession. Teacher leadership concerned teachers taking

a lead in all aspects of the school life. Such views defined leadership from both an informal

and formal perspectives. The head teacher described his position:

“As a Head teacher I should try to work to my best to show my fellow teachers,

my subordinates, the kind of work performance especially taking a lead in all

aspects of work we have in the school. Leadership is far more important in the

school. I do administrative work in the school and also other activities that

would lead the teachers into some kind of things that they may have not

experienced sometimes in their teaching life. So leadership is far more

important (in order) to lead the teachers especially in my position as a Head

teacher.” (WVH 1)

Another theme that emerged about teacher professionalism was teacher professional ethics.

Teacher professional ethics referred to the manner in which teachers and head teachers

conducted themselves in schools. For example, as a leader, the head teacher was expected to

display a high degree of integrity as well as being impartial in his dealing with stakeholders

in the school system. Thus, teacher professional ethics was concerned with teachers’ beliefs

about the teaching profession. It concerned ethics and values that allowed teachers and head

teachers to carry out responsibilities with commitment, dedication and honesty, as advocated

by the head teacher:

“Simply, teacher professionalism relates to the work that a teacher does, a kind

of a teacher that is committed, the teacher has to be honest in his or her work,

the teacher has to be dedicated to his or her working life and also that the

teacher must do his or her best in his or her work that he or she is doing.

Because the profession itself is far more important for the teacher to deal with


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children, we teachers should have this kind of interaction with the children

which requires us to be very honest in our work.” (WVH 1)

Teacher professionalism: Views of Inspector

The inspector identified five dimensions of teacher professionalism. These dimensions were

teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional

development and teacher professional ethics. With teacher compliance the inspector

presented similar views to teachers and the head teacher by relating this dimension to

teachers and head teachers adhering to basic educational, administrative, management and

professional requirements. He also reiterated the importance of teachers and head teachers

complying with responsibilities that were described in job descriptions.

“The characteristics of a teacher and head teacher are bound by their job

descriptions or duty statements. The class teacher deals with improving

teacher practices; teaching, teacher competence, classroom organization and

management practices including curriculum content and context and student

integral development; mental, physical, social, and spiritual. The head teacher

provides expertise in terms of maintaining the best infrastructure, management,

organizational and administrative skills.” (WVI 1)

The inspector further stressed that teachers and head teachers were agents of change and had

to adhere to changes if they had to comply with developments in the school system:

“The characteristics of teacher professionalism of the teachers and head

teacher are that both are agents of changes in the school. One deals with

teaching practices, mostly in children while the head deals with management of

changes to create a healthy learning atmosphere for the children.” (WVI 1)

The inspector also noted that accountability was significant to teachers in carrying out their

responsibilities. He drew attention to the current problems in schools with teachers and

claimed that:

“….. teachers [should] become more accountable in their teaching and in their

work. I think a lot of teachers are not accountable in what they are doing now.

Some of them do not complete their assessments. Thus it is a current problem and

even some parents do not know the children’s academic results”. (WVI 1)


133

Concerning teacher knowledge, the inspector supported the teachers’ views but

acknowledged that knowledge was a component of teacher competence, including

methods and skills of teaching and being knowledgeable in the content of the school

curriculum. The inspector stressed that:

“Teacher professionalism deals with building teacher competence – knowledge,

methods, skills, content, etc and building teacher curriculum – content, context,

overview, programs, etc.” (WVI 1)

Teachers and head teachers therefore had to have appropriate knowledge in curriculum

matters and had to be competent to deliver these to students for them to be members of the

teaching profession.

The experiences of the inspector led him to conclude that leadership at any level in schools

was significant to the teaching profession. In support of the head teacher, the inspector

related teacher leadership as an emerged dimension of teacher professionalism as having

teachers and head teachers taking a lead in all aspects of the school life. The inspector

argued that administrative, organizational and management skills as ingredients for

leadership were essential. In addition, the inspector viewed teacher leadership as related to

supervisory, professional development, consultancy and conflict resolution roles that

teachers and head teachers had to model. Such perceptions of leadership defined leadership

from multiple perspectives:

“Teacher professionalism deals with .......... building/promoting head teacher

leadership skills, management, appraisal, organizational leadership, consultants,

etc and building/promoting school based supervisors’ roles, subordinate

appraisal, conflict resolution, contextual skills and life skills.” (WVI 1)

With the emerged theme of teacher professional development as a dimension of the teaching

profession the inspector supported the experienced teachers’ view that continuous

professional development was an integral part of the teaching profession. He conferred

professional development as an aspect of teacher leadership through the supervisory and

appraisal responsibilities, and stressed the importance of professional development through

training:


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“Teacher professionalism deals with ......... building/promoting teacher training

(ongoing) – teacher-interaction with children, teachers, colleagues, community

and parents..............” (WVI 1)

Teacher professional ethics, the other emerged dimension of teacher professionalism,

referred to the manner in which teachers and the head teacher conducted themselves in

school and how this was paramount to being a teacher. These views were shared by other

participants and concerned teachers’ and head teachers’ conduct that were related to ethical

values that included honesty, dedication, commitment and respect. Generally, the inspector

emphasized the characteristic of the teaching profession as having the commitment to accept

changes that created learning environments in the schools.

“The characteristics of teacher professionalism of the teacher and head teacher

are that both are agents of changes in the school. One deals with teaching

practices, mostly in children while the head deals with management of changes to

create a healthy learning atmosphere for the children.” (WVI 1)

Synthesis of the Views: Teacher Professionalism

Collectively the findings revealed that there were five dimensions of teacher professionalism.

These were teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional

development and teacher professional ethics. However, there were specific dimensions of

teacher professionalism that were not viewed as significant by particular participants due to

various factors. Teacher compliance and teacher leadership, for example, were not

recognized by experienced teachers as significant to the teaching profession. This could be

attributed to the fact that these teachers had not been supervised and inspected by inspectors

for a number of years. This practice did not give the opportunity for teachers to show case in

complying with educational and other requirements as well as giving them the opportunities

to be recognized for promotion through the inspection processes.

The interviewed teacher, who was only in his second year of teaching, did not view teacher

leadership and teacher professional development as dimensions of teacher professionalism.

The teacher believed that teacher compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher professional

ethics were significant to the teaching profession at his level because these were basic

requirements to be registered as a teacher.


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The head teacher did not perceive teacher knowledge and teacher professional development

as dimensions of teacher professionalism and this may be attributed to his current

qualification and how much attention s/he was giving to professional development activities

in the school. The issue of qualification of the head teacher, which was lower than other

teachers’ qualifications, was a concern and questioned his role in addressing academic

standards and the quality of education. At the same time, the head teacher’s perception of

professional development highlighted the lack of priority in this dimension as it impacted on

his/her leadership role.

Teacher professional ethics was a common emerged dimension of the teaching profession in

the school and inspectorate that was highlighted by all participants. While teacher

professional ethics concerned the manner and conduct by which teachers and the head

teacher performed responsibilities, it referred also to ethical values that teachers and the head

teacher portrayed as members of the teaching profession. It concerned teachers’ and the

head teacher’s beliefs and how these beliefs resulted in commitment, dedication, respect and

honesty while performing their responsibilities.

4.3.5 Perceived linkages between the inspectorial interactive strategies and the

dimensions of teacher professionalism

For this Case Study the linkages from the emerged themes for each type of participants are

now compared for similarities and differences. To do this teachers and the head teacher were

asked about the activities that the inspectors carried out with them and whether these

activities had influenced them in how they performed responsibilities. The inspector was

asked whether the intended outcomes of their activities were achieved. The participants

were also asked directly to identify the linkages they believed existed between the

inspectorial interactive strategies and what they perceived as dimensions of teacher

professionalism.

Perceptions of the Linkages: Views of Teachers

The teacher related quality assurance activities directly to teacher compliance; professional

development activities to teacher professional development and inspector professional ethics

to teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.1 shows these linkages.


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Figure 4.1: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages

Inspectorial Strategies Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism

• Quality assurance Teacher compliance

• Professional development Teacher professional development

• Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics

This inexperienced teacher reported a simple set of linear connections. In this case, quality

assurance interactive strategies directly influenced the teacher to comply with educational

and administrative requirements including the quality of teaching and learning, keeping

appropriate records and having suitable standard of dressing for work.

“The lesson observations with the comments and the report, I think, help me to

improve my teaching because I am a new teacher. And the checking of

personal files ensures that my administrative work is in order and improving.”

(WVT 1)

“He was looking for teaching problems and he told me, at that time I was

implementing the new syllabus, ‘son you are doing well but you must improvise

on some teaching needs that address students learning’.” (WVT 1)

“When I heard that the Inspector was coming I got myself dressed neatly.

Dressing is important….” (WVT 1)

Professional development activities contributed to the teacher’s professional development

through improvement in teaching and learning strategies, and generally in performance as

revealed (also refer to quotes above):

“When he came to observe my lesson he tried to improve my teaching

performance and when he checked my files and records he was trying to

improve my administrative skills.” (WVT 1)

In relation to the manner in which inspectors conducted themselves (professional ethics of

inspectors) in performing their responsibilities, the teacher revealed that such conduct

directly influenced teachers in how they conducted themselves in their work. The teacher

emphasized honesty as a matter of concern for inspectors to address:


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“I think these Inspectors are doing well, but they must be honest. They must be

honest in their inspection. Otherwise their work is alright with me. They are

doing well but they must be honest in writing reports, they must not tell lies

because this will affect teachers and students as well. Many teachers are not

performing well now yet the inspectors are still writing reports that allow them

to be fully registered.” (WVT 1)

However, the teacher focus group which was made up of experienced teachers and senior

teachers, who had not been visited and inspected by inspectors for some time, revealed that

quality assurance activities carried out by inspectors had direct relations with teacher

compliance, teacher leadership and teacher professional ethics. Professional development

activities related directly to teacher knowledge, teacher professional development and

teacher professional ethics, while professional ethics of inspectors had direct influence on

teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.2 illustrates these linkages.

Figure 4.2: Teacher Focus Group Perceptions of Linkages



Teacher knowledge

Teacher leadership



In comparison to the inexperienced teacher, experienced teachers reported a different set of

linkages. They perceived quality assurance activities as directly influencing three aspects of

their teaching career; the first was ensuring that they complied with educational,

administrative and professional requirements of their duties, the second was that teachers

were able to develop formal leadership qualities that allowed them to be promoted through

the inspection processes, and the third was that teachers were able to enhance work ethics

including being dedicated and committed to teaching and other responsibilities. As

summarized by members of the focus group:

“With me I feel that the inspector came and did his job by observing how the

teacher is doing his/her work. The other teacher said that he just came for a

short time and left. But with me I prepared everything because the inspectors

were coming to inspect me so I make sure things are in order before I went


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back to teaching. The Inspector sat at the back of the classroom and observed

my lesson. He then came to the front desk and clipped the paper so for me I say

he was not just observing but he also wrote a report. But he only spent little

time in the classroom. He also looked at the things that I expected him to

check. But he only spent little time then he went to write the report. So with

me I was ready and he checked what he wanted to check at his own discretion.

So with me that was the type of things the inspector did with me.” (WFG 1)

“I was in a promotional position and they inspected me. The way they

inspected me was simply looking at the programs, spending two or three

minutes observing my lesson and then they went to the office. I was not afraid

and I was prepared to demonstrate my lesson to them. When they came they

just glanced through the programs we compiled but not looking at them in

details.” (WFG 1)

At the same time, professional development activities carried out by inspectors allowed

teachers to develop professionally by improving their subject knowledge content where

appropriate and also impacting on their professional ethics. However these linkages were of

concern to teachers and raised questions about the focus and quality of the professional

development activities that inspectors carried out. As these teachers argued:

“Teacher professional development concerning curriculum development, the

new curriculum, we have not been targeted, there is no training and in-service

on the new development and this is affecting us in our work. So I see that in

this province these new initiatives will not work well. So the main issues are

teachers’ knowledge on the new curriculum and teacher continuous

professional development to address all agenda that relate to the education

reform that PNG is going through now.” (WFG 1)

“They talked too much on classroom teaching concerning weaknesses and

provided some alternatives for improvement but they did not do this well.”

(WFG 1)

As with the inexperienced teacher, other teachers agreed that how inspectors conducted

themselves did have a direct influence on their professional ethics. A member of the focus

group experienced what inspectors did and revealed that:


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“Many times they just came and observed the ‘wall’ and my interest diminished

and my work was not good. They looked at the displays on the wall. In my

thinking, I know that the head teacher is the head teacher and s/he is with the

teacher at all times and s/he knows what the school expects from me. Because

of this, the way they (inspectors) came and observed my work if they were to

prepare me for classroom teaching and to understand the atmosphere in which

I was performing my work, would be very difficult.” (WFG 1)

Perceptions of the linkages: Views of Head Teacher

For the head teacher the quality assurance activities related directly to teacher compliance,

teacher leadership and teacher professional ethics. Professional development activities

related directly to teacher leadership and teacher professional development, while

professional ethics of inspectors related directly to teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.3

indicates the linkages.

Figure 4.3: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages



Teacher leadership



This set of linkages is more complex than that perceived by the teacher. It approximated that

of the experienced teachers but there were important differences. Consistent with the

experiences of the members of the focus group, the head teacher concluded that the quality

assurance activities performed by inspectors influenced him to comply with various

requirements and policies, they contributed to him developing leadership qualities and they

enhanced his professional ethics. The head teacher summarized his experiences:

“Yes, I was not inspected or visited as a head teacher but I could remember

being visited and inspected by an inspector when I was a teacher and a senior

teacher. The inspector came and inspected me and the experiences I had were

that when the inspector came I felt nervous because I knew I was going to be

inspected on a promotional position. When he first came, he called me and had

some discussions with me about the visit, and later went to the classroom to

observe the lesson. After seeing me for some minutes in the class he went out to


140

the office and wrote the report and then later he called me to sign it. I felt that

the inspector would only come around to write report about me and he would

fail me. However he wrote about my teaching effectiveness and about the

documents that I have in my filing system. He did not look through deeply into

all the things that I expected him to see and wrote the report on. Those are the

experiences I had during inspection.” (WVH 1)

At the same time the professional development activities had a direct impact on the head

teacher resulting in his promotion through the inspection processes. The head teacher

admitted:

“Well I feel that what the Inspector was doing was good because the Inspector

was trying to help me somehow to extend the knowledge that I have as an

administrator or a manager in a school. So the kinds of activities that the

Inspector is doing for me is good because after all they become examples for

me to follow so in that way I would put into practice what the Inspector is

putting across to me.” (WVH 1)

As with teachers, the professional ethics of inspectors influenced the head teacher in carrying

out his responsibilities. The head teacher, having no formal contact with inspectors since

s/he was appointed, considered his professional working relationship with the inspectors as

vital to his responsibilities:

“…… I strongly believe that a good working relationship between the inspector

and a head teacher brings better outcome and this will happen only if

inspectors can come out and involve in helping the head teachers in their

schools.” (WVH 1)

Perceptions of the Linkages: Views of Inspector

The inspector revealed that quality assurance activities related directly to teacher compliance

and teacher professional ethics. Professional development activities related directly to

teacher leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics while

professional ethics of inspectors related directly to teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.4

shows these linkages.


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Figure 4.4: Inspector Perceptions of Linkages



Teacher leadership



As to be expected, multiple linkages were noted by this inspector. He was a very

experienced inspector with over twenty-four year’s inspector experience. Hhe related quality

assurance interactive activities directly impacting on teachers and head teachers complying

with educational, administrative and professional requirements and policies as well as

ensuring teachers and head teachers conducting themselves professionally in their work. As

the inspector observed:

“The activities I carried out with teachers help in building and promoting

teacher competencies over teaching practices, professional development and

self-esteem. These activities help teachers produce results in student learning.”

(WVI 1)

With professional development interactive activities the inspector revealed that these

activities were directly influencing teachers and the head teacher to develop professionally

and to develop formal leadership qualities, and were influencing teachers and the head

teacher in the way they performed their responsibilities in the schools. He explained that:

“The activities I carried out with head teachers assist them to improve their

leadership skills over management practices and in producing results in all

areas of the head teachers’ responsibilities.” (WVI 1)

“I have a number of teachers now appointed as inspectors, working both in

Waigani and the provinces. Some are now heads of institutions while others

are dissolved within the Provincial Divisions of Education. A few are working

with the NDOE and Universities. These are credits to both the officers and

myself as I value them when I look back at my years of being an inspector.”

(WVI 1)


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However, how inspectors conduct themselves (professional ethics) as a consequence of a

lack of training, resources and other anomalies they encountered in carrying out their

responsibilities, emphasized the need for better inspectorial services for teachers. He

stressed the importance of professional development for inspectors as well as having an

independent inspectorial system:

“The NDOE should consider inspectors’ training in terms of attachment and it

should support inspectors with resources.” (WVI 1)

“I suggest we legalize the inspectorate system as an independent entity within

the NDOE, that is, the inspectorate system must be free from undue influence

but work according to its policy framework. It must be arm with teeth (legal

power) resources and support with training programs for inspectors. I also

suggest that regional offices should be set up like the Public Service Inspectors

on behalf of Waigani Inspection Office.” (WVI)

Synthesis of the Views of Linkages

There were similar and different views among the participants about the linkages between

the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism. These

similarities and differences varied from simple relationships to more complex relationships.

As expected, for example, the inexperienced teacher, experienced teachers, head teacher and

inspector experienced quality assurance activities as directly influencing them to comply

with basic educational, administrative and professional requirements. Two other common

relationships were also concluded by all participants. These were professional development

activities which impacted on teachers’ and head teacher’s professional development and

professional ethics of inspectors which directly impacted on teachers’ and the head teacher’s

professional ethics. Apart from the inexperienced teacher, the other common relationships

recognized were that quality assurance and professional development activities influenced

the professional ethics of teachers and the head teacher. The differences identified were that

the inspector did not share the views with teachers and the head teacher that quality

assurance activities did influence teachers in their leadership roles. At the same time only

the inspector viewed professional development activities as impacting on the teachers’ and

head teacher’s leadership roles. Contrary to the perception that professional development

activities did influence teachers and the head teacher in their professional development

concerning teacher knowledge, only the experienced teachers viewed such activities to have

impacted on teacher knowledge.


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4.3.6 Summary of Case Study 1

As an external supervisor of the school, the inspector believed that he carried out two main

inspectorial interactive strategies when performing his responsibilities. These were quality

assurance and professional development interactive strategies and these were demonstrated

through advisory activities and inspection procedures (Baki, 2001a; 2001b). Such beliefs

were confirmed by teachers and head teachers. However, how the inspector performed these

activities had resulted with the emerged behavioral interactive strategies of professional

ethics. Professional ethics of inspectors concerned the manner, conduct and behavior that

were demonstrated by the inspectors and were observed by teachers and the head teacher.

Collectively, the dimensions of teacher professionalism emerging from this case study

included teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional

development and teacher professional ethics. The common dimensions identified by all

participants were teacher compliance, teacher professional development and teacher

professional ethics. Teacher knowledge was only recognized by experienced teachers as

significant to the teaching profession. Teacher leadership emerged as a significant

dimension of the teaching profession, according to the experienced teachers, the head teacher

and inspector. This view was not shared by the inexperienced teacher.

The linkages of the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher

professionalism as noted above are summarized in Table 4.11. These linkages were derived

from cross-participant analysis for this case.

Table 4.11: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case Study 1

Participants 1

Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism 2

Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 3

Quality Assurance

4

Professional Development

5

Professional Ethics

6 Key: WVT 1 ▲ WVH 1 ► WFG 1 ▼ WVI 1 ◄

Teacher Compliance ▼◄ ► ▲

Teacher Knowledge ▼

Teacher Leadership ▼► ◄

Teacher Professional Development

▼◄ ► ▲

Teacher Professional Ethics

▼◄ ► ▼◄ ► ▼◄ ► ▲


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The quality assurance interactive strategies of the inspectorial system had direct influence on

teacher compliance, illustrating the primary role of inspectors. That was to ensure teachers

and the head teacher complied with educational, administrative and professional

requirements and policies of the teaching profession. Only the teachers and the head teacher

believed quality assurance activities impacted on their developing leadership qualities. The

participants also indicated that the quality assurance activities had no influence on teachers’

and head teacher’s professional development. However, they revealed that quality assurance

activities impacted on how teachers and the head teacher conducted themselves while

performing their responsibilities. Thus quality assurance activities influenced teachers and

the head teacher to comply with educational, administrative and professional responsibilities.

The quality assurance activities also recognized teachers and the head teacher for formal

leadership responsibilities, and impacted on the professional ethics of teachers and the head

teacher.

As expected, the professional development interactive strategies applied by inspectors

directly influenced teachers and the head teacher in their professional development. This

was evident through improvements in performance including teaching and learning

strategies, and administrative and management skills. The professional development

interactive strategies also influenced teachers and the head teacher in how they conducted

themselves in their work (teacher professional ethics). Though professional development

interactive strategies could lead to developing formal leadership qualities, only the inspector

perceived this to be the case. At the same time, though such activities could lead to gaining

new knowledge, only the experienced teachers perceived this to be the case. While

professional development interactive strategies catered for the professional development,

teachers and the head teacher did not agree that these activities influenced them in

developing formal leadership qualities.

The professional ethics of the inspector, the manner and conduct by which the inspector

carried out their responsibilities and the image they displayed in the community, directly

related to the professional ethics of teachers and the head teacher. This revelation implied

that the inspector’s work practices and professional ethics impacted on teachers and the head

teacher on how they performed responsibilities. Thus, professional ethics of the inspector

produced conditions for teachers and the head teacher to sustain their professional ethics.


145

4.4 Case Study 2: Findings of Provincial Inspectorate and Urban Church

Agency School

Madang Province is located on the mainland of PNG and has been selected for this study to

represent the provinces in the Momase Region (Northern Region) of the country. The

provinces in the Momase Region included Morobe, Sandaun and East Sepik Provinces and

they have similar cultural and traditional background.

Barata Primary School, the school pre-selected for this study, is located in the heart of

Madang, the capital town of Madang Province. Madang town has a population of 27 420.

Barata Primary School is a Church Agency School and is selected as a primary school case

that represents urban and Church Agency schools.


Madang Province has a current population of 365 106 people who speak over 175 languages

depicting the many tribal groupings living on the islands, on the coast and in the mountains

of the province. The province is geographically, culturally and demographically diverse with

people living on staple food including sago, taro, banana and yams cultivated in fertile

gardens. The province is one of the country’s leading producers of cocoa and copra and is

the only province that produces sugar for PNG.

Madang Province is divided into six districts, Rai Coast, Madang, Sumkar, Bogia, Usino

Bundi and Middle Ramu. Most areas are still developing, in terms of infrastructure

particularly in the highlands of the province, making it difficult for progress to be made in

the provision of social services, including education.

The current statistics show that the total number of community and primary schools

operating in the province is 198 with 72 community and 126 primary schools. There are 1

557 teaching positions in community and primary schools with 1 379 teachers on strength

and 178 teaching vacancies. The number of students enrolled in primary and community

schools is 46 687 with 25 787 males and 20 900 females, representing 55% and 45 %

respectively (Sources: Inspectors’ Situation Reports, 2005).

Barata Primary School is a level 8 primary school with a staff ceiling of twenty-seven

teachers, seven males and twenty females, representing 30% and 70% respectively. The

teachers come from all parts of PNG. Only ten teachers reside in the school while the rest

reside in and around Madang. The school enrolls 997 students in grades 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8.


146

Of the 997 students 519 (52%) are males and 478 (48%) are females. The students attending

Barata Primary School live around Madang and most come from working parents who are

employed by government and private businesses operating in and around Madang. The

school is a Catholic Church agency school and like other Church agency schools, it operates

under the National Education System (Sources: School Records).

There are nine inspector positions for the province which were fully occupied. The inspector

responsible for Barata Primary School is based in Madang.


The participants of Case Study 2, Madang Province, were made up of five teachers, the head

teacher and a teacher focus group of Barata Primary School, and three primary school

inspectors. Table 4.12 shows the demographic characteristics of teachers, the head teacher

and the inspectors.

The five interviewed teachers represented two males and three females, a 40% and 60%

representation respectively. The five teachers also represented twenty-seven teachers or

18.5% of teachers presently teaching at the school. The qualifications of interviewed

teachers varied from a Certificate in Primary Teaching to a Diploma in Primary Teaching.

Three teachers had Certificates in Primary Teaching while two teachers had Diplomas in

Primary Teaching, a 60% and 40% respectively. Teaching experience for the teachers varied

from eleven to twenty-six years, while teaching experiences at this school varied from two to

eighteen years. The ages of the teachers varied from twenty-four to forty-five years old. All

individual teacher participants were experienced teachers. The teachers’ views represented

views of experienced teachers who had both Certificate and Diploma Teaching

qualifications, who were both senior and base level teachers, and had varied teaching

experiences.


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Table 4.12: Demographical Characteristics of Participants for Case Study 2

Participants Sex Age Qualifications/Positions Teaching/Inspector Experience % of Participants Teachers or Inspectors in School or Inspectorate

MVT 1* Female 39 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


Teacher participants: 18.5% of teachers of the school

MVT 2* Male 34 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


MVT 3* Female 45 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Deputy Head Teacher


MVT 4* Female 24 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


MVT 5* Male 39 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Teacher

• 18 years • 2 (+7) years at this school

MFG 1 A Male 42 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Teacher

• 21 years • 1 year at this school

Focus group participants: 18.5% of teachers of the school Total Teachers & Teachers in Focus Group: 40.5% teachers of the school

MFG 1 B Female 55 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


MFG 1 C Female 45 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


MFG 1 D Male 41 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Teacher

• 23 years • 1 year at this school

MFG 1 E Female 42 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Teacher


MHT 1* Male 50 • Diploma in Education Studies • Head Teacher

• 30 years • 27 years Head Teacher • 3 years HT at this school

Head teacher: 3.7% Teachers & Head teacher: 44.2% of total number of teachers of the school


148

Participants Sex Age Qualifications/Positions Teaching/Inspector Experience % of Participants Teachers or Inspectors in School or Inspectorate

MVI 1* Male 53 • Bachelor of Education (In-service) • Inspector

• 28 years teaching • 2 years Inspector • 2 years in present post

Inspector participants: 33% of total number of inspectors in the inspectorate

MVI 2* Male 46 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Inspector

• 5 years teaching • 16 years inspector • 6 years current post • 6 years inspector

MVI 3 * Female 52 • Bachelor of Education (In-service) • Inspector

• 27 years teaching • 7 years inspector • 2 years in present post

Key:

(*) - Interviewed participants MVT - Volunteer teacher MHT - Volunteer head teacher MVI - Volunteer inspector MFG - Focus group


149

The focus group was made up of five teachers occupying various levels in the school; one

was a based level teacher and three were senior teachers. The five teachers in the focus

group represented 18.5% of the teachers with three females (60%) and two males (40%)

respectively. The ages of the members of the focus group ranged from thirty-five to fifty-

three years old. All members of the focus group had Certificates in Primary Teaching.

Teaching experiences for the teacher focus group varied from sixteen to thirty-three years,

and in this particular school, teaching experiences ranged from one to twenty-eight years.

Members of the focus group had missed out on formal advisory visits and inspections by

inspectors for the last five years. Because of this, the focus group discussions targeted

teachers’ experiences from previous interactions with the inspectors, either in this school or

province or elsewhere in PNG. The views of the focus group represented teachers who had

not been visited by inspectors for a period of time and those who only had basic teaching

qualifications.

The head teacher had thirty years of teaching experience, twenty-seven years of which were

of head teacher experience. This year was his third as the head teacher at this school. The

head teacher had a Diploma in Education Studies. He was fifty years old. The head

teacher’s experiences, beliefs and perceptions represented head teachers who were

experienced and who had better qualifications.

Altogether the interviewed teachers, the head teacher and the five members of the focus

group represented 44.2% of teachers of the school who were engaged in this study. For

these participants, 38% had Diploma in Primary Teaching (and in Education) while 62% had

Certificates in Primary Teaching qualification. The ages of participants ranged from twenty-

four to fifty-three while teachers’ teaching experiences ranged from eleven to thirty-four

years. Teaching experiences of the teachers in this school ranged from one to twenty-eight

years. The school, because of its location, had the advantage of being visited by the

inspectors regularly.

The three inspectors had from two to sixteen years of inspector experiences and had been in

this provincial inspectorate for two to six years. The three inspectors represented 33% of the

total number of inspectors in the province. The ages of the inspectors ranged from forty-six

to fifty-three years. Only one out of nine inspectors in the province, representing 11% of

inspectors, was a female and she was included in this study. Two inspectors had Bachelor of

Education Degree qualifications while the other had a Diploma in Primary Teaching. The

views of inspectors represented the views of experienced and inexperienced inspectors.


150

Table 4.13 indicates the demographic responsibilities for the inspectors in their inspectorates.

This includes the number of schools, the number of teachers and the number of students that

the inspectors were responsible for and the appropriate ratios that applied to their

responsibility load.


Participant Responsibilities Inspector No. of Yrs in

Inspectorate No. of schools



Ratio

MVI 1 2 33 1:33 186 1:186 1 500 1:1 500 MVI 2 6 8 1:8 128 1:128 2 997 1:2 997 MVI 3 2 15 1:15 218 1:218 4 000 + 1:4 000+

Average 3.3 19 1:19 177 1:177 2 832 1:2 832

The inspectors were allocated responsibilities by the senior primary school inspector with

approval from the Superintendent – Primary Inspections at NDOE. For the three inspectors,

the responsibility load ratios for the schools were 1:8, 1:15 and 1:33 respectively. The ratios

of inspector to teachers varied from 1:128 to 1:218. The ratios of inspector to students

ranged from 1:1 500 to 1:4 000. There was a lack of policy related to the responsibility load

of inspectors resulting with no consistencies and fairness in inspector responsibility loads.

4.4.3 Perceived inspectorial interactive strategies

In response to questions on how the inspectors operated in the schools, the interactive

strategies applied by the inspectors emerged into quality assurance, professional

development and professional ethics of inspectors. These results emerged from the data

through the process of clustering and were similar to the findings of Case Study 1. Tables

4.14 to 4.16 show the processes in identifying the emerged themes of the inspectorial

interactive strategies that originated from the transcripts and document analysis.


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Table 4.14: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Quality Assurance



Teachers • Teachers apply for inspection before they are inspected for promotion. • Inspectors check on performances of teachers. • Inspectors gather reports from head teacher and write report on teachers. • Inspectors are concerned about what is expected and required of teachers. • Inspectors check on curriculum requirements. Head teacher • Inspectors visit, talk and share with head teachers professional issues and new changes

that come about. • Inspectors advise schools on government (education) policies. • Inspectors identify the strengths in head teachers’ performances and appraise them. Teacher Focus group • Inspectors maintain the standard of teaching and student learning. • Inspectors guide and help teachers to maintain standards. Inspectors • Inspectors observe teachers’ lessons, suggest improvements and advise head teachers

to follow up. • Inspectors ensure administrative requirements, including monthly returns, are done. • Inspectors ensure school based supervision is effective. • Inspectors ensure support from the community and parent exists. • Inspectors advise and deal with teacher and student discipline.

• Monitoring teaching standards and curriculum requirements • Teacher appraisal, assessment & evaluation are carried out

by inspectors. • Quality control & assurance is carried out • Through the monitoring of policies & reporting to

authorities. • Inspectors as disciplinarians, carrying out investigations on

disciplinary cases. • Supervision for accountability to ensure resources is used for

children’s education.

Quality assurance


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Table 4.15: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Professional Development



Teachers • Inspectors advise and assist teachers in their work. • Inspectors are resource people that teachers rely on for advice, assistance “and whatever

professional concerns teachers encounter”. • Inspectors encourage teachers to improve in their teaching. • Inspectors help teachers with new curriculum development. • Inspectors help teachers to be knowledgeable in their subjects. Head teacher • Inspectors discuss issues on professional development and growth of teachers. • Inspectors conduct in-services “in the professional development of teachers”. • Inspectors give “advice after her visits in the classrooms” observing teachers’ lessons. • Inspectors challenge and assist head teacher on supervision of teachers. • Inspectors identify the weaknesses in head teacher performance and provide advice accordingly. Focus group • Inspectors help teachers with their problems. • Inspectors help teachers with new development or changes including curriculum development. • Other activities as in Table 4.3 and as above. Inspectors • Inspectors look at the areas of (teacher) professionalism and assist teachers, professionally and

personally. • Inspectors use relevant documents including the Teaching Service and the Education Acts to in-

service teachers and head teachers on issues that they are not aware of. • Inspectors discuss with the head teacher the issues related to supervision of teachers and provide

assistance where appropriate. • Inspectors conduct in-service sessions. • Inspectors conduct meetings with teachers and discuss common issues as observed, as well as new

development in the education system.

• Inspectors assist teachers & head teachers in

their professional development. • Inspectors help teachers on personal &

professional problems. • Inspectors perform roles as agent of change. • Supervision for professional development

through advisory & training roles performed by inspectors.

• Advisory capacity done by inspectors for provincial authorities.



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Table 4.16: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Professional Ethics



Teachers Operational issues • Inspectors do their work in school in a hurry. • Inspectors sometimes misused funds “and work is not done”. • Priority is given to teachers for registration. • Inspectors usually ‘inspect’ in group but not on individual basis. • Some inspectors do not have specific purposes to visit schools. • Inspectors do not discuss reports to verify issues being reported on. Professional issues • Teachers are not sure of inspector’s help during in-services. • Inspectors are not clear about new changes, including curriculum changes for them to help teachers

better. • No challenges given by inspectors. • Inspectors not capable of performing their work. • Inspectors sometimes are seen as merely visitors “which do not have any effect on teaching and

learning”. • It’s possible that teachers only prepare for inspectors’ visits to please the inspectors. Head teacher Operational issues • Inspectors are not walking to schools and give excuses of having no funds for traveling. • Inspectors being promoted from lower positions as head teachers are being questioned when

supervising head teachers in higher levels. • The inspectors “duplicate the work of the head teacher and senior teachers”. • Inspectors are concentrating too much on inspection role and have neglected their advisory role. • There is no support from provincial authorities for proper offices for the inspectors to work in and

this is affecting their status and their work in assisting teachers.

• Lack of planning and organization by inspector

to carry out his work. • Inspectors’ integrity being questioned and is

having adverse impacts on teachers. • Lack of benefits experienced by teacher from

inspectors’ visit. • Lack of commitment by inspectors to visit

schools and help teachers. • Inspectors not challenging teachers. • Needs of teachers and changes not catered for

by inspectors due to lack of visits to schools. • Lack of resources affecting inspectors’ work. • Lack of confidence in the processes and

outcomes of the inspection roles performed by inspectors.

• Lack of quality control and assurance system within the inspectorial system.

• Selection and appointment of inspectors from head teacher candidates is being questioned.

• Lack of support from provinces to accommodate inspectors in proper offices, etc.

• A learning environment and good relationships are developed between the inspectors and the head teachers.


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Professional issues • The head teacher is happy with particular inspector’s performance. • There are inconsistencies in the content of the inspection reports that affected the head teacher’s

respect for the inspector. • Inspectors write reports on people who are not ready for promotion. • Many inspectors lack skills in writing reports. • Inspectors have no idea about the new curriculum and are being questioned on their roles. Teacher Focus group Operational issues • Inspectors give excuses including no transport, of not visiting schools. Professional issues • Inspectors when not inspecting teachers have implications on teacher appointment, posting and

promotion. • Teacher being given eligibility through the inspections processes but has lost it due to non-

confirmation of the eligibility. • Since the reform (education) the performance of inspectors has dropped. • There is no quality control system within the inspectorial system to ensure inspector

professionalism is maintained. • There is too much wantok system (favouritism and nepotism) being practiced by some inspectors. Inspectors Operational issues • Inspectors have not visited some schools for 5 years due to constraints and logistical problems.

(continued) • Lack of knowledge and skills for inspectors to

perform their responsibilities. • Best current appraisal system (inspectorial

system) and to be maintained. • Inspectors’ roles are challenging. • Inspector contributes to children’s education. • Lack of clear focus in inspectors’ roles due to

lack of visits to teachers and clarity on inspectors’ responsibilities.

(continued) Professional ethics of inspectors


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Professional issues • The inspector’s job is challenging. • Without the (inspectorial) system schools will not operate well. • There is a lot more that inspectors should do for head teachers to take control of the situations in

schools. • The education reform and the reformed curriculum are challenges for the inspector when

interpreting these to teachers. • Inspector has to be fully versed and acquire skills and knowledge to be of help to teachers and head

teachers. • Inspector must be a step a head of teachers and head teachers in knowing changes for them to assist

teachers and head teaches better. • Inspector contributes indirectly to children’s education. • Some inspectors do not take documents relating to their roles and other educational and

professional issues seriously to assist them in their responsibilities. • A lot of head teachers are reluctant to come out and show the inspector their management and

supervision processes and outcomes. • There is a big gap between inspectors, teachers and head teachers because teachers and head

teachers do not know what inspectors are supposed to do, and because inspectors are not visiting schools.

(As above)

(As above)


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Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers

Teachers identified quality assurance activities as inspectorial interactive strategies that were

concerned with inspectors monitoring and evaluating their performances. Inspectors carried

out these practices by checking on requirements concerning the implementation of the

approved curriculum through observations and reports from the head teacher. The teachers,

both the interviewed teachers and members of the focus group, confirmed such experiences

as described by teachers:

“Most of the time I see that they represent the National Department of

Education by ensuring the department’s policies and requirements are carried

out and they check on our performances as teachers. They also look at how we

teach the students, whether we follow the department’s strategy and carry out

our teaching profession.” (MVT 1)

“Firstly most of them, like the two inspectors that have inspected me, the first

thing they did was they checked through my filing system. I had a filing system

which contained documents about administrative duties and another on students

personal records, for instance, record of attendance. ……..After checking my

files they observed a lesson presentation, checked student exercise books and

looked at the displays that I had placed on the board. One of the inspectors

did go up front after my lesson and asked students on what I had just taught and

asked for a few questions from the students.” (MVT 4)

The second set of inspectorial interactive strategies identified was of a professional

development nature. These activities included inspectors providing advice and assistance on

all aspects of teachers’ duties including teaching, the maintenance of records and files, and

other administrative and management responsibilities. As this teacher expressed:

“After 11 years of teaching, I believe the inspectors tasks and responsibilities

are to assist teachers and head teachers to be well informed of the changes that

are taking place in the higher places of the Department of Education and to

provide us with more training for our professional development to enhance our

knowledge on what we are to be doing. And also to help us understand our

roles and functions in the areas and levels of work that we have.” (MVT 4)


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Emerging from the quality assurance and professional development interactive strategies

were the issues on professional ethics of inspectors. Professional ethics, as revealed by

teachers, related to how inspectors conduct themselves when carrying out their

responsibilities. How inspectors performed their duties were influenced by factors caused by

the management of the inspectorial system as well as their professional behavior and

conduct. These included lack of clear focus in inspector responsibilities because of a lack of

organization and planning, a lack of inspector knowledge and skills to perform their work, a

lack of confidence in and benefits from the inspection processes experienced by teachers,

and a lack of resources for inspectors to perform duties. These professional, management

and administrative issues led to the theme of professional ethics of inspectors as inspectorial

interactive strategies as advocated by teachers:

“What I see is that when there is interaction with the inspector we know exactly,

in particular at the school level, what is expected of us. We have a target to

work for so that is the advantage of having an inspector. Most of the

inspectors, since I was here and from my observations is that there was no

specific purpose of them coming. Whether they come to deliver information or

probably there is an issue they need to inform us of. It wasn’t a schedule or

planned visit to school. For the last ten (10) years, with me, I have never had a

scheduled visit from the inspectors to see me and to comment on my duties

beside my formal application for an inspection.” (MVT 3)

“I have been a teacher for quite a long time. Most inspectors give excuses like

they have no transport, no car to take them to the schools so they keep to their

offices. That’s why they do not come out to do their work so maybe this has to

be looked into also. We can blame them but on the other hand if they are

handicapped they cannot go out to do their work so inspectors should be

provided with resources to go out and carry out their work. I think the major

issue I’ve brought up already, is, since the introduction of the reform,

inspectors’ performance have dropped. Before the reform it was alright, I

believe. As I’ve mentioned, maybe they have to be in-serviced on what is

happening so they can cope up with the changes also.” (MFG 1)

“What I can say about inspectors, from observation and being one of the senior

officers in the school, my last inspection was in 2001. I was inspected and was

given an eligibility status in 2001. My eligibility has already expired. I have

never been inspected to confirm or act on my eligibility. Inspectors are not


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really doing their job. They do not have the correct database of teachers. If

inspectors have a proper database of teachers’ inspection reports, they would

do follow-up. To date I see that my inspection is long overdue and I have never

been assessed again. Simply I do not know whether I am improving or

declining in my teaching. I will only know that through inspections. The

inspection report will tell me whether I am improving or declining or whether I

need some kind of incentives to improve. So I see that inspectors are not really

doing their jobs, they do not have the proper database of teachers’ inspections,

that’s what I can say.” (MFG 1)

Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Head Teacher

With the head teacher, the emerged interactive strategies of the quality assurance activities

included inspectors monitoring the implementation of educational policies, providing

information about changes that were taking place, and appraising the head teacher on his/her

general performance. The head teacher expressed his/her satisfaction:

“Yes, [Inspector named], our inspector has visited our school and in all my

years of work, [inspector’s named] work is outstanding. [Inspector named]

comes here, visits us, talks to us, shares with us any professional issues and new

changes that come about. For me personally, [inspector named] inspected me

in 2004. [Inspector named] carried out an advisory visit followed by the

inspection.” (MVH 1)

Professional development interactive strategies included inspectors helping and

encouraging the head teacher by providing advice on the supervision of teachers, and

facilitating and conducting in-service and training programs for teachers, head teachers and

other stakeholders directly involved with the school.

“In my experience with [inspector named], I see that [inspector named (is)]

open, [inspector named] invites me to discuss issues especially on the

development and growth of the teachers and the changes that are coming about.

For example, we had a workshop where seven schools and Boards of

Management members attended in which [inspector named] lectured and

explained the roles and responsibilities of the Board of Management.

[Inspector] doing a fine job in my school and I hear that [inspector named] is

doing a fine job in other schools as well.” (MVH I)


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“[Inspector named] has helped me in writing reports as suggested (with) new

roles of site leadership. [Inspector named] has guided me through by checking

them (reports). We are both happy with the learning. I have been doing this for

many years but now I see that [inspector named] has given me more

responsibility which I am grateful and I am enjoying it.” (MVH 1)

Professional ethics of inspectors, as revealed by the head teacher and consistent with the

teachers, were related to how inspectors carry out their responsibilities. In addition the head

teacher expressed concerns about the lack of support that the inspectors were provided by the

employing agencies. He raised questions about the manner in which the inspectors were

promoted from lower levels of head teacher positions and on the inspectors duplicating the

work of head teachers and senior teachers in supervising teachers in schools. The issue on

inspector qualification was also raised as impacting on their work. He argued that inspectors

were concentrating too much on the inspection processes which, in support of the teachers,

had become obstacles to career development of teachers.

“A big problem that I see and the teachers are raising is that inspectors are not

visiting schools and don’t carry out advisory visits. Inspections, particularly

(for) the new graduates, they are the worst affected. Inspectors don’t visit

schools in the rural and remote areas. They visit schools in town and schools

along the roads. This makes it hard for the new graduates to go and teach in

rural and remote areas because they can’t be inspected for registration.

………” (MVH 1)

“In my view a teacher must hold a level 3 position before he becomes an

inspector like the old days. In a level 3 you are probably a senior teacher or a

head teacher in a small school. And when you supervise a level 7 and 8 head

teacher you will hesitate to write a report on the senior officers. Thus, I’d like to

suggest that inspectors on the field must have a degree in education. In the

current system that we have, many of them lack this and so we must look at

training them so that they become efficient and confident in report writing and

in their approaches to the schools.” (MVH 1)


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Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Inspectors

Inspectors confirmed quality assurance activities as interactive strategies that they used in

monitoring educational, professional and administrative requirements undertaken by teachers

and head teachers in schools. At the same time, inspectors observed activities related to

curriculum implementation and the operations of the schools. These activities included

teacher lesson observations and submission of monthly reports to authorities respectively, as

required by educational authorities. Inspectors also revealed that they provided counseling

and dealt with teacher and student discipline as part of quality assurance.

“I actually visit teachers teaching in the classrooms, I write reports and after,

as usual, I sit down and discuss the reports with teachers.” (MVI 1)

“The main activities I do when I visit my schools is conduct meetings with

teachers, I see the head teacher and tell him the purpose of my visit, what I am

there for, whether I am there to inspect the head teacher, senior teachers or

based (level) teachers. I inform the head teacher which group I am inspecting,

visit them, write advisory notes then later discussed with them what their

weaknesses are and the good points that they need to be praised on. Those are

the things that we normally discuss and to see what their views are.” (MVI 2)

“With the head teachers we normally get together to discuss common issues

that they face within the schools or within the inspectorate so we have head

teachers meetings and then the common issues are discussed. I do follow up

visits to see that these things are done or improved. ……… I also ensure school

based supervision is continuously carried out at the school level by each head

teacher. I also encourage head teachers to compile monthly reports to report

on the school developments and problems to the authorities. ……. I also

ensure effective Board of Management is in place.” (MVI 2)

“When visiting schools, for example, with our meetings when we look at the

curriculum, what sort of curriculum they are using, and like now we are using

this outcome based curriculum, and in the discussion a lot of teachers are

coming out with what they are facing in the curriculum materials. …… I gather

their head teachers and whatever comes out as information, talk to them. We

are focusing that they should have a school vision and plans for their schools.

Where are they bringing the schools to? …………. In other schools, if you ask

the Chairman of the Board of Management, whether he’s got this and that, he


161

or she would say I don’t have it. So a lot of the schools are facing problems to

work with the Board of Management and lack knowledge.” (MVI 3)

According to inspectors, professional development interactive strategies, concerned activities

that assisted teachers and head teachers to develop professionally and personally. Inspectors

confirmed what teachers and head teachers experienced when they conducted in-service

sessions and having meetings where issues concerning changes and teacher development

were discussed. Inspectors also pointed out that issues related to the teaching profession as

stipulated in relevant documents, including the PBDS, also formed part of the professional

development strategies. Inspectors confirmed these activities by the following comments:

“One of the things I look out for is professionalism. We want to assist and help

teachers as much as possible to develop their personalities as teachers.

Secondly another aspect that I look at is administrative duties. I try to see

whether teachers, head teachers are able to organize and manage themselves.

If they are able to manage themselves then they are able to manage others. So

we look at how they administer and manage their own teachers in their own

classrooms and the school as a whole. …….” (MVI 1)

“An example [of professional development activities] is like the implementation

of the reform curriculum. Teachers are not familiar with this then I have to see

that if it is a common issue in all the schools or just one school, if it is in all

schools, a district or inspectorate an in-service is planned together with the

head teachers and is conducted to address the issue.” (MVI 2)

Factors influencing how inspectors performed their duties, in some cases, were beyond their

control and included geographical locations of schools, financial constraints and logistical

support provided by employing agencies as previously indicated. Other factors included

inspector qualification and insufficient training concerning changes that took place in the

school system including the curriculum reform. Thus professional ethics of inspectors

emerged as an interactive strategies that concerned the manner, conduct and behavior of

inspectors caused by factors both within and beyond their control. As these inspectors

revealed:

“My inspectorate is a very difficult one, schools are located in difficult terrain

and most times I walk. We have no accessibility by road, a few of my schools


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are on the coast and I use motorist boats to travel there. Otherwise I get

dropped off on the coast and I walk to schools.” (MVI 1)

“With the professional part of it, inspectors (inspectors’ qualifications) should

be upgraded ………… so that they become more confident in their work. Right

now there’s a group of us that do not have the kind of qualification that the

Department expect from us, so it is up to the Department to make sure that

inspectors are put through to upgrade their qualifications so that we become

more confident in our own work.” MVI 2)

“It is very challenging to carry out duties of an inspector because I have to be

fully verse and acquire the skills and knowledge. I have to be a step ahead of

the teachers I had to know the changes before the teachers, because it’s my

responsibility to inform the teachers of the changes. The teachers will become

professional teachers from the kind of leadership and advice I provide to them.”

(MVI 2)

“A lot of times we give excuses but we can use common sense, like for example,

my schools are close so I can walk across and visit teachers instead of sitting

(doing nothing). Get out there and help teachers. Be role models and when you

gain that trust you can help them. The school will be very, very happy to work

with inspectors. Head teacher has to have very good relationship with his or her

teachers. Inspectors paid regular visits and be with teachers and help them out

and assist them with in-services’ needs. Communicate with them and show

interest in their work. A lot of time I see now in the provinces, we inspectors all

sit back and we are not going out and there is a big gap between teachers and

us. Teachers don’t know what inspectors are supposed to do and all the time we

are complaining to ourselves and what about them. In-services are needs for all

the three groups. Inspectors also go through such training, e.g. writing reports,

ethics and morale and change of attitudes.” (MVI 3)

This inspector admitted that when support from stakeholders was given she was able to

assist teachers and head teachers responsibly.

“The support that I have gained here in this province, that it is one of the

provinces that is supporting us inspectors, financial support and then at the

same time we get support from the National Department of Education. And for


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me personally, I get support from my family and it makes it easy. ........And of

course the schools, the Boards of Management are supporting us to go out to

some remote schools. We all share the costs. Beside financial support I have

attended seminars, workshops and conferences and this has given me a lot of

help and then coming back and helping out in the schools. For example, as an

assessor now, I see it very clearly when I go into the schools, I know what they

should be doing in the curriculum learning. So all those things I have gained

they support me a lot in doing my work.” (MVI 3)

At the same time there were factors that related to organizational cultures within

institutions that impacted on the professional ethics of inspectors. As this inspector

experienced:

“Well we are looking at 3 levels; the national level, the provincial level and the

school level. With my view and my feelings of the system we operating now is

that, with our Department, the National Department (of Education) they see us

as one of their officers. When it comes down to the provincial level, the

Provincial Education Advisors, especially those that are appointed by politicians

and from their own field of work, it becomes difficult to work with. They don’t

really work well with us in most of the provinces. At the school level head

teachers are always working with us as they see us as helpers.” (MVI 2)

“Well within our own division, Inspections and Guidance Division, there haven’t

been a lot of visits from them. I mean since I’ve been an inspector I haven’t seen

our supervisors come in to our level to supervise us or help us like we do with

teachers, that does not happen. .............We were getting directions through

correspondence but physically people have not been with us at the work place to

see how we (are) going.” (MVI 2)

Synthesis of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies

This synthesis of Case Study 2 takes into consideration the synthesis of the inspectorial

interactive strategies of Case Study 1 and makes references to issues where applicable. This

is done to avoid repetitions of experiences, beliefs and perceptions that were earlier

discussed.


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Similar to the findings of Case Study 1, the two main inspectorial interactive strategies that

emerged were quality assurance and professional development. In addition, the participants

revealed that quality assurance interactive strategies included the monitoring and evaluation

of teachers’ and head teachers’ performances. Quality assurance activities also included the

provision of information about changes in the school system and monitoring these changes

by the inspectors. Inspectors also revealed that counseling teachers and students (through

advice to teachers and head teachers) also formed part of the quality assurance strategies that

resulted with acceptable teaching and learning environments in the schools.

In addition to facilitating and conducting in-service programs that meet the professional

development needs of teachers and head teachers as part of the professional development

interactive strategies, inspectors also concentrated on appraising school based supervisory

systems where they provided professional advice to ensure school based supervision

approaches were effective. The use of relevant documents such as the PBDS to enhance and

sustain the teaching profession was also highlighted as a professional development approach

used by inspectors.

The professional ethics of inspectors were highlighted as serious concerns because these

were seriously affecting teachers’ and head teachers’ commitment and dedication to the

teaching profession. Though professional ethics concerned the behavior and conduct of

inspectors while carrying out responsibilities, the participants further related these to factors

arising from the management of the entire inspectorial system. These factors included lack

of logistical and financial support for inspectors, and factors related to the cultures of

organizations that dealt with inspectors, teachers and head teachers. At the same time,

teachers, the head teacher and inspectors raised concerns about the professional qualities of

inspectors. These concerns included the inspectors’ lack of focus, knowledge and skills

required to perform their responsibilities; the inspectors duplicating the supervisory

responsibilities performed by school based supervisors; and inspectors concentrating too

much on the inspection processes resulting with other responsibilities, including advisory

roles, being neglected.

As with Case Study 1, the quality assurance, professional development and professional

ethics of inspectors emerged as the inspectorial interactive strategies for Case Study 2.


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4.4.4 Perceived Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism

In response to the question of how teachers, the head teacher and inspectors perceived

teacher professionalism, the results thematically derived from the analysis were that teacher

professionalism consisted of teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership,

teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics. Though the results were

the same as the findings for Case Study 1, there were varying degrees of experiences, beliefs

and perceptions expressed by the participants. Tables 4.17 to 4.21 summarize the views of

the participants on the dimensions of teacher professionalism.


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Teachers • Someone who is an implementer of educational policies including curriculum

requirements. • Someone who is a nation builder, educating children to be accepted by the community

and educating children to be spiritually, physically, academically and socially developed and contributing to nation building.

• Someone who deals with human beings. • Teachers being good motivators. • A teacher being someone who is resourceful. • A teacher being someone who is innovative and creative. • A teacher being someone who is industrious. • Being a teacher involves teaching, planning and programming (teacher performance). • Teacher performs his or her responsibilities. • Teacher performance relates to teachers implementing policies, meeting curriculum

requirements, carrying out teaching. • Teacher professionalism relates to teaching, learning materials, professional

development and living conditions of teachers. Head teacher • Performance of management (human & materialistic resources), organizational &

administrative responsibilities Teacher focus group • Teacher professionalism is about the teaching efficiency of the teacher.

• Teacher performance relates to teaching and performing other duties.

• Teacher organization relates to planning and organizing teacher records and files.

• Teacher as agent of change. • Teacher accountability relates to teachers being accountable

to children learning and other responsibilities. • Teacher performance relates to all aspects of teachers’

classroom work. • Teacher initiatives and dynamic in performance. • Teacher as an implementer of educational policies. • Teacher compliance. • Teacher efficiency.

Teacher compliance


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Inspectors • A teacher being reliable. • Teacher creating good teaching and learning environment in the classroom. • Teacher professionalism is characterized by what is in the job description or duty

statement of each teacher or head teacher. • Teachers having a lot of initiatives in their work. • Teachers being dynamic in their profession.

(As above)

(As above)


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Table 4.18: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Knowledge



Teachers • Teachers being well informed of changes. • Teachers continuing to pursue and enhance knowledge. • A teacher being someone who is educated. • Teacher is knowledgeable on what she or he is doing. • Teacher knowledge, “how much knowledge you have in teaching the students”. Head teacher • Knowledge & implementation of educational, agency, school and Board of

Management policies. Teacher focus group : No comments Inspectors • Acquired knowledge and skills that teachers need to teach children. • Teacher having a clear understanding of what is expected of him. • What we know and how we impact ‘what we know’ to students.

• Teacher qualifications. • Teacher knowledge. • Teacher competence. • Teacher knowledge is enhanced through inspectors

interacting with teachers.

Teacher knowledge


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Table 4.19: Process of Establishing Themes of the Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Leadership



Teachers • Teacher leadership. • A teacher being someone who is promoted and working effectively at that promotional

level. • A teacher being a good organizer. • A teacher being a good manager. Head teacher • A head teacher. • A supervisor. • Senior teachers having supervisory and management skills. • Having potentials to be in “a level above the others and (so that) you can be able to

pick things very quickly to help everyone”. Teacher focus group • Teacher professionalism is when a teacher becomes a leader and who knows

everything. Inspectors • Head teacher having the knowledge to plan and run schools. • A head teacher gaining teachers’ trust. • A teacher being knowledgeable in all aspects of the teaching profession. • A head teacher being a good leader. • Head teachers leading by examples.

• Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher taking

a lead in aspects of school operation. • Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher

trusting each other, and planning and taking a lead in all aspects of the school.

• Head teacher leadership and management skills. • Teacher leadership relates to promotion, delegation of

responsibilities, etc. • Teacher leadership relates to being good organizer, manager,

administrator and leader.

Teacher leadership


170




Teachers • Someone who is spiritually, physically, academically and socially developed and

developing. • Teachers being concerned with continuous professional development and growth. • Being a teacher is having “a drive for professional (development and) growth”

including “intellectual grow with aspects of my profession including teaching”. • Teacher continuous learning or pursues professional development. Head teacher • Professional who are continually in-serviced and trained in aspects of their teaching

career. Teacher focus group • Teacher professionalism is about continuous professional development and upgrading

of the “quality of teachers’. Inspectors • Supervision of teachers in their work for professional development.

• Teacher professional development as a continuing

phenomenal in teaching. • Supervision for professional development.



171




Teachers • “Teaching is (as) a noble profession” with a big responsibility. • A teacher being “someone who is committed”. • Teachers valuing students and the profession. • A teacher being “someone who is also a parent”. • Being a teacher is having a drive, a vision & a purpose to teach. • Being a teacher is when collaboratively participating to improve educational standards. • Teacher is supporting senior teachers and colleagues. • Teacher is showing good examples to children. • Teacher is able to disseminate information, knowledge & skills to children. • Teacher is being a good advisor & listener when counseling children. • Teacher “is dealing with children”. • Teacher becoming competitive in developing children academically. • Teacher is respectful. • Teacher is obedient. Head teacher • Specifically trained professionals who are singled out from public servants. • Teaching fellow. • Professional relationships with others including colleagues. • Understanding people and having people understanding you as a teacher, senior

teacher and head teacher.

• Teacher ethics or ethical values including honesty, respect,

commitment, obedience and dedication. • Teacher-child interaction relates to what teachers do with

children. • Teacher interaction relates to how teachers relate and

communicate with other stakeholders. • Understanding people and working with people. • Teacher professional relationships with others. • Teacher being educated as a professional. Teacher community involvement. • Teaching is ‘nation building’. • Teacher collaboration. • Teacher rapport with children and concerns for children’s

welfare and academic achievements.



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Teacher focus group • Teacher professionalism is about the good conduct of the teacher. • Teacher professionalism relates to teacher dedication. • Teacher professionalism is when a teacher is having “a good rapport with the students”

and being able to sustain it. • Teacher professionalism is when a teacher provides guidance. • A teacher is ‘everything’. • Other perceptions as above. Inspectors • Someone who has a heart for the children. • Someone who is a professional person. • Someone who has an image that is acceptable to the community. • Attitudes of teachers. • Teacher punctuality with work. • A teacher being honest. • A teacher must have trust. • A teacher having a good behavior. • A head teacher being humble. • Having been educated to be a teacher as a professional. • A teacher having good communication skills. Head teacher & teacher maturity. Teachers working with and helping the community. Other perceptions as above.

(As above)

(As above)


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Teacher Professionalism: Views of Teachers

Both interviewed teachers and members of the teacher focus group believed teacher

compliance concerned teachers performing responsibilities as required by educational

policies, including policies related to curriculum implementation. Teacher compliance

extended beyond implementing policies and required teachers to be industrious, efficient,

innovative, creative and resourceful in carrying out their responsibilities. Such beliefs were

noted in teachers’ comments when commenting on different groups of teachers:

“We probably have groups of teachers in the teaching profession. We have a

group of teachers who have a drive to work. They want to maintain what is

expected of the profession in terms of teaching itself and other duties that we

suppose to perform. There is another group of teachers, they have a vision but

they want people to push them to get the work done. And there are others in the

profession, probably it is not the place they suppose to be but they are just

there. But otherwise, generally, my general assessment of the profession would

be that the primary school teaching itself, I could see that there are a lot of

teachers who want to get the teaching to what is expected.” (MVT 3)

“I would look at a teacher in this dimension - I would see him or her as

someone who is committed and someone who is resourceful, someone who is

educated, someone who is innovative, creative and someone who is also a

parent.” (MVT 4)

Teacher knowledge was also revealed as another dimension of teacher professionalism.

Teacher knowledge concerned teachers being knowledgeable and skilful in what they teach

to students and, to sustain knowledge and skills, teachers had to be constantly equipped with

curriculum changes. However, to enhance teacher knowledge and skills, teacher

qualifications and teaching competencies in school curriculum were essential. Teachers

perceived teacher knowledge as a significant dimension of the teaching profession.

“I think teacher professionalism, as I understand it, is something to do with me

as a teacher. ………………. I’ve also gained knowledge in helping the

students. Teacher professionalism is how much knowledge you have in teaching

the students.” (MVT 1)


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“According to my understanding, to become a teacher is to be able to

disseminate information, knowledge and skills to the children as well as to

improve their attitudes and behavior that will make them prosper in life so that

they become good citizen later on in the country.” (MVT 2)

“……… If we are to be creative and industrious, if we have to serve as very

professional persons and as teachers then I believe we need to be equipped with

more knowledge and new ways of teaching. So I for one would like to see that

whoever is responsible for this help us find ways in which we could develop our

knowledge, maybe through correspondence.” (MVT 4)

However, the members of the focus group, all having Certificates in Primary Teaching, did

not perceive teacher knowledge as a significant dimension of teacher professionalism. Such

perception raises the question of whether teachers were contented with their current

curriculum knowledge despite changes experienced as a result of the education reform or

were simply unaware of the development in the education reform.

The other emerged dimension of teacher professionalism was teacher leadership. Teachers

believed that teacher leadership involved performing duties effectively and being formally

recognized and promoted in the schools. This perception reflected the experiences of the

teachers where promotion was the ultimate outcome of being appraised at any level in the

school hierarchy. Thus teacher leadership concerned teachers taking a formal lead in

different aspects of school and being a role model for students. Teacher leadership therefore,

is seen as resulting from the inspection processes. Such perceptions question the

sustainability of leadership in the teaching profession. These notions were expressed by a

member of the focus group:

“A teacher in my own opinion has to be a role model for the little children that

you are teaching. They copy everything from you as a teacher that determines

the type of person you are so you have to be a role model for the little children

that you are moulding. We are moulding them in many ways like mentally,

physically and spiritually and emotionally. In this way you have to be a role

model. Teacher is a leader, and knows about everything, like another parent,

the teacher provides guidance, these are some additional characteristics.”

(MFG 1)


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Teacher professional development as a dimension of teacher professionalism concerned

continuous professional development of teachers at all levels and emerged from the various

experiences, beliefs and perceptions of teachers. Teachers revealed that teacher professional

development referred to a drive for development in their profession and a continuing

learning process but it must be of a spiritual, physical, academic and social nature. However

teachers expressed concerns about the current problems and reiterated these beliefs and

experiences:

“……. generally, my general assessment of the profession would be that the

primary school teaching itself, I could see that there are a lot of teachers who

want to get the teaching to what is expected. But unfortunately, it is the lack of

staff development programs that is holding a lot of teachers back. But the drive

in teaching, the drive in the profession is there. Probably we need a lot of staff

development programs for teachers.” (MVT 3)

“The teaching profession in primary school seems to be declining, the way I

look at it. And I am not blaming the teachers. I am blaming the Government for

implementing the new curriculum with lack of in-services conducted. Maybe

full time courses for the teachers before the actual implementation of the new

curriculum are needed. I personally think that teacher performance is

declining and I seem to be, and I also feel like leaving the Department too

because it’s not the case anymore. I can’t produce the best results anymore

because I (am) no longer fit (to teach) according to the new curriculum.”

(MVT 5)

Teacher professional ethics also emerged as a dimension of teacher professionalism and

concerned work and professional conduct displayed by teachers. Teachers identified aspects

of teacher professional ethics as having a sense of responsibility in educating children and

collaborating with and supporting colleagues in performing teaching responsibilities.

Teacher professional ethics also referred to being committed, obedient and respectful, and

that a teacher had to have a vision and purpose to teach and to be a member of the teaching

profession. As confirmed by teachers:

“Maybe I would say, one of the things that is important is that as a teacher I

have to be committed to my job. That is what I think is very important in my job

and is what I am paid for. No other person will do my job as I am paid to do it.


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Teaching the students and how I take care of them, as well as helping them

should be properly done.” (MVT 1)

“I think some good qualities are by showing good example and support as a

senior teacher to teachers and students too. Some other examples include,

being a good advisor and listener when counseling the students in qualities of

life, and making them follow the ways to a better life.” (MVT 2)

These teachers compared their experiences and observations about the past and present

practicing teachers in primary schools:

“We probably have many good teachers, especially when you look back at the

teachers before us. Most of the older teachers are respectful and obedient in

comparison to the new graduates. I see many of the graduates come out with

bad attitudes. Most of them look for alcohol and most of them work only for

their pay, unlike the older teachers, especially now that we have grade twelve in

Teachers’ Colleges.” (MVT 2)

“Teacher professionalism is declining and teachers, now-a-days, are showing don’t-

care attitudes towards their work.” (MFG 1)

Teacher Professionalism: Views of Head Teacher

The head teacher was very experienced and had been a head teacher for twenty-seven years.

In supporting the teachers, the head teacher related teacher compliance to teachers and head

teachers performing responsibilities as required by education policies, including policies

concerning the efficient management of schools. However, concerning his specific roles,

s/he perceived teacher compliance as related to professional, management and administrative

requirements that he complied with including standards of teaching, supervision of teachers

and the management of school resources. He believed that to comply with such

requirements teachers and head teachers needed to manage and organize themselves and to

ensure resources were utilized to provide quality education for the children.

“For the teachers, the first thing is to dress neatly. They must also be punctual,

they must prepare lessons and have them signed by immediate supervisors, one

week in advance and then teach to the best they can. Time to time I carry out

supervision, check their work and conduct in-services to help them. For


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example, this afternoon we will attend a joint in-service with the international

school teachers to help us with our professional growth.” (MVH 1)

The head teacher further confirmed his responsibility to children and their parents, the

Board of Management and the Church Agency:

“For the children, the first thing is to make sure they attend school on a daily

basis, their health and their learning in each class. They have to learn as much

as they can to achieve the good results at the end. And for parents, regular

involvement in school activiities and conducting of meetings are needed so that

they’ll be briefed on the financial reports and general behaviour of their

children. If one or two students misbehave, a report is sent to their parents and

they are called to attend and a closed dialogue between us takes place. The

Board of Management has the delicate responsibility to make sure our rules are

upheld. They ensure infrastructure, school development and budgetting are in

place. For the (Church) Agency, Religion has to be taught to all classe, and we

try to develop the students spiritually.” (MVH 1)

While teachers believed that teacher knowledge was an educational and pedagogical issue,

the head teacher perceived it as a management and administrative aspect of the teaching

profession. Such belief restricted the perception of teacher knowledge to management and

administrative responsibilities with less emphasis on pedagogy. This may question the

educational leadership role of the head teacher, particularly in curriculum leadership. The

head teacher however, emphasized qualifications, knowledge and skills as significant to

being a teacher and head teacher:

“Qualification wise, I strongly believe and want all the teachers and senior

teachers must have a diploma, and head teachers must have diploma or degree

so that they can oversee and they can command instructions and management,

and this will go well so that people understand you and you understand people

so that you serve people better.” (MVH 1)

“Well the word professionalism is suited to us because we have gone through

professional training in that we have gone to high schools and then to the

Teacher’s College in which we were specifically trained which is very good. We

are not like other public servants because we can mould the kids up or we can


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damage the kids, and to be known as a professional man or professional woman

is very good……….. .” (MVH 1)

The head teacher indicated his perception of teacher leadership, as being primarily

associated with senior and head teacher positions in schools. He argued that to occupy such

formal leadership positions, one had to be equipped with supervisory and management skills.

At the same time however, he indicated that teacher leadership concerned teachers and head

teachers taking a lead in all aspects of a school. The head teacher confirmed:

“As a senior teacher, apart from the above mentioned, supervisory and

management skills are also important, so that you are able to critically analyze

and comment on what and how to help the teachers so that you develop this

professional relationship. This will help you as a senior teacher. …….. As a

head teacher, you must first of all have the skills of a base level teacher as per

duty statement, secondly, you must have the knowledge and skills of a senior

teacher and thirdly you must have management skills to be able to see and

develop or to plan so that you are a level above the others and you can be able

to pick things very quickly to help everyone.” (MVH 1)

Teacher professional development, the fourth emerged dimension of teacher professionalism,

concerned continuous professional development of teachers at all levels of the school

system. Consistent with the teachers’ ideas, the head teacher emphasized that teacher

professional development involved continually being trained or in-serviced in all aspects of

teaching. He highlighted the current problems experienced by the teachers as a result of a

lack of attention to teacher professional development by authorities:

“Teachers are very busy trying to collect bits and pieces from here and there.

There are no text books and there is nothing so teachers don’t know what to do.

The school system is becoming bad affecting teachers at the same time. For

example, in (province named) last year 18 teachers resigned because of this

(lack of training/in-service). And this year you expect the number to be doubled

because of this hopeless system we have with no support materials that teachers

can use. Now the teachers are categorized as ‘gatherers’ teachers. The

teachers of today have not been trained to teach grades 7 and 8. These are

structures in high schools thrown down to us. How can you expect the teachers

to teach these grades? So in other words, teacher will refuse and somebody

would just have to volunteer to do it, whether it is done well or not.” (MVH 1)


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Teacher professional ethics, the fifth emerged dimension of teacher professionalism, referred

to professional behavior and conduct displayed by teachers and the head teacher while

performing their responsibilities. The head teacher supported the teachers’ views that

teacher professional ethics related to being committed to educating children and argued that

a teacher had to understand children and colleagues by having good professional

relationships with them. He also emphasized that teacher professional ethics were related to

teachers’ and head teachers’ behavior and attitudes. He summarized these beliefs:

“To become a teacher, behavior and attitudes are of great importance. Once

you’ve completed your training and graduate, the first thing is to commit

yourself to your duty statements. This involves programming, preparation of

lessons and then teaching the best you can so that the kids can understand

what you teach. Your duty statement will help you become a base level teacher

if you understand it. ….. and how to help the (other) teachers so that you

develop this professional relationship. ……. and this will go well so that people

understand you and you understand people so that you serve people better.”

(MVH 1)

Teacher Professionalism: Views of Inspectors

Inspectors reported that teacher compliance involved teachers and head teachers being

reliable, dynamic and being able to carry out duties as stipulated in their duty statements.

Thus, teacher compliance as a dimension of teacher professionalism referred directly to

performing responsibilities to expected standards. Inspectors also stressed that when

performing responsibilities, creating an environment for student learning was a crucial task

for teachers and head teachers. As inspectors emphasized:

“The Performance Based Duty Statement as it is now, is very descriptive and

provides clear cut and indicates what areas of responsibilities at a particular

level has to be performed. Previously we had some duty statements in place but

the information was not specific so a lot of teachers crossed lines in doing other

peoples’ activities and duties. With this one now, it specifies the areas each

particular teacher of a different level are to be performing. For me personally I

think that is something good that has come out of teachers.” (MVI 1)


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“………… With the classroom teacher, it comes down to a small area of

environment which is the classroom. I like to see teachers creating very good

environment with the classroom, good setup, everything in place so that the

teaching and learning is taking place at the rate that is expected.” (MVI 2)

Teacher knowledge, the second dimension of teacher professionalism, concerned teachers

and head teachers having clear understandings of what was expected of them in and outside

the classroom situations. This is expressed by this inspector:

“Well teacher professionalism, as I understand it, is the knowledge and the

skills that the teacher will need to have in order to implement what is expected

of them. Once he has acquired these skills and knowledge, then we know that

the teacher is professionally competent.” (MVI 2)

Inspectors related teacher leadership to having the knowledge to plan and to ensure the

schools operated effectively in serving their purpose. Such knowledge in leadership

included being knowledgeable in all aspects of the teaching profession and being able to lead

by example through mutual trusts. Thus, consistent with teachers’ and the head teacher’s

beliefs, teacher leadership concerned teachers and head teachers applying appropriate

leadership qualities in all aspects of a school life and being role models for colleagues and

students.

“Ok, the head teacher has to have good managerial skills and become confident

and has to be a curriculum leader at the school level. He has to have these

skills and knowledge and that he is alert to the changes that are coming up.

The teacher has to be a role model to the children and the community. He or

she has to be professionally be matured and has to have a clear understanding

of what is expected of him as a teacher.” (MVI 2)

“For a head teacher, he must be understanding and understanding the staff and

he or she must be a good leader in the institution under his or her responsibility

and must be honest himself and be committed. He must have good knowledge,

be knowledgeable and have good communication skills. He or she must be

humble and being humble and be committed so he or she will gain teachers’

trust.” (MVI 3)


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Teacher professional development was perceived by inspectors as related directly to

continuous training and in-service for teachers and head teachers on issues related to their

responsibilities. Inspectors believed that the teaching profession had to be characterized by

supervisory strategies for professional development either through school based or external

supervisory means. This inspector observed the importance of teacher professional

development:

“Well (with) the professional side of teachers, I conducted in-services after I

identify the needs and on the problem areas of teachers. That’s where I step in

and plan and conduct in-services so that the teachers fully develop

professionally in those areas of difficulties so that they will know what they’re

doing. In this way they become more confident in their work in the long run.”

(MVI 2)

Teacher professional ethics emerged as a serious dimension of the teaching profession.

Teacher professional ethics concerned ethics and values such as honesty, trust and

humbleness practiced by teachers and head teachers in dealing with colleagues, children and

other stakeholders. Teacher professional ethics required teachers and head teachers to

perform their responsibilities with maturity and commitment. These views indicated that

having and displaying professional ethics through the conduct of teachers and head teachers

showed that there was maturity in the teaching profession. In supporting teachers and the

head teacher, inspectors reported the following experiences:

“For teachers, the special characteristics we are looking for are teachers who

can set a good model for students. Behavior and attitudes are such

characteristics that are acceptable within the community and school. We look

at teachers who have a lot of initiatives, who are dynamic in their profession,

who are willing to work with students, the community and other areas within

their profession that they can help with.” (MVI 1)

“For the teacher, the teacher must be honest, must have work commitment and

the trust and must be reliable. Some of those things I’ve mentioned earlier like

(displaying) good behavior, be knowledgeable, hard working and the

punctuality at work. For a head teacher, he must be understanding ……… and

must be honest with himself and be committed. …….... He or she must be

humble and being humble and be committed so he or she will gain teachers’

trust.” (MVI 3)


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However, inspectors also observed a general decline in teacher professional ethics due to

various factors, including hardships faced by teachers and head teachers:

“(With) The teachers, it’s their duty that they have to teach and they need to

work more on it. If I can make a comparison that in the past, I see teachers and

there was more work commitment. Today the teachers are more or less with the

money, their commitment is not there, it’s lacking somewhere and some how

something has gone wrong. It’s a profession and teaching here is a vocation.

That you come in, there is a lot of hardship and have in mind you must be

committed to the job. I’ve been a teacher for a period of time and I go into these

schools now and at times I say I wish I run the school. Because you know what

is expected. When we work hard and produce quality results the parents and

community will not complain.” (MVI 3)

“With the head teachers, for example, I walk in and see what they suppose to be

doing but at times, you go there and find a group of people with the door closed

chewing betel nuts and just telling stories instead of being in the classrooms.

So, on the spot, these are some of the things I need to change.” (MVI 3)

Synthesis of Views: Teacher Professionalism

The findings of Case Study 2 revealed five dimensions of teacher professionalism and these

were teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional

development and teacher professional ethics. While these findings were consistent with the

findings of Case Study 1, there are important points of differences.

While teachers and head teachers perceived teacher compliance as not only performing

responsibilities associate with the specific positions they occupied, they also related teacher

compliance to implementing policies that required them to be agents of change. However

the head teacher believed that teacher compliance was more related to management,

organizational and administrative roles. The inspectors agreed with teachers’ perceptions

on teacher compliance and argued that teacher compliance concerned teachers and head

teachers being reliable in carrying out duties as stipulated in job descriptions.

From the teachers’ and inspectors’ views, teacher knowledge concerned teachers and head

teachers being informed (about changes), educated, knowledgeable and skilful in what they


183

delivered to students. Teachers’ understanding of what were expected of them in the

classroom situation formed such perception. However to sustain teacher knowledge, teacher

qualifications and teaching competencies were essential. The head teacher perceived teacher

knowledge as more relevant to his role as a head teacher and linked teacher knowledge to

management and administrative responsibilities. While teachers and inspectors perceived

teacher knowledge as an educational and pedagogical phenomenon, the head teacher referred

to it as more of a management and administrative nature.

Teachers perceived teacher leadership as being a good organizer and manager in order to be

formerly promoted in schools. This perception reflected the experiences of the teachers with

the current appraisal system where promotion was the ultimate result of being appraised at

the school level. The head teacher believed teacher leadership required supervisory and

management skills. The inspectors, on the other hand, believed teacher leadership required

the knowledge to plan and to ensure the schools operate effectively in serving their purpose.

Thus teacher leadership, as a dimension of teacher professionalism, concerned teachers and

the head teacher having management and organizational knowledge and skills and being able

to apply these in their roles.

The participants indicated teacher professional development involved training and in-service

activities for teachers and head teachers. This required teachers and head teachers to develop

professionally, spiritually, physically and academically. The head teacher reiterated that

teacher professional development had to be continuous and, as advocated by the inspectors,

had to be focused. Inspectors further believed that professional development required

school based and external supervision strategies. This implied that the teaching profession

was a ‘process’ of continuous development, and had to evolve with educational changes.

With teacher professional ethics the participants viewed this as involving attitudes of trust,

obedient, behavior, respect, commitment, honesty and humility. These are displayed through

the behavior and conduct of teachers and head teachers while performing their

responsibilities.

4.4.5 Perceived linkages between inspectorial interactive strategies and dimensions of

teacher professionalism

To investigate the linkages from the emerged themes, teachers and the head teacher were

asked about the activities that the inspectors carried out and whether these activities had any


184

influence in their profession. The inspectors were asked to confirm the linkages between the

inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism.

Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Teachers

The teachers related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher compliance, teacher

knowledge and teacher leadership; professional development interactive strategies to teacher

professional development; and professional ethics to teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.5

shows the linkages.



Quality assurance Teacher compliance

Teacher knowledge

Teacher Leadership

Professional development Teacher professional development

Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics

The teachers represented base level teachers and senior teachers including a deputy head

teacher. Individual teachers perceived quality assurance activities that inspectors used as

influencing them in complying with what were required of them.

“With my current professionalism when inspectors come and visit me I seem to

see that they are people who are concerned about what is expected and

required of us. Therefore I also have the drive to see that what I suppose to do

is done. ........... I see that, having these people around, we know that we are

expected to do something.” (MVT 3)

“ ..... when inspectors are observing and visiting me, and making comments I

feel that they are trying to get something out from me, what they expect me to do

as the curriculum requires, that is, to see whether I am teaching the right

content in the grades I am teaching. ......they visit me to check that the

education standard is kept at the expected standard. In any case, if there is no

visit done, the standard would be falling and it is through the visits and reports

that the Department of Education knows that the standard is still there.”

(MVT 5)


185

The inspectors also utilized senior teachers in the schools to ensure teachers comply with

educational policies as well as curriculum requirements as this teacher implied:

“..... they (inspectors) are the ones who come and check what we are doing.

The inspectors visiting us, in particular (with) me, gives me the drive of doing a

lot of what I am expected of, while I am also getting the teachers to do the same

things. .......... And when the information I get from inspectors, if I tell the

teacher then we all have the same purposes, teachers of this school and myself.

We have the same purpose and we have a goal to achieve.” (MVT 3)

With the activities that concerned teacher knowledge the experienced teachers revealed that

quality assurance strategies ensured that they were up to date with subject content that they

were teaching as this teacher confirmed:

“After 11 years of teaching, I believe the inspectors tasks and responsibilities

are to assist teachers and head teachers to be well informed of the changes that

are taking place in the higher places of the Department of Education and to

provide us with more training for our professional development to enhance our

knowledge on what we are to be doing. ……..” (MVT 4)

Quality assurance activities that related to teacher leadership involved the inspection

processes and these were considered as means of promoting teachers. These experiences

influenced directly on teacher leadership qualities according to teachers. This implied that

the inspectors and the inspection processes significantly contributed to teacher leadership as

a dimension of teacher professionalism. Such experiences were admitted by teachers:

“From the activities that the Inspectors normally carry out,.............. like

checking on the filing system is mostly dealt with administrative functions and

probably they are trying to assist us to be good administrators and maybe to

help us for promotion purposes. .......... And also with the administrative

function, we are encouraged to or assisted by the inspectors in order to be good

managers or senior teachers to move onto the next level and to be able to work

effectively at promotional levels.” (MVT 4)


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Teachers at the same time perceived professional development activities carried out by

inspectors as impacting on their professional development. As experienced by these

teachers:

“Inspectors come and assist and advice us on things that we should be doing to

help the kids under our care. One other thing is to help in the teaching

profession to improve the skills I lack to help me help my students, so in other

words the inspector helps me to help the students as well as my professional

development.” (MVT 1)

“I see that when we are interacting with an inspector during his or her

inspection time, the inspector is helping and assisting us, trying to improve our

way of organizing things to be a good organizer or manager. Indirectly the

Inspector is trying to make us see that we are committed that we have to

improve our teaching skills so that we can be resourceful. In other words if we

are not doing something very well then probably we should try to find out more

on how we could do it better in future. So in doing so I see that this enhances

the characteristics of being creative and innovative. And also when we are

asked for or when we are commented on our classroom management or

organization, it also helps us to act as a parent, how we can organize like how

we can analyze things at home, how we can organize our own children.”

(MVT 4)

Inspectors also recognized and utilized senior teachers to facilitate professional development

activities to develop teachers professionally as stated by this teacher:

“Since I was here many inspectors have actually utilized me in a lot of things

because of my engagement in many things like curriculum workshops until

today. Inspectors are using me to conduct in-services on other cluster schools

and I have been facilitating PIST (Provincial In-service Training) and

workshops in the province through the request of inspectors.” (MVT 3)

However, teachers also expressed their concerns about the professional development roles of

inspectors as not effectively carried out and this impacted on their professional development.

This teacher elaborated on this issue:


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“We see inspectors as tools that have to equip us or professionally develop us.

Unfortunately it is not happening that way. We are looking forward for them to

actually engage in professional development programs and other things but this

is not happening. We seem to be developing ourselves in our own schools.

Professional development is our expectation and I thought they should have

some input in our professional growth but it is not happening that way.”

(MVT 3)

With professional ethics of inspectors, the behavior and means by which inspectors

conducted their responsibilities either educationally, professionally or administratively,

teachers perceived these to be directly influencing them in their professional ethics.

Teachers, and members of the focus group, conferred their experiences:

“Okay, some of the problems I’ve encountered with them (inspectors), I see that

they are wasting their time because most of the time their visits and observation

of the schools do not compliment the overall performance and function of the

schools visited. Sometimes they are seen as mere visitors which do not have

any effect on the general teaching and learning of the schools concerned.”

(MVT 2)

“Inspectors’ job is a vital one in the education system. Because of them visiting

schools the teachers are working. If there are no inspectors, no one would care

about work. So that’s why I say inspectors’ job is vital to the education

system.” (MVT 5)

“I’d like to say that, and what I would like to see, is that the inspectors should

maintain their integrity as inspectors. It’s good that you come and mingle with

the teachers but maybe that’s just my thought. When the inspector becomes too

friendly with the teachers, they become so good to each other so when the

inspector visits and inspects the teacher and give wrong thoughts, their

relationship is ruined. Therefore, my suggestion to the inspectors is to maintain

that authority or integrity as an inspector. True, they can come but I see that, in

some situations at a certain time, the inspectors get so drunk with the teachers

or carry on with them. I don’t see the inspectors do what they used to do when I

was at school and when comparing how they inspect my teachers. The

inspectors are very professional and the head teachers see them as examples,

and they (inspectors) also become good examples to teachers. They do what


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teachers do but I want them to become strict a bit. This is another thing I’d like

to suggest to the inspectors to uphold their integrity. Of course, there is a time

for socializing. But in that way your work as an inspector becomes efficient.

Becoming too friendly can be dangerous, that’s just another thought.”

(MFG 1)

Because of the adverse professional ethics of inspectors, teachers’ confidence in the

inspection processes was also highlighted as a concern for everyone. Such concerns were

illustrated by these comments, particularly by members of the focus group who had not been

visited and inspected by inspectors for a number of years:

“With me, the inspection report, personally, I have some dissatisfaction with it.

With the PBDS, in my assessment, there are many things that I have been doing

that should be written formally and given to me but is not put on. Perhaps

because the inspectors just come in and see me for one hour or so and go out.

This is my dissatisfaction on the current report. When I read it, even though I

was given a substantive position, I was not satisfied because there were a lot

more that should have been written on paper. The report does not reflect my

performance.” (MVT 3)

“The Inspectors are supposed to be our helpers, visiting us every now and then

whether they are carrying out any inspections or not and we are to have our

views, the problems that we face or whatever to them. In this group here I am

one of those who have not been visited by an inspector for some years. I have

requested for inspection but I was given reasons why I could not be inspected,

so in my opinion I think that, the inspectors must be here every now and then in

the schools to help us. Not only when it comes to inspection and they are

around, that’s my opinion about inspectors’ work.” (MFG 1)

However, compared with the experiences and perceptions of the interviewed teachers, the

focus group related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher compliance and teacher

professional development; professional development interactive strategies to teacher

compliance and teacher professional development; and professional ethics of inspectors were

related to teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.6 shows these linkages.


189

Figure 4.6: Focus Group Perceptions Linkages





The members of the focus group, though experienced, were base level teachers who had

basic teaching qualifications. While their perceptions of teacher professionalism included

three of the five dimensions (teacher compliance, teacher leadership, teacher professional

development and teacher professional ethics), their perceptions of the linkages between the

inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism were

restricted to teacher compliance, teacher professional development and teacher professional

ethics. They agreed that quality assurance activities influenced teachers in complying with

designated responsibilities, professional development activities impacting on professional

development of teachers, and professional ethics of inspectors affecting professional ethics

of teachers. As previously stated, they argued that quality assurance strategies also impacted

on their professional development although there were also problems with this perception as

a member of the focus group revealed:

“Before the reform, the inspectors’ work was very meaningful. There are a lot

of outcomes of advisory visits and inspection reports. After the advisory and

inspection visits you see some kind of opportunities such as professional

development, maybe further studies they would recommend in teachers colleges,

this sort of things. But now there’s none of these, you can be inspected, you can

be given a good report but you do not see any opportunity at all so I do not see

any point for inspectors coming again to do inspections. What will I benefit

from the inspections? You will give me good reports, reports and that’s all?

What are the reasons for you coming and doing inspections? Are you trying to

develop me professionally or trying to recommend me for some kind of

promotion or so? I see that there is no reason for an inspector to come and

inspect me anymore.” (MFG 1)

At the same time, compared to interviewed teachers, members of the focus group believed

that professional development activities also influenced teachers in adhering to educational,

professional and administrative requirements. This meant that teachers complied with such


190

requirements only if they were guided by inspectors through professional development

strategies. As this member of the focus group stressed:

“…………We want the inspectors to be here so that in areas where we lack,

they are here to guide us and help us so that’s why we still need them to

maintain the standard and because of their non presence at the school now I

think we are missing out on a lot of things as I’ve mentioned. They are the ones

who have the last say to recommend us for further studies, this sort of thing we

are missing out on. Most of us still need their presence at the school to

maintain the standard.” (MFG 1)

Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Head Teacher

The head teacher related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher compliance,

teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional development and teacher

professional ethics; professional development interactive strategies to teacher professional

development; and professional ethics to teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.7 shows the

linkages.

Figure 4.7: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages



Teacher knowledge

Teacher leadership



The head teacher was very experienced and had been promoted through the inspection

processes. He perceived the quality assurance activities as influencing all dimensions of

teacher professionalism. The comments below related quality assurance activities

influencing him to perform responsibilities as expected of him:

“The challenge (inspector named) gives me is that I should carry out my duties

in supervision. (Inspector named) reminds me and at the same time I find this

challenge helpful to feel free to enter any classroom at any time to supervise

teachers. On the spot visit, that is just go and check. Every morning, I go for a

quick visit to see whether the teacher is in the classroom or not and that is one


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of the things I normally do. In this manner, I feel closer to the teachers and they

also feel that we are working together. …...” (MVH 1)

These comments made by the head teacher illustrated the impact of quality assurance

activities on teachers’ professional development:

“My inspector does a lot of good work……… talking and giving advice after

(inspector’s named) visits in the classrooms and then report writing. (Inspector

named) then discusses the reports with the teachers before leaving. It’s a very

good thing because (inspector named) helps the teacher understand her or his

report and as a writer (inspector named) is satisfied with the report. I am happy

because of this two-way communication. (Inspector) also gives advice to the

Board of Management on how to run the school, how we can use our money on

what to buy and what not to buy, and also advised on government policy. I

admire (inspector named) on (inspector’s named) supervision skills. (Inspector

named) goes to the classroom and sits with the teachers from Grades 3 to 8 so

there is plenty reports on the teachers here at the (school named). The written

reports carry good positive results, meaning promotional reports. This shows

that there is a good working relationship.” (MVH 1)

“For myself, I am happy because I can see my weaknesses. When I read my

advisory reports the inspector gives, it helps me a lot. These are my strengths,

which is a good sign. For weaknesses, I use these to improve on them and

become a better leader. And I am very happy to learn so much from it. I want

this to go ahead and at the same time, it moulds me to become a better person

in my work.” (MVH 1)

As with the above latter comments, the comments below revealed the impact of the quality

assurance strategies on teacher leadership:

“I am happy with the benefits or outcomes I have gained during this short

period of teaching for 30 years. Because of the inspection report, it has helped

me to a fast promotion to the highest level of Education Officer 8. ………...”

(MVH 1)

However, the head teacher also expressed concern that having gained eligibility status for

higher promotional positions in the school system through the inspection processes did not


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guarantee him a promotion because of the non-existence of higher positions. The head

teacher’s confidence in the inspection processes (quality assurance strategies) as far as

teacher leadership was concerned was an issue as he implied:

“First one, regarding personal report, I know I’m eligible its how you got it. My

concern is that there are no schools in the Momase region or (province named)

that has a level 8. For now, I am on a level 8 position but am not sure where I

will go from there.” (MVH 1)

The comments below were related to how inspectors carry out the quality assurance

interactive strategies in terms of management and general conduct, and how this influenced

professional ethics of teachers and the head teacher:

“I do know of an inspector who practices favoritism to especially women. This

inspector writes promotional reports on people who are not ready to take up

responsibility. This is obvious when we allocate duties to him/her. The

particular officer finds it hard to perform. I also noticed that the inspector gives

inspections not within working hours but maybe after hours, after 4.06pm,

writing reports without actually being in the classroom where you see the

teacher in front of you. As a result, I came across a teacher who refused to sign

a report done by this inspector. The inspector gave him an unsatisfactory

report. So that teacher came and saw me and when I was at the Provincial

Ratings Conference, and when the inspector tried to avoid it, I told him to read

the report and then we had a vote and the report was thrown out.” (MVH 1)

“With advisory work in the past, I saw that it was good because it helped the

teachers. Now, the present system now, I don’t know whether the Education Act

has changed. They say advisory is not necessary. The inspectors just come and

just carry out inspections. I totally do not agree with this practice because how

can you know and assume that this teacher has been working for a year like this

when you only see him or her for a day and to give a report like this. Whether it

is an unsatisfactory report, or an efficient report or a promotional report, I

don’t believe this because I don’t see how. Advisory visits, at least one, two,

three before inspections can come in but now inspectors are not doing that. I

don’t know why, has something changed in the Education Act or in the

inspection system but that’s what I have seen.” (MVH 1)


193

The head teacher also agreed that professional development activities directly impacted on

teachers’ and his professional development. He illustrated this by the following experiences:

“My inspector does a lot of good work, i.e. in the professional development of

teachers, conducting in-services, talking and giving advice after her visits in the

classrooms and then report writing. (Inspector named) then discusses the

reports with the teachers before leaving. It’s a very good thing because

(inspector named) helps the teacher understand her or his report and as a

writer (inspector named) is satisfied with the report. …….” (MVH 1)

“(Inspector named) has helped me in writing reports as suggested new roles of

site leadership. (Inspector named) has guided me through by checking them

(reports). We are both happy with the learning. I have been doing this for many

years but now I see that (inspector named) has given me more responsibility

which I am grateful and I am enjoying it.” (MVH 1)

The behavior and conduct (professional ethics of inspectors) displayed by the inspectors, and

the qualifications and knowledge used by the inspectors to carry out their responsibilities

influenced teachers and the head teacher in how they conducted themselves in performing

their responsibilities (professional ethics of teachers). These views were expressed strongly

by the head teacher:

“Yes, under this current curriculum we are teaching, these inspectors have no

clue, no idea. They are just learning from us. How can they come and give us

inspections when they don’t know? They haven’t gone for training and in-

services. It’s only recently that they are learning. When we first got reports on

top-up and these grades 7 and 8 issues, they had no idea but learnt a lot from

us. I am happy because that is one way we learn from each other in order to

help the kids. Kids are, at the end, victims or beneficiaries.” (MVH 1)

Concerning all inspectorial interactive strategies applied by the inspectors, the head teacher

revealed the operational, management and administrative difficulties that the inspectors were

experiencing as part of the cultures of the organizations that were involved with the

inspectorial system and the teaching profession. He suggested ways by which the

inspectorial system could be improved in order to have a positive impact on the teachers and

head teachers.


194

“To start off with, I see that our (Provincial) Education Office does not have a

proper section for inspectors. At the moment you’d find the inspectors working

in conference rooms. The inspectors have one or two rooms, maybe no

furniture, no stationeries. So there must be proper planning in the office and

Inspections and Guidance personnel must have their own typists, their own

machines for photocopying and duplicating, and computers so that they get

updates and compile reports from their previous visits. And then they will be in

a position to give information to the planning section or Advisor if he needs

advice. The setup at the Education Office is not inviting and the teachers are

reluctant to air their concerns because it (inspector’s office) is so open in the

conference room. There are other people around there and sometimes it makes

the work of the inspectors very difficult.” (MVH 1)

“I think we have a good system but the system is very old and needs to be

revised I think we have a good inspectorial system in PNG but the system needs

to be revised so that it helps with our work in the education system. And I

would like the inspectorial system, not only to have responsibilities over the

schools but also visiting and inspecting other personnel in the Education

Offices too if the law allows. For example, the inspector inspecting the PAO

(Provincial Administration Officer) ……(to) see if his or her responsibilities are

carried out. We come across a lot of problems on leave fares and all that

because nobody is watching him, nobody is inspecting him. Other officers like

the appointment officer and other guys in the system, so whoever works in the

education system should be inspected too. Because the inspector carries such

title he should inspect them not only the teachers in the classrooms. If we have

to improve the whole system we have to do something like this so that everybody

knows that the inspector is not only for the teachers but for everyone.”

(MVH 1)

Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Inspectors

The inspectors in Case Study 2 related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher

compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership; professional development interactive

strategies to teacher leadership, teacher knowledge and teacher professional development;

and professional ethics of inspectors to teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.8 shows these

linkages.


195

Figure 4.8: Inspector Perceptions Linkages



Teacher knowledge

Teacher leadership



The inspectors revealed quality assurance activities they carried out influenced teachers and

head teachers to comply with the requirements of the duty statements as well as with

educational, professional and administrative policies. At the same time activities done as

means of quality assurance impacted also on the performances of teachers and head teachers,

as well as in the academic performances of the students:

“My job as an Inspector, and I am also new in the system. I find that it is

challenging. I also find that my presence in the schools has a lot of impact on

teachers in terms of their performance.” (MVI 1)

“As an Inspector, I find it that these work is very, very important and it helps as

a check and balance system to see what our schools are doing and how well

they are doing. We are not there, as I say, not to be a leader or a boss or what

but to go there to be seen where we can assist and help out. The bottom line of

this as I see is the learning of our children. The teachers can be guided properly

and know what they are doing then through that they can do their work better

and help our children in the classroom.” (MVI 3)

Quality assurance activities also had direct relationship with teacher knowledge implying

that inspectors contributed to enriching teachers and head teachers with appropriate

knowledge that they require to teach their subject areas and manage aspects of the schools

respectively. The inspectors also used appropriate documents to achieve such outcomes as

illustrated with the following comments:

“As I said earlier, during my visit to schools I have copies of circulars,

instructions and newsletters. I carry around copies of the Education and

Teaching Service Acts. I have a copy of the Performance Based Duty

Statement. During my visit I use the information as a basis in conducting staff


196

meetings for teachers and inform them on whatever is there and how it is

relevant to their workplace. It is something new basically because they have

not received that information. Some of them are not aware that there are

certain things like that available. When the information goes to them, it is an

eye opener.” (MVI 1)

“The head teachers when visiting them, I try to develop them by advising them

on what things that should be done to improve their schools, they have to

develop their managerial skills so that they become confident in running their

school. In classroom teachers, when I give them advisory visit or lesson

observation it helps them to improve their skills and knowledge so that it will

develop the teacher at the end, as a head teacher, as a supervisor or as a

classroom teacher. These are the things that I help them with and as a result

head teachers have become good planners, managers and administrators.

Teachers have become more confident in their teaching.” (MVI 2)

The inspectors summed up the general achievements resulting from what they were

doing as means of quality assurance with teachers, the Board of Management and the

head teachers with this inspector’s comments:

“When we look at the professionalism of teachers and their output in the

classrooms as teachers, I see that if the teachers’ attitudes toward the children

are good then we will see an improvement in the standard of learning. That’s

the impact that the teacher will have on the students in terms of learning. If we

look at, for example, record keeping then it also indicates that the teacher

knows exactly what he is doing, and how he can manage his or her records.

The Board of Management (BOM), in terms of record keeping of money or

spending of money, the impact will be on the performance of the students.

When the BOM use their money wisely, then we know that the impact will be on

the students in terms of materials, infrastructure that indicates that money is

being used properly. With head teachers, his or her performance will indicate

in the way that the school is being run. The first impression we get is if the

school is running properly, we would already know what kind of scene is

happening in the schools without even talking to the head teacher. This is the

output of how the head teacher is performing.” (MVI 1)


197

Inspectors also related quality assurance activities directly to teacher leadership. They

claimed that leadership qualities were enhanced when inspectors identified and

acknowledged problem areas in school leadership.

“With the head teachers, I find they must have the knowledge to plan and to run

the schools. They are working but they are not really focusing on what they

should be doing. A lot of things are just too general and they don’t know their

duty statements and with that a lot are ‘stepping on each others’ toes’. Their

colleague teachers and supervisors are not really aware of their duty

statements. Senior teachers are also appointed without training.” (MVI 3)

With professional development strategies inspectors observed that these were directly

influencing teachers and head teachers in their professional development, particularly in

enhancing knowledge and leadership qualities. These were reflected with the following

inspectors’ revelations:

“Some of the outcomes that I have witnessed during my visits are that teachers

know that the inspectors are there and are trying their best in utilizing whatever

resources there are to present their lessons and from advisory visits, I have seen

a lot of improvements. Teachers are willing to accept advice and improve in

their professional areas as well as in other areas in their profession. With head

teachers most of my emphasis is on how they administer schools and after my

visits I have seen improvements, administratively and of course professionally

in terms of staff development activities in the schools. They have picked up

after my visits. They conduct in-services. Many times they do their itineraries

but they don’t carry out these, but after my visits to them and having talked to

them, seeing the importance of staff in-service there was a lot of improvements

in some schools. But there is still more to be done.” (MVI 1)

“An example is like the implementation of the reform curriculum. Teachers are

not familiar with this then I have to see that if it is a common issue in all the

schools or just one school. If it is in all schools, a district or inspectorate an in-

service is planned together with the head teachers and is conducted to address

the issue.” (MVI 2)

At the same time inspectors admitted that their professional ethics impacted on the

professional ethics of teachers and head teachers. The inspectors revealed these experiences:


198

“……A lot of head teachers having not been visited by inspectors sort of having

no care attitude. After my visits and discussions about their roles and

responsibilities they are beginning to pick up but there is still a lot to be done.”

(MVI 1)

“Teachers here, I find that they have been left alone for so long and having

coming here, it is not because I have made the change but little that I have

offered, I can see that there is learning, there is commitment and there is

respect. Their attitudes are slowly and gradually changing and then coming to

realize that, yes we have to do work and they are responding to some of the

things I’ve mentioned. Of course not everybody, there are people over there

who have their own ways of doing things. But they are coming to realize that,

yes, it is a task, it’s our responsibility and we must carry them out. And with

those little ways of doing things with them, we are trying slowly to do something

there.” (MVI 3)

The inspectors also revealed the factors that related to the cultures of the organizations that

were involved with the work of the inspectors. These factors impacted on their professional

ethics and also impacted on the professional ethics of teachers and head teachers.

“The inspectorate role, where I am in the field of education, is more

consultative with the different stakeholders that are involved in education.

There is a need for more consultation between the Education Department, the

Provincial and District Education Offices. Right now from my experience, I

have seen that there is lack of consultation. Because we are national officers,

the province tend to bypass us in a lot of things that are happening within our

schools in the provinces, and of course our inspectorate. So there is a need for

more consultation, more discussions at our level so that we have one common

goal and that is to maintain and uphold the standards of teaching and learning

in schools and of course the administrative capacity of head teachers in our

schools.” (MVI 1)

“What I’ve seen is that when we look at the inspection we look at it seriously

because it is our job and like in the provinces, some provinces support and

some provinces don’t. One of the things is, not in terms of money, we are in the

province and they tell you, they belong to the National Government and there.


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In the provinces, (and) there is not much commitment and (the) work

relationship. We try to do it but we are on our own. With the National

Department I think now there is (are) a lot of things that are happening. We see

things are coming however, in the province I find with the leadership, a lot of

things stop there and we down the line, we don’t get information. And at times

we work in isolation and there’s always frustrations which doesn’t help with

situations. We should work together. The big issue is communication. I mean

it’s lacking in the provinces between us, information come and then are not

given out. I’ve experienced, since coming to (inspectorate named), when I

walked into a school in 2004 I found that it was the first time for schools to see

the inspector coming in. And I feel that the schools are closer to walk to and

see what they are doing and let them see our presence so we are working

together as a group. Isolating and not visiting schools is not helping at all.

Maybe I’m proud but I have seen the level of work now compared to 2004 how

the teachers are coming around openly talking to the head teachers and we

need the check and balance system with our teachers in our schools.” (MVI 3)

Synthesis of Views of Linkages

There were simple and complex relationships revealed by participants as a result of their

experiences, beliefs and perceptions about the linkages between the inspectorial interactive

strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism. The interviewed teachers provided

simple relationships by implying that quality assurance interactive strategies related to

teacher compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership. They argued that quality

assurance activities ensured they comply with educational, professional and administrative

requirements of their responsibilities. At the same time such activities provided new

knowledge about changes in curriculum development and pedagogy. These teachers, some

of them occupying senior positions in the school, also revealed that quality assurance

activities assisted them in developing leadership qualities resulting in promotions to senior

teaching positions. Concerning professional development interactive strategies and

professional ethics of inspectors, teachers related these to their professional development and

professional ethics respectively. Members of the teacher focus group however, only noted

limited linkages. These teachers, who had not been visited and inspected for a number of

years, related quality assurance and professional development activities to teacher

compliance and also extended these activities to influencing them in their professional

development. This implied that the outcomes of these activities allowed them to develop


200

professionally in order to comply with basic educational, professional and administrative

requirements.

The head teacher provided complex linkages, and while he agreed with the teachers that

quality assurance interactive strategies related directly to teacher compliance, teacher

knowledge, teacher leadership and teacher professional development, he extended the

linkages to teacher professional ethics. These different perceptions probably implied

different ways in which teachers and the head teacher performed and conducted their

responsibilities.

The inspectors also reported complex linkages and agreed with many of the teachers’ and

head teacher’s perceptions. The common linkages included quality assurance relating to

teacher compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership; professional development

activities to teacher professional development; and professional ethics of inspectors to

professional ethics of teachers and the head teacher. However, contrary to teachers’ and the

head teacher’s perceptions, was the notion that professional development interactive

strategies impacted on teacher knowledge and teacher leadership. The teachers and the head

teacher did not agree with this and this may be due to a lack of focus in the professional

development activities performed by inspectors.


Similar to the findings of Case Study 1 the inspectors in this case believed that they carried

out two main inspectorial interactive strategies when performing their responsibilities.

These were quality assurance and professional development interactive strategies. These

were demonstrated through advisory activities and inspection processes (Section 1.3.4).

Again, similar to the findings of Case Study 1, how the inspectors performed these

interactive strategies resulted in the emerged ‘behavioral’ interactive strategies of

professional ethics of inspectors that concerned the manner, conduct and behavior that were

demonstrated by the inspectors. In addition, particularly with this Case Study, the

professional ethics of inspectors were also influenced by the organizational cultures of the

agencies of the NDOE and the Provincial Administration. These factors included a lack of

cooperation, communication and consultation between personnel of different agencies

concerning the work of inspectors and issues related to the teaching profession.

Collectively, the emerged dimensions of teacher professionalism were teacher compliance,



201

professional ethics. However, members of the focus group did not disclose teacher

knowledge as a significant dimension of teacher professionalism. These teachers were

experienced teachers who only had basic qualifications in teaching (Certificates in Primary

Teaching). Such a perception indicated that these teachers had not been exposed to new

knowledge by inspectors and were contented with existing levels of knowledge. This could

consequently result in a lack of innovation and creativity in teaching responsibilities.


professionalism as noted above are summarized in Table 4.22. Cross-participants analysis

was used to derive the results for this case which are summarized below.


Participants 1

Teacher Professionalism 2


Quality Assurance

4


5

Professional Ethics

6 Key: MVT 1 - 5▲ MVH 1 ► MFG 1 ▼ MVI 1 – 3 ◄

Teacher Compliance ▲►▼◄ ▼ Teacher Knowledge ▲►◄ ◄ Teacher Leadership ▲►◄ ◄ Teacher Professional Development

►▼ ▲►▼◄

Teacher Professional Ethics ► ▲►▼◄

Teachers, the head teacher and inspectors concluded that quality assurance interactive

strategies directly influenced teachers and head teachers in complying with educational,

professional, management and administrative requirements and expectations of NDOE, TSC,

PDOE and other agencies. Quality assurance activities also allowed for appropriate

knowledge that teachers and the head teacher needed to perform responsibilities and address

changes that were being introduced into the school. At the same time all participants

believed that they developed leadership qualities through quality assurance interactive

strategies which eventually led to promotions to higher teaching positions. Only the head

teacher indicated that quality assurance interactive strategies impacted on his professional

development. This also implied that as teachers and the head teacher developed

professionally by means of quality assurance activities, the chances to be promoted through

the inspection processes was high. Only the head teacher experienced quality assurance

interactive strategies as influencing him in how he conducted himself in his work. This

implied that quality assurance activities that inspectors performed directly impacted on

professional ethics of the head teacher.


202

As expected, all participants experienced that the professional development interactive

strategies impacted on teacher and head teacher professional development. This was obvious

because of the nature of the activities, including training and in-service sessions and advisory

roles carried out by inspectors that dealt with policies, curriculum changes and school

management issues. However, only teachers believed that professional development led to

an adherence to requirements and expectations of NDOE, TSC and PDOE. The nature of the

training and in-service sessions were seen to be important when changes in policies or new

policies were introduced. In such cases teachers and head teachers were required to comply

with the changes. On the other hand, inspectors argued that professional development

interactive strategies influenced teachers and the head teacher to be equipped with new

knowledge as well as having influence on their roles as leaders. This notion was contrary to

teachers’ and the head teacher’s views who did not perceive professional development

interactive strategies as impacting on their knowledge and leadership qualities.

How inspectors and other personnel working for central organizations including NDOE,

TSC and PDOE, conducted themselves in carrying out their responsibilities (professional

ethics) according to the views of participants influenced teachers and the head teachers in

performing their duties. The conduct of these personnel, including inspectors, reflected

existing cultures within concerned organizations which were not conducive to changes and

current development in the education system. At the same time, the question of professional

ethics of teachers, the head teacher and inspectors could be attributed to the quality of

teacher training and development they have had over the years.

In summary, quality assurance interactive strategies related directly to teacher compliance,


professional ethics. Professional development interactive strategies arguably impacted

directly on teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership and teacher

professional development. Professional ethics of inspectors impacted directly on

professional ethics of teachers and the head teacher.

4.5 Case Study 3: Findings of Provincial Inspectorate and Urban

Government School

Eastern Highlands Province (EHP) was selected for this study to represent the provinces in

the Highlands Region of the country. The other provinces that make up the Highlands

Region are Simbu, Western Highlands, Enga and Southern Highlands Provinces. Nokondi


203

Primary School, the school selected for this study, is located in the outskirt of Goroka, the

provincial centre of the province and was selected to represent urban and government agency

schools.


EHP is located on the mainland of PNG. It has a current population of 432 972 who speak

over many languages representing the many tribes of the province. The people of EHP live

on staple food including sweet potato, vegetables and a variety of fruits cultivated in fertile

gardens. The main cash crop of the province is coffee which the province contributes to the

country’s economy.

EHP is divided into 8 districts; Daulo, Goroka, Henganofi, Kainantu, Lufa, Obura-

Wonenara, Okapa and Unggai-Bena districts. Geographically the province has very rugged

mountains and is highly populated with most people living in the remote parts of the

province. The provincial center is Goroka, a town with a population of 25 000. Like all

other provinces most areas and districts are still developing in terms of infrastructure making

it difficult for progress to be made in the provision of social services, including education.


operating in the province is 229 with 70 primary schools and 159 community schools. There

are over 1 500 teaching positions in primary and community schools with 1 457 teachers on

strength of which 1 079 are males and 378 are females, representing 74% and 26% females

respectively. The number of students enrolled in primary and community schools is 54 157

with 31 562 males and 22 595 females representing 58% and 42% male to female

respectively (Sources: Senior Inspector’s Quarter Newsletters; 2003 Education Statistics of

PNG).

Students attending Nokondi Primary School lived in villages around and within Goroka.

Most of the students come from working parents who are employed in the province.

Nokondi Primary School is a level 8 school with a staff ceiling of thirty-six teachers, eight

(22%) of whom are males and twenty-eight (78%) are females. The teachers come from all

parts of PNG. Only ten teachers resided in the school while the rest resided in and around

Goroka due to lack of housing for teachers. The school enrolled a total of 1 270 students in

grades 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. Of the 1 270 students 689 (54%) are males and 586 (46%) are

females (Sources: School Records).


204

There are eleven inspector positions for the province of which six were occupied, including

the SPSI position, and five were vacant. The inspector responsible for Nokondi Primary

School is based in Goroka.


The participants of Case Study 3, EHP, were made up of six teachers, the head teacher, the

teacher focus group of Nokondi Primary School and three primary school inspectors. The

teacher focus group was made up of teachers who had not been inspected during the last

three years. Three inspectors who participated in the research project represented 50% of the

provincial inspectors. Table 4.23 shows the demographic information about the participants.

The interviewed teachers for Case Study 3 consisted of a base level teacher and five senior

teachers. These six teachers represented 16.7% of teachers in the school with three females

(50%) and three males (50%). The teaching experiences of the teachers varied from eleven

to twenty-nine years. Their teaching experiences at this school varied from five to sixteen

years. With qualifications, five had Diploma in Primary Teaching, representing 83%, and

one had a Certificate in Primary Teaching, representing 17%. The teachers come from all

parts of PNG with ages varying from twenty-eight to forty-six years old. These teachers’

views represented the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of experienced teachers in

government urban schools who had interacted with inspectors.

The focus group was made up of 4 base level teachers and all were females. The teaching

experiences of members of the focus group varied from five to twenty-five years and all had

Diploma in Primary Teaching qualifications. At this school, their teaching experiences

varied from one to seven years. The ages of the members of the focus group varied from

twenty-three to forty-five years old. The focus group is made up 11% of the teaching staff,

and together with interviewed teachers and the head teacher, all participants made up 30.6%

of the teaching staff of the school. The views of the focus group represented the views of the

experienced base level teachers.


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Table 4.23: Demographic Characteristics of Participants for Case Study 3

Volunteer Participants

Sex Age Qualifications/Position in School Teaching/Inspector Experience % of Teachers or Inspectors in School or Inspectorate

EVT 1* Female 29 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


Teacher participants:16.7% of teachers of the school Total (+HT): 19.4% of teachers of the school

EVT 2* Male 28 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


EVT 3* Male 46 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


EVT 4* Male 37 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


EVT 5* Female 46 • Bachelor in Education (In-service) • Teacher


EVT 6* Female 46 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher

• 29 years • 16 years

EHT 1* Male 64 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Head Teacher

• 39 years • 33 years head teacher • 7 years at this school

EFG 1 A Female 45 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Teacher


Focus group: 11% of teachers of the school Total (FG+T+HT): 30.6% of teachers of the school

EFG 1 B Female 45 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Teacher


EFG 1 C Female 27 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Teacher


EFG 1 D Female 23 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Teacher

• 5 years • 2years at this school


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Sex Age Qualifications/Position in School Teaching/Inspector Experience % of Teachers or Inspectors in School or Inspectorate

EVI 1* Male 41 • Bachelor of Education (In-service) • Inspector

• 6 years teaching • 9 years Inspector • 1 year in present post

Inspector participants: 50% of inspectors of the inspectorate

EVI 2* Male 37 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Inspector

• 19 years teaching • 4 years inspector • 2 years current post

EVI 3* Male 41 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Inspector


Key:

(*) - Interviewed participants EVT – Volunteer teacher EHT – Volunteer head teacher EVI – Volunteer Inspector EFG – Focus group


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The head teacher was in his thirty-third year of head teacher experience with a total of thirty-

nine years teaching experience. This was his seventh year as the head teacher of this large

urban school. He comes from a different province and is sixty-four years old. The views of

this head teacher represented the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of experienced head

teachers in government urban schools.

The three inspectors come from different provinces with inspector experiences varied from

four to thirteen years. They had been promoted from head teacher positions with teaching

and head teacher experiences that varied from six to nineteen years. While two inspectors

had been in this provincial inspectorate for over two years, the third was only in his first

year. One inspector had a Certificate in Primary Teaching; one had a Diploma in Primary

Teaching while the other had a Bachelor of Education (In-service) Degree. The ages of the

inspectors varied from thirty-seven to forty-one years old. They represented 50% of the total

number of inspectors currently working in the province. The views of these inspectors

represented the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of inspectors in the province as well as

those in other provinces. Table 4.24 indicates the demographic responsibilities for the

inspectors in their respective inspectorates. This includes the number of schools, the number

of teachers and the number of students that each concerned inspectors was responsible for

and the ratios that applied to each responsibility load.






Ratio

EVI 1 1 45 1:45 333 1:333 8 511 1:8 511 EVI 2 2 38 1:38 501 1:501 7 023 1:7 023 EVI 3 6 31 1:31 176 1:176 10 000 1:10 000 Average 3 38 1:38 333 1:333 8 511 1:8 511

Inspectors were allocated responsibilities by the SPSI at the approval of the Superintendent –

Primary Inspection based at NDOE. For this provincial inspectorate, the inspectors’

responsibility load ratios for the schools were 1:45, 1:38 and 1:31, for the teachers were

1:333, 1:501 and 1:176, and for the students were 1:8 511, 1:7 023, 1:10 000 respectively.

For the three inspectors the ratios of responsibility loads varied greatly, and on average,

inspector to schools ratio was 1:38, inspector to teachers was 1:333 and inspector to students

was 1:8 511. There was lack of policy that dictated the responsibility load of inspectors

resulting with heavy responsibility loads for some inspectors while others had light


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responsibility loads. Because of this, inspectors were either overworked and had little or no

time for all teachers and schools in their inspectorates.

4.5.3 Preamble to the findings of Case Study 3

The findings for Case Study 3 are discussed and used to consolidate the findings of Case

Studies 1 and 2. This is necessary to avoid repetition of common issues and disclosures.

Where appropriate, references are made accordingly.

4.5.4 Perceptions of teachers, head teacher and inspectors: Inspectorial interactive

strategies

In response to questions related to how the inspectors operated in schools, according to

participants, the interactive strategies emerged into three main categories; quality assurance,

professional development and professional ethics of inspectors. These categories emerged

from the data through the process of clustering and were consistent with the findings of Case

Studies 1 and 2. Tables 4.25 to 4.27 illustrate the processes of establishing the inspectorial

interactive strategies that originated from the transcripts and document analysis.


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Teachers • Inspectors inform teachers and monitor implementation of educational policies. • Inspectors check on curriculum requirements. • Inspectors monitor student welfare. • Inspectors monitor head teacher leadership. • Inspectors check on the management and responsibilities to enhance the provision of quality education. • Other activities as in Table 4.6. Head teacher • Inspectors inspect head teacher for promotion. • Inspectors receive and compile reports about the schools for authorities. • Supervision for accountability to ensure resources is used for children’s education. • Inspectors identify the strengths in head teachers’ performances and appraise them. • Other activities as in Table 4.6. Teacher Focus group • Inspectors inspect teachers for registration. Inspectors • Inspectors inform teachers and monitor implementation of educational policies. • Inspectors use management and operational plans to carry out their responsibilities. • Inspectors receive and compile reports about the schools for authorities. • Inspectors appraise and evaluate teachers’ and head teachers’ performances for promotion. • Inspectors supervise for quality control and assurance through monitoring and advising teachers on

teaching standards, curriculum requirements and organized records. • Inspectors inform teachers and monitor implementation of educational policies. • Nationally and provincially delegated duties are performed by inspectors. • Inspectors ensure physical learning environment exists in schools. • Supervision for accountability to ensure resources is used for children’s education.

• Monitoring teaching standards and curriculum

requirements • Teacher appraisal, assessment & evaluation

are carried out by inspectors. • Quality control & assurance is carried out

through the monitoring of policies & reporting to authorities.

• Supervision for accountability to ensure resources is used for children’s education.

Quality assurance


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Teachers • Inspectors assist teachers in their professional development. • Other activities as in Table 4.6. Head teacher • Inspectors check on the management and responsibilities to enhance professional

development of teachers. • Head teacher and teacher professional development is enhanced when in-service and

training are pursued by inspectors. Focus group - No comments Inspectors • Inspectors supervise for professional development through advisory and training roles. • Teacher professional development being pursued by inspectors. • Inspectors’ direct involvement with teacher and head teacher professional

development. • Other activities as in Table 4.6.

• Inspectors assist teachers & head teachers in their

professional development. • Supervision for professional development through advisory

& training roles performed by inspectors.



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Teachers Operational issues • Lack of resources affecting inspectors’ visits to schools and teachers. • Inspectors monitor conduct of teachers. • There is lack of documentation relating to the operation of the inspectorial system from the inspector or

the province. • There is lack of documentation relating to teacher professionalism from the inspector and the province. Professional issues • Inspector professional ethics being questioned and is having adverse impacts on teachers. • Inspectors’ roles are valued by teachers. • Inspector employment conditions are affecting inspectors in their work. • Working cultures in NDOE & PDOE are disadvantaging inspectors from doing their work effectively. • There is inadequate time to assist teachers. • Teacher performance decline when not inspected. • Lack of organization plans by NDOE to cater for the increasing number of teachers. • Lack of support and negligence by NDOE and PDOE to facilitate inspectors’ work in the schools. Head teacher Operational issues • There is lack of documentation relating to the operation of the inspectorial system from the inspector or

the province. • There is lack of documentation relating to teacher professionalism from the inspector and the province. • Lack of planning and organization by inspector to carry out his work. • There is no support from provincial authorities for proper offices for the inspectors to work in and this is

affecting their status and their work in assisting teachers. • Selection and appointment of inspectors from head teacher candidates are being questioned.

• Lack of planning and organization by

inspector to carry out his work. • Inspectors’ integrity being questioned and is

having adverse impacts on teachers. • Lack of commitment by inspectors to visit

schools and help teachers. • Lack of resources affecting inspectors’ work. • Lack of confidence in the processes and

outcomes of the inspection roles performed by inspectors.

• Selection and appointment of inspectors from head teacher candidates is being questioned.

• Lack of support from employing agency and other stakeholders for inspector to carry out their work.

• Lack of knowledge and skills for inspectors to perform their responsibilities.

• Inspectors’ roles are valued. • Inspector contributes to children’s education. • Lack of clear focus in inspectors’ roles due to

lack of visits to teachers and clarity on inspectors’ responsibilities.



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Professional issues • Inspector honesty is valued when dealing with teachers’ problems. • Lack of cooperation between stakeholders makes it hard for inspectors to perform their duties. • Inspector professional ethics being questioned and is having adverse impacts on teachers. • Lack of confidence, protocol and respect for head teachers does not help with inspector performing their

work. • Lack of confidence in the processes and outcomes of the inspection roles performed by inspectors. • Current organizational cultures are affecting inspectors’ work in schools. • Lack of clear focus in inspectors’ roles due to lack of visits to teachers and clarity on inspectors’

responsibilities. • Advisory visits have no specific purposes. Teacher Focus group Operational issues • Lack of commitment by inspectors in assisting teachers through lack of visits to schools. • Lack of support and negligence by NDOE and PDOE to facilitate inspectors’ work in the schools. • Teachers being forced to implement policies without being trained on aspects of concerned policies. Professional issues • Inspectors’ integrity being questioned and is having adverse impacts on teachers. • Lack of information on educational policies makes the work of inspectors difficult. Inspectors Operational issues • Lack of resources affecting inspectors’ visits to schools and teachers. • There is lack of documentation relating to the operation of the inspectorial system from the inspector or

the province. • There is lack of documentation relating to teacher professionalism from the inspector and the province. • Inspectors are overloaded with work as per inspector-teacher ratio. • Lack of planning and organization by inspector to carry out his work.

(As above)

(As above)


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• Inspectors use other means to accomplish their operational plans when logistics and support are unavailable.

Professional issues • Lack of cooperation between stakeholders makes it hard for inspectors to perform their duties. • The inspector’s roles are challenging. • Inspectors’ roles are valued by teachers and head teachers. • Duplication of responsibilities done by senior teachers, head teachers and inspectors in supervising

teachers in schools. • Inspectors’ integrity and work ethics being questioned and is having adverse impacts on teachers. • Provincial authorities undermining the roles of inspectors and not working well with inspectors as a result

of adverse attitudes towards inspectors because they are performing national functions. • Inspector respect for head teachers is encouraged through protocols. • Inspector qualifications and professional development are neglected and are affected their work. • Inspectors provide good leadership to teachers and head teachers. • Lack of networking between stakeholders, inspectors, head teachers and teachers to address educational

issues. • Policies are developed in isolation and this affects inspectors, head teachers and teachers when it comes

to implementation.

(As above)

(As above)


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Synthesis of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers, Head Teacher

and Inspectors

While specific activities of the quality assurance and professional development interactive

strategies were common in all three case studies so far, the specific issues related to the

professional ethics of inspectors were further consolidated by the participants of this Case

Study. For this reason, only the factors related to the professional ethics of inspectors are

discussed here. These factors included a lack of documentation and information on the

specific roles of inspectors and other educational issues that contributed to how teachers and

the head teacher viewed the work of the inspectors. This teacher summed up the

participants’ concerns:

“Some of these documents, to be honest, I have not read them. Most of the time

the inspectors talk to us about the Teaching Service Act and not documents

about their responsibilities and what is required of me. But to be able to get a

better view of what I ought to know or what we all should know, such

documents should remain with us, especially documents which relate to general

issues about the education system and what is expected and required of me.”

(EVT 4)

Teachers also expressed concern over the employment and working conditions of inspectors

as contributing to inspectors’ lack of commitment to perform their responsibilities reliably:

“I like the work of the inspector. But on the other end he is disadvantaged also.

The inspector cannot perform his duty unless he or she has the support in terms

of housing and transport. They do not have the money to make their work more

effective.” (EVT 4)

The head teacher complaint that a lack of planning and organization by the inspectors in

carrying out their work, including a lack of focus in advisory visits and the heavy workload,

were major issues that contributed to the adverse professional ethics of inspectors. He

conferred:

“I know of some inspectors who have stayed in the province and have become

inspectors. When they come to the school, some times they pretend in their

offices. They use notices and other documents I’ve created in other schools. I


215

indirectly catch them doing this. This shows they’ve learnt some things from me

but they don’t mention it to me.” (EVH 1)

“I’d like to support the inspectors and I’d like to state that the National

Department of Education or Standards Division should try to look into and

screen their work because the ratio of inspectors to teachers is such that the

number of teaching officers is more than one person can handle. The other

includes the number of schools in a district. There are so many schools the

inspector (has) to cover in one year. They need to cut down the ratio in these

two areas. In addition, they need to put an officer as a site leader to help and

ease the workload of the inspectors.” (EVH 1)

The issue concerning the heavy workload of inspectors was also confirmed by this inspector

with suggestions made for improvement:

“I believe that advisory visits, supervisory visits and the inspection are too

much for an inspector. When we are looking at the inspector-teacher ratio and

the distances where the schools are located, the inspector doing too much. I

suggest that these are broken into certain areas of responsibilities and are

given to the school personnel and are specified for them to perform. For

example head teachers and the inspector would only work on the administrative

areas, that is, ......... The professional areas, like supervisory and advisory and

so forth, are given to the schools to work on at the school level. I think this will

be good.” (EVI 1)

At the same time inspectors expressed concern that they were duplicating the supervisory

responsibilities of the school based supervisors as stressed by this inspector:

“One other thing is that the head teacher is also carrying out advisory and

supervisory work and that is to make sure that his presence is felt by the

teachers. He pays visits, attends meetings and writes reports on teachers at the

end of each term so he or she has a lot of work to do. Therefore I spend time

with him advising him and talking to him on how we can work together and

make sure the results are good at the end of the year.” (EVI 1)

Thus the inspectorial interactive strategies identified from the experiences, beliefs and

perceptions of teachers, the head teacher and inspectors of Case Study 3 were quality


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assurance interactive strategies, professional development interactive strategies and

professional ethics of inspectors.

4.5.5 Perceptions of teachers, head teacher and inspectors on the dimensions of teacher

professionalism

In response to the questions of how teachers, the head teacher and inspectors perceived

teacher professionalism, the results thematically derived from the analysis were that teacher

professionalism consisted of the dimensions of teacher compliance, teacher knowledge,

teacher leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics. These

results were similar to the findings for Case Studies 1 and 2, with some varying views.

Tables 4.28 to 4.32 summarize the views of the participants on the dimensions of teacher

professionalism derived from using grounded analysis approaches.


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Teachers • Teacher qualifications. • Teacher performing responsibilities as delegated and as policy requires. • Teacher responsibilities including administrative and professional duties as per duty statements. • Being a teacher involves teaching, planning and programming (teacher performance). • Teacher performance relates to teacher competence and productivity. Head teacher • Teacher performance relates to all aspects of head teachers’ and teachers’ work. Teacher focus group • The current status with and integrity of the teaching profession is questionable due to

differences performances. Inspectors • Teacher having been educated as a professional. • Teacher accountability relates to teachers being accountable to children’s learning and other

responsibilities. • Teacher performance relates to all aspects of head teachers’ and teachers’ work. • Changes, including curriculum reform, are creating confusions amongst teachers.

• Teacher performance relates to teaching and

performing other duties. • Teacher organization relates to planning and

organizing teacher records and files. • Teacher as agent of change. • Teacher accountability relates to teachers being

accountable to children learning and other responsibilities.

• Teacher as an implementer of educational policies.

Teacher compliance


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Teachers • Teacher qualifications. Head teacher • Teacher qualifications. Teacher focus group • The current status with and integrity of the teaching profession is questionable due to

differences in qualifications. • Teacher knowledge. Inspectors • Teacher having been educated as a professional. • Teacher competence and knowledge relate to teaching competence and curriculum knowledge.

• Teacher qualifications. • Teacher knowledge. • Teacher competence. • Teacher having been educated as a professional.

Teacher knowledge




Teachers • Teacher leadership. • Head teacher and teacher experience and responsibility for teachers and students. • Supervision and professional development of subordinates. Head teacher : No comments Teacher Focus group : No comments Inspectors • Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher taking a lead in aspects of work in school. • Head teacher as a role model.

• Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher

taking a lead in aspects of school operation. • Teacher leadership is providing for supervision and

professional development of subordinates. • Teacher leadership is taking responsibility for teachers

and students. • Head teacher as a role model.

Teacher leadership


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Teachers • Professional development activities for teacher professional development. • Teacher continuous learning or pursues professional development. Head teacher • Professionals who are continually in-serviced and trained in aspects of their teaching career. Teacher focus group • Teacher professional development. Inspectors • Teachers of today are changing and improving with new ideas. • Teacher professional development as a continuing phenomenal in teaching. • There is need for focus and systematic professional development programs for teachers.

• Teacher professional development as a continuing

phenomenal in teaching. • Supervision for professional development.



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Teachers • Teacher ethics or ethical values including professional conduct. • Teachers valuing student education. • A teacher being “someone who is also a parent”. • Teacher as a role model. • Teacher cooperation and cohesiveness. • Teacher integrity including honest, commitment and dedication. • Teachers live and work in difficult situations in PNG primary schools. Head teacher • Teacher positive image in the community. • Teachers valuing children’s education. • Teachers respecting each other. Teacher focus group • Teacher commitment. Inspectors • Head teacher and teacher commitment and dedication. • Head teacher as a role model. • Teacher professional relationships with others. • Teacher ethics and ethical values.

• Teacher ethics or ethical values including honesty,

respect, commitment, obedience and dedication. • Teacher professional relationships with others. • Teacher positive image in the community. • Teacher cooperation and cohesiveness. • Teacher valuing children’s education. • Teachers as role models.



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Teacher Professionalism: Views of Teachers

The interviewed teachers perceived teacher professionalism as having the five dimensions,

that of teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional

development and teacher professional ethics. Members of the teacher focus group, who

occupied base level positions and had not been visited and inspected by inspectors for the

last three years, recognized the dimensions of teacher professionalism as teacher compliance,

teacher knowledge, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics.

Teacher leadership was insignificant to base level teachers.

There were varying views concerning teacher compliance, teacher professional development

and teacher professional ethics. With teacher compliance, teachers considered qualifications

as basic requirements that teachers had to have. With teacher professional development,

upgrading teacher qualifications was necessary while teacher professional ethics concerned

commitment to the teaching profession. As these teachers implied about these three

dimensions:

“Every individual teacher must have proper qualification. But this will require

planning. A teacher in PNG must plan a lot and must have appropriate

qualifications as a teacher to achieve goals, aims and objectives of the school.”

(EVT 3)

“The characteristic of a teacher is, simplify (simply), a profession to teach or

transmit the subject knowledge so that the students acquire what they suppose

to learn. The other thing is the qualifications of teachers. This is the strength

of teachers that enables them to help anybody like children and other outsiders

who come for help and they can be helped and managed to deal with their

learning or solving problems.” (EVT 5)

Concerning teacher leadership, teachers (with the exception of members of the focus group)

regarded teacher leadership as teachers performing supervisory and professional

development roles in the schools. The teachers also considered teacher professional ethics

as intrinsically related to teacher leadership as expressed clearly by these teachers:

“As being a teacher, I must be a role model, an example to the school children

in the form of dressing, behavior and attitude. The teacher should be a

communicator and a leader.” (EVT 3)


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“Being a teacher, what I value is the commitment I have for my work, being

punctual with my tasks, being attentive, being co-operative and I have to be a

guide, a director and a leader.” (EVT 5)

Teacher Professionalism: Views of Head Teacher

The head teacher perceived teacher professionalism as having the dimensions of teacher

compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher professional development and teacher professional

ethics. While this perception was shared by head teachers of Case Studies 1 and 2, teacher

leadership was recognized by the head teacher as insignificant to the teaching profession.

This may be attributed to the thirty-three years of head teacher experience resulting with the

assumption that his responsibilities had become ‘norms’.

Examples of the head teacher’s views on teacher compliance concerning pedagogy and

qualifications:

“As a teacher and head teacher, my priority is for the students to earn a better

education. And my teachers must get important things like better educational

materials to teach. These are two of my priorities so that the teachers are well

equipped to give good lessons to the students. Thus, I prioritize mainly on

teaching materials and the students as teacher professionalism.” (EVH 1)

“By upgrading my qualification, I am also meeting the requirements of

whatever level I’m occupying in the school. All teachers should upgrade their

qualifications. So in this way, whatever I say there is respect. I am lucky in this

school because most of my teachers have diploma and degrees and only two

have certificates in teaching.” (EVH 1)

An example of the head teacher’s view on teacher knowledge and how this was problematic

in schools:

“Ok, for example, in this reform system, they are pushing us around and most of

my teachers, even throughout the country or nationwide, are finding it difficult

to implement changes. The head teachers must know these changes and be

given time to go and look through the content (curriculum). And when we return

to our individual schools, we’ll be in a better position to implement them and it


223

will work. But now they are throwing things at us without induction courses

and many schools are lacking this, unlike us in town. Because we have been

addressing this, we are all right in that we are aware and are knowledgeable in

what is happening. But most schools now only know of the old system

(curriculum). That is why, the main thing to be considered is that the head

teachers must attend courses to understand the contents (curriculum), know

exactly what they can do so that when they return they are okay. They are not

doing this to us and only throwing things at us which make us work extra

hard.” (EVH 1)

An example of the head teacher’s view on teacher professional development as an intrinsic

factor:

“Teacher professionalism, my view is that there are two aspects; (1) is

concerned with Professional Development in that I must make an effort to cop

with the changes in the Department of Education, especially in the curriculum

areas; and (2) I must, at the same time, upgrade my qualification.” (EVH 1)

An example of the head teacher’s view on teacher professional ethics as relating to valuing

the teaching profession and having respect from the community:

“Yes, I value the work of a teacher and the first thing I’d like to comment on is

that I’m very proud of being one. My thoughts in being a teacher are that, when

I teach, I am also educating myself. The children come form various

environments, so when they answer questions differently from my answers I try

to learn from their answers instead of being angry if they give different answers

to mine. And then, as a professional team, we teachers meet and discuss areas

of our professional interest, which I learn a lot from as well as the other

teachers. This makes me very proud. And secondly, the communities respect us

because we give this knowledge to the children. They also look at how we

behave and whether we are working or not. When they express their views to

me, I feel very proud and accept it.” (EVH 1)

Teacher Professionalism: Views of Inspectors

The inspectors perceived teacher professionalism as having five dimensions, that of teacher

compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional development and


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teacher professional ethics. This realization was consistent with the views of the inspectors

of Case Studies 1 and 2.

An example of inspectors’ views on teacher compliance and teacher knowledge relating to

qualifications as basic requirements that teachers had to comply with:

“Basically a teacher must be trained in a recognized institution including

Teachers’ Colleges in Papua New Guinea and must know the content of the

curriculum and know how to implement or translate the curriculum and

implement, asses and report. Those are the expected characteristics of a

teacher. In terms of a head teacher he must have teaching experience and

recognition that he can perform duties as a head teacher knowing the

curriculum management, including planning, management and controlling and

reporting, especially managing the whole organization of the school. So those

are the characteristics of a head teacher.” (EVI 1)

An example of inspectors’ view on teacher leadership as having formal leadership

responsibilities for teachers and students:

“With head teachers I value them as very important site leaders, very important

people. They make it happen or they might not make it happen. They direct,

they assist, they plan, they motivate, they encourage and then the teachers

follow what they are doing. ……..” (EVI 2)

An example of inspectors’ view on teacher professional development:

“And on the professional development that is knowing the job well, able to lead

others and train other officers and at the same time the children are well taught

and the results at the end are good.” (EVI 1)

An example of inspectors’ view on teacher professional ethics:

“A teacher is someone who teaches others about good things and ways. We

teach but actually practicing what we teach is a question. For example, we

teach others about not smoking but during recess and lunch times we see

teachers smoking. So teaching must go with practice, ethics and our attitude

too then we are truly professional teachers. We teach one thing and do the


225

other thing that does not match up so my role is to try to help teachers that they

must match up. What you preach you must practice.” (EVI 2)


Similar to the views of the participants of Case Studies 1 and 2, the five emerged dimensions

of teacher professionalism perceived were teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher

leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics. Though the

results were similar, there were some varying degrees of experiences, beliefs and

perceptions.

For example, in addition to the views of teachers in Case Studies 1 and 2, teachers, the head

teacher and inspectors in this case perceived teacher compliance as related to having

appropriate qualifications and being educated as professionals. These were significant

factors for teachers to comply with in order to be members of the teaching profession.

Teacher knowledge, as an emerged dimension of teacher professionalism, was important to

the teaching profession, according to all participants in this study. Teachers, the head

teacher and inspectors advocated that teachers had to be competent and knowledgeable in

their field of expertise before they become teachers. The head teacher emphasized that

teacher knowledge also concerned teachers upgrading their qualifications consistent with

changes in curriculum and pedagogical issues, and that this had to be concurrently addressed

through strategic and focused professional development programs.

Teachers (most of whom were senior teachers) and inspectors recognized teacher leadership

as having to perform responsibilities through formal leadership roles. Teacher leadership

regarded teachers and the head teacher as role models. It included supervisory and

professional development roles that teachers and the head teacher carried out in the school.

The inspectors valued and respected teachers and the head teacher, who performed

leadership roles and considered them as important to the school. Such perceptions however,

were not shared by the focus group members who were base level teachers and who had no

formal leadership roles. The head teacher also did not share such perception and this could

be attributed to his many years of head teacher experiences where leadership responsibilities

had become a ‘norm’ for him. Teacher leadership therefore, was perceived as a dimension

of teacher professionalism for those teachers who occupied formal leadership positions in the

school.


226

All participants disclosed that teacher professional development was a necessity for all

teachers and the head teacher. Teacher professional development involved continuous

learning that had to be consistent with changes concerning aspects of the teaching

profession. It included teachers and the head teacher upgrading their qualifications. While

inspectors argued that teachers of today had to change and improve with new ideas, teacher

professional development had to be focused, systematic and had to have tangible outcomes.

Teacher professional ethics emerged to be a contentious issue for the teaching profession. It

related to how teachers behaved and conducted themselves in schools and the type of image

they portrayed in the community. Teachers perceived teacher professional ethics as being

cooperative with each other to provide a cohesive learning environment in the school.

Teacher professional ethics was concerned with teachers valuing children learning as a

priority. While the head teacher shared these perceptions he revealed that teacher

professional ethics was enhanced when teachers respected each other, the authorities and

other stakeholders. Inspectors conferred teacher professional ethics as teachers having

professional relationships with each other and with other professionals in order to foster

‘networking’ in the teaching profession. Teacher professional ethics was also enhanced

when teachers and the head teacher became role models for colleagues and students, when

teachers practiced what they teach and when teachers valued themselves as teachers.

Though various perceptions existed, the findings for this case revealed the five dimensions

of teacher professionalism as teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership,

teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics. This was consistent with

the findings for Case Studies 1 and 2.

4.5.6 Perceived Linkages between the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies and the

Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism

As previously done with Case Studies 1 and 2, the linkages from the emerged themes for

each type of participant were compared for similarities and differences. This was done to

produce a cross-participants analysis for the case. To do this, teachers and the head teacher

were asked about the activities that the inspectors carried out with them and whether these

activities influenced them. The inspectors were asked to confirm whether the intended

outcomes for the activities they did with teachers and head teachers were achieved.

Importantly the participants were asked to identify the linkages they believed existed

between the inspectorial interactive strategies and what they perceived as the dimensions of


227

teacher professionalism. The findings discussed below for this Case Study make references

to the findings of Case Studies 1 and 2 where appropriate to avoid repetition.

Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Teachers


knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional

ethics; professional development interactive strategies to teacher professional development;

and professional ethics of inspectors to teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.9 shows these

linkages.




Teacher knowledge

Teacher leadership



The teachers revealed that quality assurance interactive strategies influenced them in

complying with the expected requirements of their responsibilities, provided them with new

knowledge, gave them the opportunity to be promoted as formal leaders, assisted them in

their professional development and enhanced their professional ethics. While teachers

revealed that quality assurance interactive strategies impacted directly on all five dimensions

of teacher professionalism, they admitted that professional development interactive strategies

played an important part in their professional development. With professional ethics,

teachers experienced this to have influenced them on how they (teachers) also behaved and

conducted themselves in carrying out responsibilities. This implies that professional ethics

of inspectors directly influenced teachers in their attitudes and commitment to the teaching

profession. Teachers made similar observations to teachers of Case Studies 1 and 2 with the

common linkages. However, the significant differences were that teachers of Case Study 3

extended quality assurance activities as relating to teacher professional development and

teacher professional ethics. Examples of such experiences and beliefs were given by

teachers:

“When the inspector came to inspect me, he was checking whether I am

committed to my work and whether my performance is having an impact on the


228

students. And the inspectors also assess whether teachers are addressing their

needs for professional development or not.” (EVT 1)

“The inspector looks at the areas where advice are provided for personal and

professional development such as in-service on areas to do with the education

reform. Others are part of checking the requirements of teaching including

teaching the correct syllabus that meet that requirement of the National

Department of Education. There is a connection of learning also between the

teacher and the inspector. If the teachers find it difficult to teach the students,

the inspectors can help. If there are no inspectors, the result won't be known. If

there is advice from an inspector then the relationship between him and the

teacher will be good. It is the Inspector that plays an important role in the work

of the teacher.” (EVT 3)

An example of quality assurance activities relating to teacher professional ethics:

“I believe there is honest relationship I have when interacting with the

inspectors’ roles. The inspectors make advisory on my work that really help me

with my loyalty to teaching. I am also committed to the requirements and

expectations of my work. I have to meet those requirements and expectations

such as programming and assessment that help me in my work and in my job as

a teacher. I have a feeling of being committed to my work as a teacher. The

supervision carried out on these requirements including inspection on me

makes (me) being honest in my work. It has also given me guidance to perform

in all areas of my profession.” (EVT 2)

This teacher summed up activities inspectors performed and how these related to all the five

dimensions of the teacher professionalism:

“I feel that when the Inspectors come around, their presence boosts me to get

help from them and the good things that help me in my weaknesses, including

the requirements of the Department of Education to improve on my professional

development. My professional development, together with my teacher

qualification and teacher leadership, helps to lead others. The improvements

help me to pass on the knowledge to my students as a major requirement. The

inspector helps and advises me to do what is required by the Department of

Education so that I can be a multi-grade teacher or I can be a teacher with


229

good leadership qualities. I can be a teacher who reflects the qualities of my

profession so I must show I’ve got the knowledge, skills and attitudes.” (EVT 5)

Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Focus Group

The teacher focus group related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher

compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher professional development and teacher professional

ethics; professional development interactive strategies to teacher compliance, teacher

knowledge and teacher professional development; and professional ethics of inspectors to

teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.10 shows the linkages.

Figure 4.10: Teacher Focus Group Perception of Linkages



Teacher knowledge



The focus group, which was made up of base level teachers and all having Diploma in

Primary Teaching, related quality assurance interactive strategies as influencing them to

comply with the requirements of the teaching profession, developed new knowledge,

developed professionally and ensured they conducted themselves ethically in carrying out

responsibilities. These were broader and complex perceptions of the impact of quality

assurance activities on teacher professionalism, which included teacher knowledge,

compared to the perceptions of the teachers of Case Studies 1 and 2. A member of the focus

group identified this linkage:

“When the inspectors come to inspect me, they check how much knowledge I

have. They helped me to improve in areas where I lack knowledge in. I must be

able to pass on the best knowledge to the students. The inspectors help me in

this”. (EFG 1)

With the professional development interactive strategies members of the focus group

indicated that such strategies impacted on their professional development and influenced

them in complying with requirements of the teaching profession. The activities ensured new

knowledge was gained concerning changes in the curriculum and in other pedagogical

issues. Teachers in the focus group also indicated that how inspectors managed, planned,


230

organized and implemented the professional development activities (professional ethics of

inspectors) impacted directly on how they (teachers) conducted themselves and how they

managed, planned and carried out their responsibilities. An example of observations of the

professional development activities directly related to teacher compliance, teacher

knowledge and teacher professional development was stated by this member of the focus

group:

“I agree with (teacher named). Yes, one thing is that the inspectors usually

come and observe us and for me especially, I see that I must have competencies

to qualify myself professionally and they help me to gain more skills and

knowledge to impart to the students. This is what the inspectors expect from us.

And depending on how I develop myself, I would be able to teach the students

better.” (EFG 1)

The issue of professional ethics of inspectors and teachers was of a reciprocal nature and

questioned the status of both professions. The same concerns were expressed by members of

the focus group in Case Studies 1 and 2 as conferred by these members:

“Personally, I think there is no co-operation amongst them (inspectors and

PDOE officers). We are subjected to mistreatments and this we ask for the

inspector to look into when he comes here. I found out myself. I don’t see any

good working relationships amongst them.” (EFG 1)

“I agree on those comments. The other issue is there is no support for the

inspectors in providing transport to visit schools to see the teachers. This is a

big failure where the Department of Education must look into. (A) Lack of visits

to schools affects teacher professionalism.” (EFG 1)

Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Head Teacher

The head teacher related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher compliance,


professional ethics; professional development interactive strategies to teacher professional

development; and professional ethics of inspectors to teacher professional ethics. These

linkages were similar to the findings of the teachers of this case study and Case 2 study 2,

and the inspectors of Case Study 2. Figure 4.11 illustrates these linkages.


231

Figure 4.11: Head Teacher Perception of Linkages



Teacher knowledge

Teacher leadership



The head teacher revealed that quality assurance interactive strategies influenced him to

comply with expected requirements of his responsibilities, provided him with new

knowledge, gave him/her the opportunity to be promoted, assisted him in his professional

development and enhanced her professional ethics. Though the head teacher had not been

inspected recently he had the opportunity to communicate and relate with the inspectors

because of the location of the school. The head teacher expressed his experiences and beliefs

about these linkages by the following comments:

“…….. Firstly with management, as a manager of an institution I appreciate

the inspectors giving me courses. Firstly when they come to assess me, they

look at educational development of teachers and students. As a manager I look

at that because at the same time I am achieving my plans. Second one, that’s

curriculum development of teachers or teacher knowledge on curriculum areas.

That’s on the management of my areas when inspectors come in to my schools.

The third one is professional development, when they come they want to know

whether I am developing my teachers and the students in the professional side

of their areas and also how I carry out the professional development programs

with my teachers. That’s where the qualification comes in, teaching

qualification. With quality knowledge and skills in imparting, especially on

what is to be taught in each subject. And the fourth when they look at my

financial side of management, that also reminds me that they want to know

exactly how I spend my money on educational development of students and also

how I equip teachers with educational materials. And at the same time, they

also have to help with teacher development too, so these are the areas that they

come to help with. When they make comments, I also thank them because at the

same time I am achieving my internal plans for the development side of the

school.” (EVH 1)


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The head teacher experienced that professional development interactive strategies played an

important part in his and other teachers’ professional development. This comment

illustrated this experience:

“I see that the inspectors should also do the curriculum advisors’ work because

they are the first people to introduce the curriculum into the schools in their

districts by conducting courses on what is directed to us. This is also a big

challenge the inspector must be ready to undertake. When we efficiently

implement these in the classroom situation, we earn good respect, and the

inspector should closely monitor curriculum. In this area, when we will look

upon them for constant advice, we will be okay. And when they don’t do this, we

would lack everything and some schools do not implement new changes to the

curriculum and these are left unattended to. This brings about total failure on

the part of inspectors. The changes I’d like to see would be that they become

more as curriculum advisors.” (EVH 1)

The professional ethics of inspectors directly influenced the head teacher in his behavior,

attitudes and commitment to the teaching profession, particularly as a leader. He said

“Concerning this, I see that the inspectors are disadvantaged as they work in

isolation. There is no cooperation or communication link with doing their

various responsibilities with sections they work with. When they work in

isolation, that’s where some do not gain support, they lack in certain aspects

unlike those who’ve gained support. Their approach becomes negative.

Cooperation is not established. In EHP, this has been lacking and is still is.

Now that we have a new advisor I don’t know if there will be changes that will

be introduced.” (EVH 1)

Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Inspectors

The inspectors related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher compliance, teacher


compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership and teacher professional development;

and professional ethics of inspectors to teacher professional ethics.


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Figure 4.12: Inspector Perception of Linkages



Teacher knowledge

Teacher leadership



The inspectors revealed that quality assurance activities influenced teachers and the head

teacher to comply with the requirements of their duty statements as well as complying with

policies that required attention. They revealed that quality assurance activities directly

related to teacher knowledge, implying that inspectors contributed to enriching teachers with

appropriate knowledge that was required to teach subjects. This means that when inspectors

monitor requirements, teachers were given the opportunities to gain new knowledge about

educational changes. Inspectors also revealed that leadership qualities were enhanced when

inspectors carried out inspections that identified teachers for promotional opportunities.

These perceptions were shared by teachers and the head teacher. These experiences were

illustrated clearly by this inspector’s comments:

“Earlier on we indicated the purposes of quality control (assurance), the

normal supervision and profession development. Thinking along that line and

as to make some connections, especially when a teacher is performing, knowing

his or her job and performing his or her duties well, then it determines him or

her for promotion. That is quality control (assurance) that results with a

promotion, and he or she is able to lead other people basing on what he knows,

and be able to train and facilitate other teachers and also to ensure that he or

she meets the requirements in order to continue to serve effectively as a teacher.

And on the professional development that is knowing the job well, able to lead

others and train other officers and at the same time the children are well taught

and the results at the end are good.” (EVI 1)

With professional development interactive strategies inspectors observed that these were

directly influencing teachers and head teachers in their professional development,

particularly with gaining new knowledge and developing leadership qualities, as well as

complying with requirements of the teaching profession. This is similar to the influences of

the quality assurance interactive strategies (refer to Figure 4.12).


234

An example of professional development activities relating to teacher compliance:

“The activities that we do, I’ll just give one or two. For example two days

ago I had the graduate induction workshop, this workshop look at the

integrity of the department and expected standards that are required of them

as initial starters. After this in-service I told them the things that I am

expecting them to do and I left it open and when I visit the schools again I

make sure that they are implementing what I’ve in-service them on.” (EVI 3)

An example of professional development activities relating to teacher professional

development:

“Most activities help them to grow professionally in their professional career.

Many of them are happy with the activities that I try to do with them including

having staff meetings with them and advisory visits, I see that their professional

growth has improved.” (EVI 2)

An example of professional development activities relating to teacher knowledge and teacher

leadership anticipated by this inspector:

“Specific outcomes that I would like to see at the end of the day from my visits

in the classrooms and in the schools usually, the teachers will become better in

aspects of teaching where they are weak at and students will perform better.

And for head teachers they should be some improvements in his performance as

a team leader in the school, not only through reports and verbal means but also

in practicing and sustaining management and administrative skills.” (EVI 3)

At the same time inspectors admitted that their professional ethics that were caused by lack

of commitment by employer agencies to facilitate their work efficiently and effectively,

amongst other educational, professional and administrative anomalies, impacted on teachers’

and the head teachers’ professional behavior and conduct. This inspector argued

accordingly:

“There are a lot of areas. First, inspector accountability, competence and

professional development are some of the areas that the Department of

Education should be looking at. They are just calling for inspectors to join in


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and attend courses but there must be a vision and a plan by which there could

be specific purposes that could be directed and targeted by higher institutions

towards inspectors’ professional development and growth, and competency. I

feel that this area has not been looked at seriously yet we are giving a lot of

responsibilities to the inspectors without improving our own quality or level of

performance. This I would I say is an immediate issue we should look at. If the

inspector is a team leader, if he is competent and effective in his roles, then he

or she becomes an effective and efficient team leader. Secondly there is need

for drastic improvement in logistical support in terms of transport. If inspectors

can access the schools through the availability of transport I think the standard

of education will drastically improve. For the last 10 years, as far as I have

been an inspector, inspectors have had minimal support from all sectors of

authorities and inspectors have been struggling to maintain education standard

at the school and district levels. I think these are the two main areas that I have

seen that need to be improved, inspector accountability, competency and

professional growth, and logistical support.” (EVI 3)

Synthesis of Views of Linkages

The linkages disclosed by the participants between the inspectorial interactive strategies and

the dimensions of teacher professionalism, varied from simple to complex relationships.

There were common and different linkages identified between the relationships. All

participants believed that quality assurance interactive strategies influenced teachers and the

head teacher to comply with professional, educational and administrative requirements;

provided teachers and the head teacher with new knowledge; and gave teachers and the head

teacher opportunities to be promoted through the inspection processes. However, only

teachers and the head teacher believed that quality assurance activities impacted on their

professional development and professional ethics.

All participants agreed that professional development interactive strategies impacted on

teachers’ and the head teacher’s professional development. However, only the inspectors

believed that professional development interactive strategies influenced teachers and the

head teacher in developing leadership qualities. Inspectors also agreed with the base level

teachers that professional development activities ensured that teachers and the head teacher

gained new knowledge in order to comply with requirements brought about by changes.


236

All participants revealed that professional ethics of inspectors impacted directly on the

professional ethics of teachers and the head teacher. Professional ethics of inspectors also

included experiences by inspectors that affected their work as a result of the factors caused

by the organizations responsible for the inspectorial system and the teaching profession.

These experiences included a lack of logistical support and a lack of professional

development opportunities for inspectors.


The interactive strategies that emerged from the data analysis that inspectors used in

performing their responsibilities with teachers and the head teacher in the school were

quality assurance, professional development and professional ethics of inspectors. Quality

assurance and professional development interactive strategies are obvious strategies carried

out by inspectors through planned and organized activities. Professional ethics of inspectors

emerged as inspectorial interactive strategies that resulted from the behavior and conduct that

the inspectors displayed in carrying out their responsibilities. Professional ethics of

inspectors were also concerned with how existing cultures of the organizations responsible

for the inspectorial system and the teaching professional were affecting the roles of

inspectors.

Collectively, the emerged dimensions of teacher professionalism were teacher compliance,


professional ethics. However, members of the focus group and the head teacher did not

perceive teacher leadership as a dimension of teacher professionalism. The members of the

focus group were experienced base level teachers who had no formal leadership

responsibilities. Such perception indicated that these teachers had not been exposed to any

formal leadership role within the school and were contented with the positions they

occupied. The head teacher was a very experienced head teacher and also did not perceive

teacher leadership as a dimension of teacher professionalism, yet when asked about how the

interactive strategies used by inspectors influenced him in his career, he revealed that

inspectors had played an important role in his promotion to be a head teacher.


professionalism as noted above are summarized in Table 4.33. Cross-participant analysis

was used to derive these results.


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Participants 1


2


Quality Assurance

4


5

Professional Ethics

6 Key: EVT 1 - 6▲ EVH 1 ► EFG 1 ▼ EVI 1 – 3 ◄

Teacher Compliance ▲▼►◄ ▲▼◄

Teacher Knowledge ▲▼►◄ ▲▼◄

Teacher Leadership ▲►◄ ▲▼◄


▲▼► ▲▼►◄


▲▼► ▲▼►◄

Teachers, the head teacher and inspectors concluded that quality assurance interactive

strategies directly influenced teachers and the head teacher in complying with educational,

professional, management, administrative and leadership requirements and expectations of

NDOE, TSC, PDOE and other agencies. Quality assurance activities also allowed for

appropriate knowledge that teachers and head teachers needed to gain in order to perform

responsibilities and addressed changes that were introduced in the schools. At the same

time, from experiences with the inspection processes, all participants (with the exceptions of

the members of the focus group who were base level teachers) believed that they gained

leadership qualities through quality assurance interactive strategies which eventually led to

promotion to higher teaching positions. This also indicated that as teachers and head

teachers developed professionally through means of quality assurance interactive strategies,

the potential and chances to be promoted through the inspection processes was high. The

teachers and the head teacher indicated that quality assurance interactive strategies impacted

on their professional development and on their professional ethics. However inspectors did

not perceive this to be the case. Such perception could attribute to the lack of follow up by

inspectors on the professional development interactive strategies that they applied and a lack

of insights into their roles and how they conducted themselves. It also meant that teachers

and the head teacher experienced quality assurance interactive strategies as having influence

in their behavior and conduct. This experience implied that inspectors had an impact on

professional ethics of teachers and the head teacher and further revealed that, because

inspectors lacked perception in such relationship, the quality assurance interactive strategies

were restricted to teacher compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership. In the case

of teacher leadership, base level teachers did not perceive this to be influenced by quality

assurance interactive strategies.


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As expected, all participants believed professional development interactive strategies directly

impacted on the professional development of teachers and the head teacher. This was

obvious because of the nature of the activities, including in-service and training sessions, and

advisory roles carried out by inspectors. However, only teachers and inspectors perceived

professional development activities as contributing to teachers and head teachers adhering to

educational, professional and administrative requirements, and contributing to their

professional development and developing leadership qualities. The head teacher did not

share these perceptions and this could be attributed to his many years of experience as a head

teacher.

As with Case Studies 1 and 2, how inspectors and other personnel working for central

organizations (NDOE, TSC and PDOE) behaved and conducted themselves in performing

responsibilities influenced teachers and the head teacher in performing their duties. The

conduct of these personnel working in central organizations reflected existing cultures within

the organizations. At the same time, the question of professional ethics of teachers, head

teachers and inspectors could be attributed to the quality of teacher training they have had

over the years. These could be issues for concern for the present and future of the teaching

profession.

In summary, for Case Study 3, quality assurance interactive strategies related directly to


development and teacher professional ethics. Professional development interactive strategies

impacted directly on teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership and teacher

professional development. Inspector professional ethics impacted directly on teacher

professional ethics.

4.6 Case Study 4: Findings of Provincial Inspectorate and Rural

Government School

Central Province was selected for this study to represent the provinces in the Southern

Region of PNG. The other provinces that make up the Southern Region are Milne Bay, Gulf

and Oro Provinces, and the National Capital District (NCD).

Dekenai Primary School, the school selected for this study, is located in a rural District of

Central Province. Students attending Dekenai Primary School live in villages within

walking distance from the school. The school is an hour drive from Port Moresby. Most of

the students come from nearby villagers and have working parents who are employed by the


239

government and private businesses operating in Port Moresby. Dekenai Primary School is a

rural government school and is selected to represent rural and government agency schools.


Central Province has a current population of 183 983 people, according to the 2000 census,

who speak over many languages representing the many tribes that live in the province. The

province is culturally diverse with people living on staple food including banana and yams.

Central is the only province that does not have any central administrative headquarters and

conducted all its government and private businesses in Port Moresby within the NCD. There

are no major economical produces in the province and most people earn their living by

working in Port Moresby and selling their garden produces in the NCD.

Central Province is divided into four districts; Abau, Goilala, Kairuku-Hiri and Rigo

Districts. Though the province surrounds NCD most districts were still developing, in terms

of infrastructure, making it difficult for progress to be made in the provision of social

services, including education services.


operating in the province is 184. There are 865 teachers on strength. The number of

students enrolled in community and primary schools is 39 496 with 20 194 males and 19 302

females representing 51% and 49% respectively (Sources: Inspectors’ Situation Reports,

2005).

Dekenai Primary School is a level 6 school with a staff ceiling of twenty-one teachers of

whom twelve (57%) are males and nine (43%) are females. The teachers come from all

parts of PNG. Sixteen teachers reside in the school while the rest reside outside the school.

The school enrolls 495 students in grades 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. Of the 495 students 273 (55%)

are males and 222 (45%) are females. (Sources: School Records).

There are eight inspector positions for the province which were fully occupied. The

inspector responsible for Dekenai Primary School is based in Port Moresby, one and half

hours drive from the school.


The participants of Case Study 4 were made up of three teachers and two primary school

inspectors. The head teacher did not volunteer and there was no focus group due to the


240

unstable situation experienced by the school caused by the industrial strike taken by the PNG

Teachers Association during the time of the field work. Table 4.34 shows the demographic

characteristics of teachers and inspectors.

The teachers who participated in Case Study 4 consisted of a base level teacher and two

senior teachers. The three teachers represented 14% of teachers in the school with one

female (33%) and two males (67%). The teaching experiences of the interviewed teachers

varied from nine to seventeen years, while at this school, their teaching experiences varied

from two to eight years. With teacher qualifications, two had Diploma in Primary Teaching

(67%) and one had a Certificate in Primary Teaching (33%). The teachers come from all

parts of PNG with ages varying from thirty-one to forty years old. The teachers’ views

represented the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of experienced teachers teaching in rural

schools and who had recently been visited and inspected by inspectors.

The two inspectors come from Central Province with inspector experiences of nine and

sixteen years respectively. They were promoted from head teacher positions with teaching

and head teacher experiences of seventeen and eighteen years. Both inspectors had been in

this provincial inspectorate for over six years. One inspector had a Certificate in Primary

Teaching while the other had a Diploma in Primary Teaching. The ages of the inspectors

were forty-six and fifty-one years old. They represented 25% of the total number of

inspectors working in the province. The views of these inspectors represented the

experiences, beliefs and perceptions of experienced inspectors.


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Table 4.34: Demographical Characteristics of Participants for Case Study 4


Sex Age Qualifications/Positions Teaching/Inspector Experience % of participants in School/Inspectorate

CVT 1* Male 40 • Certificate in Primary Teaching, Diploma in Education & Diploma in Administration & Finance

• Senior Teacher

• 17 years • 8 years at present school

Teacher participants: 14% of teachers of the school

CVT 2* Female 32 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Teacher


CVT 3* Male 31 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


CVI 1* Male 51 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Inspector

• 18 years Teaching • 16 years Inspector • 6 years in current post

Inspector participants: 25% of inspectors of the inspectorate

CVI 2* Male 46 • Diploma in Primary Education • Inspector

• 17 years teaching • 9 years inspector • 1 year in current post

Key

(*) - indicates the interviewed participants CVT – Central Province Volunteer Teacher CVI – Central Province Volunteer Head Teacher


242

Table 4.35 indicates the demographic responsibilities for the two inspectors in their

inspectorates. The responsibilities included the number of schools, the number of teachers

and the number of students and the appropriate ratios that applied to each responsibility load.






Ratio

CVI 1 6 39 1:39 108 1:108 2 000 1:2 000 CVI 2 1 21 1:21 160 1:160 1 800 1:1 800 Average 3.5 30 1:30 134 1:134 1 900 1:1 900

For this provincial inspectorate, the two inspectors’ responsibility load ratios for the schools

were 1:39 and 1:21, for the teachers the ratios were 1:108 and 1:160, and for the students the

ratios were 1:2 000 and 1:1 800 respectively. On average, the inspector to schools ratio was

1:30, inspector to teachers was 1:134 and inspector to students was 1:1 900. There was a

lack of policy that dictated the responsibility load of inspectors resulting with heavy

responsibility loads for one inspector while the other had light responsibility loads. This

situation is similar to situations in other case studies.

4.6.3 Preamble to the findings of Case Study 4

The findings for Case Study 4 are used to consolidate the findings of Case Studies 1, 2 and 3

because of the nature of the research methods that were used across all the cases. This is

also necessary to avoid repetition of the findings. Where appropriate, references are made to

previous cases accordingly.

4.6.4 Perceptions of teachers and inspectors: Inspectorial interactive strategies

In response to questions related to how the inspectors operated in the school the inspectorial

interactive strategies applied by the inspectors in carrying out their responsibilities emerged

into three main categories; quality assurance, professional development and professional

ethics of inspectors. These results emerged from the data through the process of clustering

and were consistent with the findings for Case Studies 1, 2 and 3. Tables 4.36 to 4.38

illustrate the processes of establishing the interactive strategies of the inspectorial system

that originated from the transcripts and documents analysis.


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Teachers • Inspectors check on curriculum requirements and monitor academic standards. • Inspectors monitor teacher performance. • Inspectors inspect teachers for registration and promotion. • Documents remind the teacher of her responsibilities. Inspectors • Supervision for quality control and assurance through inspectors monitoring and advising

teachers on teaching standards, curriculum requirements and organized records. • Documents guide teachers, head teachers and inspectors to do their work as required. • Quality control and assurance activities done by inspectors through document checklists,

administrative checklists, through reports and through training programs. • Inspectors inform teachers and monitor implementation of educational policies. • Inspectors use management and operational plans to carry out their responsibilities. • Inspectors appraise and evaluate teachers’ and head teachers’ performances for registration and

promotion. • Inspectors monitor head teacher, teacher and school performances. • Supervision for accountability to ensure resources is used for children’s education.

• Monitoring teaching standards and curriculum

requirements • Teacher appraisal, assessment & evaluation are carried

out by inspectors. • Quality control & assurance is carried out through the

monitoring of policies & reporting to authorities. • Supervision for accountability to ensure resources is

used for children’s education.

Quality assurance


244




Teachers • Inspectors assist teachers in their professional development. Inspectors • Supervision for professional development through inspectors advising teachers on teaching

standards, curriculum requirements and organized records. • Inspectors provide good leadership to teachers and head teachers. • Inspectors supervise for professional development through advisory and training roles. • Teacher professional development being pursued by inspectors. • Inspectors’ direct involvement with teacher and head teacher professional development through

in-service programs, conferences, meetings and workshops.

• Inspectors assist teachers & head teachers in their

professional development. • Supervision for professional development through

advisory & training roles performed by inspectors.



245




Teachers Operational issues • Lack of planning and organization by inspectors for visits and to carry out their work. • Inspectors’ integrity being questioned through use of schools’ and teachers’ personal resources. • Lack of resources affecting inspectors’ visits to schools and teachers. • Lack of support from NDOE and PDOE to facilitate inspectors’ work in the schools. • Inspectors are not committed to their responsibilities. • Lack of communication between stakeholders is affecting teachers. • There is lack of documentation relating to the operation of the inspectorial system from the

inspector or the province. • There is lack of documentation relating to teacher professionalism from the inspector and the

province. Professional issues • Lack of benefits experienced by teacher from inspector’s visits. • Inspector lacks interest in teacher’s work. • Teacher lacking confidence in inspectors’ roles. • Teacher performance and interest in teaching decline when not inspected by inspectors. • Lack of clear focus in inspectors’ responsibilities to assist teachers. • There is lack of elaboration and interpretation on relevant documents that relate to IS and TP,

and issues related to the teaching profession by inspectors. • Inspectors’ work is important to teachers. • Lack of knowledge, challenge and confidence in the processes and outcomes of the inspection

processes performed by inspectors. • Inspectors’ activities neglect teacher characteristics that are concerned with the community. • Inspectors as disciplinarians, carrying out investigations on disciplinary cases and charging

teachers accordingly. • Inspector is an inspiration to the teacher.

• Lack of planning and organization by inspector to

carry out his work. • Inspectors’ integrity being questioned and is having

adverse impacts on teachers. • Lack of commitment by inspectors to visit schools and

help teachers. • Lack of resources affecting inspectors’ work. • Lack of confidence in the processes and outcomes of

the inspection roles performed by inspectors. • Lack of support from employing agency and other

stakeholders for inspector to carry out their work. • Lack of knowledge and skills for inspectors to perform

their responsibilities. • Inspectors’ roles are valued. • Lack of clear focus in inspectors’ roles due to lack of

visits to teachers and clarity on inspectors’ responsibilities.



246



• Teachers only perform duties to please the inspectors. • Ineffective discipline system carries out by inspectors on teachers. • Working cultures in NDOE & PDOE are disadvantaging inspectors from doing their work

effectively. Inspectors Operational issues • Lack of commitment by inspectors to visit schools and help teachers. • Lack of planning and organization by inspector to carry out his work. • Documents provided by the inspectors on professional ethics and inspectors’ operational

obligations. Professional issues • Inspectors ensure good relationships are maintained. • Assessment of inspectors’ performance – professional work and professional ethics. • The inspector’s roles are important. • Inspectors ensure teacher ethical values are maintained. • Lack of support from provincial authorities is affecting inspectors’ work. • Lack of follow up by SPSI on inspectors in term of training. • Lack of acknowledgements and actions of inspectors’ reports is frustrating inspectors and

demeans inspectors’ roles. • Provincial authorities undermining the roles of inspectors and not working well with inspectors

as a result of adverse attitudes towards inspectors because they are performing national functions.

• TSC and the Education Acts need to be reviewed to ensure they serve their purpose. • Inspector qualifications and professional development are neglected and are affected their work. • Inspectors provide good leadership to teachers and head teachers.

(As above)

(As above)


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Synthesis of the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers and Inspectors

The findings concerning the inspectorial interactive strategies were similar to the findings of

Case Studies 1, 2 and 3. Because of this fact, this section synthesized the experiences,

beliefs and perceptions of the participants. Where there are similarities and differences,

these are discussed appropriately.

As with previous Case Studies, the two main inspectorial interactive strategies that were

identified were quality assurance and professional development. Emerging from the quality

assurance and professional development interactive strategies were the factors related to

professional ethics of inspectors. Quality assurance activities included inspectors monitoring

the implementation of educational policies, maintaining the quality of teaching and learning,

and appraising, assessing and evaluating teachers’ general performance. Examples of

teachers’ and inspectors’ experiences describing the quality assurance strategies were:

“When the Inspector came I think the Inspector came in especially to assess me

and make sure that I am teaching to the required standard and that I know what

I am doing as a teacher.” (CVT 1)

“I was not aware of the Inspectors’ coming but I was warned in advance that I

was going to be supervised so I did the normal things, got myself prepared.

When the Inspector came he supervised me looking at the teaching program, the

rolls and other little things plus supervising my teaching. And the inspection

that he gave me was promotional inspection.” (CVT 2)

“I check the head teachers on one important thing and that is on how the school

is managed, how the Board of Management (BOM) and the Parents & Citizens

Association (P&C) are operating and whether the standard of education

provided by the school meet what is required by the NDOE.” (CVI 1)

“The actual activities I do is; I check the programs, I check the teachers if they

are teaching well by asking children and spending time asking questions as well

as checking the physical environment of the school and other administrative

work. I also conduct general staff meetings and have private interviews with

teachers about their work.” (CVI 1)


248

Professional development interactive strategies included inspectors helping and encouraging

teachers to improve in teaching and learning methods, providing advice on supervision of

teachers and facilitating in-service and training programs for teachers. These participants

expressed their experiences:

“Yes, I think while he was doing his observation he had to write some

comments. So by reading those comments I know that these are my weak points

and I know where my strengths are so in that way. When I see my weak points I

know that those are my weaknesses so I had to work on those weaknesses to

improve myself.” (CVT 2)

“The purpose of the advisory visit is to assist and encourage teachers to do

better in all duties and foremost is to help students to learn well and improve

progressively towards achieving the outcomes. ............” (CVI 2)

Professional ethics of inspectors were related to how inspectors carried out their

responsibilities. The difficulties caused by the management of the inspectorial system, and

the professional conduct of inspectors are categorized into this interactive strategy. Other

factors included a lack of clear focus in inspector responsibilities because of a lack of

organization and planning, a lack of resources for inspectors to perform tasks and a lack of

inspector knowledge and skills to perform responsibilities. Teachers and inspectors

commented:

“Normally, when they come and visit, they carry out the advisory visit as well.

Some times they do spot on visits, which I see as a failure. Sometimes they give

notices on paper well in advance to inform us that they are coming for advisory

visit. Now a days, there is no such thing, they only come and give whatever

inspection. Whatever or whether it’s for advisory or for inspection purposes,

they only come to do this. To add on, some times after the inspection, they

discuss with the teacher for only five minutes and then off they go. There is no

proper discussion on how to improve oneself or let’s say whatever aim they’re

aiming for to get us right. Perhaps, they do not have time to deal with us

accordingly, to see our weaknesses. Those things are not done. So in my view in

this area, they just drop in and then go back. I see that it’s not really rewarding

to us as teachers with whatever visits they make, sometimes it can be one per

two years and that’s only five or ten minutes they spent with us and off they go.

........” (EVT 3)


249

“It is important, in my view, that in order for inspectors to provide effective

professional leadership to lead teachers to implement policy matters such as

curriculum implementation, on-going training to inspectors must be given in

areas of curriculum to gain in-depth knowledge so that they can help teachers

effectively. Qualifications of inspectors must be given top priority with

financial support to train them to be competent to use current techniques such

as computing to produce quality and timely reports. Logistic support for school

visits is a must for inspectors because schools they visit are scattered far and

wide. Money and transport are key factors to inspectors being productive in

their visitations for advisory and inspection work.” (CVI 2)

Consistent with the findings of Case Studies 1, 2 and 3, quality assurance, professional

development and professional ethics of inspectors emerged as inspectorial interactive

strategies.

4.6.5 Perceptions of Teachers, Head Teachers and Inspectors: Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism

The findings concerning the dimensions of teacher professionalism are discussed here with

direct references to the findings of Case Studies 1, 2 and 3. This allows for disclosures to be

strengthened and at the same time avoid repetition.

In response to the questions of how teachers and inspectors perceived teacher

professionalism, the results were that teacher professionalism consisted of five dimensions;


development and teacher professional ethics. These results were similar to the findings for

the previous Case Studies with some varying views. Because of this fact, this section

synthesized the participants’ views. Tables 4.39 to 4.43 summarize the experiences, beliefs

and perceptions of the participants on the dimensions of teacher professionalism derived by

using grounded analysis approaches.


250




Teachers • Teaching is a profession. • Teacher classroom organization. • Teacher performance relates to teaching, preparation and performing other duties. • Teaching methods used in delivering knowledge and skills to children. • Being a teacher involves teaching, planning and programming (teacher performance). Inspectors • Documents requiring teachers and head teachers to comply with educational policies. • Teacher counseling students on issues. • Teacher performance relates to all aspects of head teachers’ and teachers’ work.

• Teacher as counselor. • Teacher performance relates to teaching and

performing other duties. • Teacher organization relates to planning and

organizing teacher records and files. • Teacher as an implementer of educational policies.

Teacher compliance




Teachers • Teacher knowledge relating to what should be done. • Teacher knowledge, including knowledge about the communities being served. • Teacher improvements in teaching. Inspectors • Teacher qualifications require attention by the government. • Teacher competence and knowledge relate to teaching competence and curriculum knowledge. • Teachers of today are better qualified.

• Teacher qualifications. • Teacher knowledge. • Teacher competence.

Teacher knowledge


251




Teachers • Teacher leadership relating to being a good leader and possessing leadership qualities. Inspectors • Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher taking a lead in aspects of work in school.

• Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher

taking a lead in aspects of school operation.

Teacher leadership




Teachers • Teacher continuous learning or pursues professional development. Inspectors • Teacher professional development is pursued through training programs and in-service sessions. • Teacher professional development as a continuing phenomenal in teaching.

• Teacher professional development as a

continuing phenomenal in teaching. • Supervision for professional development.



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Teachers • Teacher ethics or ethical values including professional conduct. • Teacher positive image in the community. • The status of the teaching profession is declining due to lack of effective supervision. • Teaching is a profession. • Teacher ethics and ethical values including dedication, loyalty, honesty and commitment. • The characteristics of teacher professionalism are lacking and are not being displayed by

teachers. • Teachers valuing student education. • Teacher performing extra curricular duties. • Teacher relationships with community, colleagues and students. • Teacher confidence. • Teacher personal appearance. • Duplications of responsibilities by inspectors and school based supervisors. • Teacher as a role model. • Teacher integrity including honest, commitment and dedication. Inspectors • Teacher is everything, a jack of all trades. • Teacher community involvement. • Many teachers of today are not committed. • Teacher cooperation and support. • The teaching profession must be given recognition by the government. • Teacher and head teacher as a role models. • Teacher ethics and ethical values including dedication, loyalty, honesty and commitment.

• Teacher ethics or ethical values including honesty,

respect, commitment, obedience and dedication. • Teacher professional relationships with others. Teacher positive image in the community. • Teacher cooperation and supports. • Teacher valuing children’s education. • Teachers as role models.



253


In addition to views of participants of previous cases, teachers related planning and

organization also as key elements to teacher compliance that enabled them to deliver

appropriate knowledge and skills to children. Inspectors shared the same perceptions about

teacher compliance with teachers but also expected teachers to be counselors in order to

guide children in all aspects of their education. This teacher and inspector confirmed these

views:

“I think the work of a teacher is a very important job in any (other) Country

......... It is important that the teacher must know what he or she should do and

perform to the requirements and also the teacher needs help from others

including the Inspectors, supervisors and headmasters.” (CVT 2)

“A person in the teaching profession is someone who performs his or her

teaching duties to the best of his or her abilities as expected by the National

Department of Education.” (CVI 2)

Teacher knowledge, as an emerged dimension of teacher professionalism, was important to

the teaching profession. A teacher had to be qualified and a teacher had to be competent and

knowledgeable in his/her field of expertise before s/he had to become a teacher. The

inspectors, however, emphasized that a teacher had to be educated in all aspects of the

teaching profession, including work and professional ethics as well as having appropriate

knowledge about the community s/he served. The following comments confirmed these

beliefs:

“In my opinion, teacher professionalism is the way we can teach the children or

maybe psychologically, how we can deliver to the children what is required in a

certain level or the knowledge we need to give them. It is the way we try to get

an idea across to the children in a certain level in which we can use to give this

knowledge or idea. .............. There are a lot of aspects in teacher

professionalism, 1) includes the methods and skills we use to address an idea to

a certain human being, and 2) includes the behavior or the code of conduct we

use as a profession. How we behave to a group or the community as a whole

depends greatly on a person’s individuality and the knowledge and skill he

has.” (CVT 3)


254

Teachers and inspectors perceived teacher leadership as taking a lead in aspects of the

school life, either formally or informally. This perception required teachers to have

leadership qualities to be members of the teaching profession. Teacher leadership qualities

were appropriate ingredients for all teachers to have irrespective of whether they were formal

leaders in the school or not. These participants advocated these perceptions:

“Yes in my view, there are many characteristics needed in teacher

professionalism. The other important thing is leadership values. We see

headmasters going for leadership courses but it should also include the

teachers. In fact a teacher must also be a leader because as a teacher you must

have the quality to be a leader. But in this system, we have teachers who are

great leaders which is good. When you call the word teacher it seems like a

leader, just like our Lord Jesus. He, as a leader, had the qualities and skills to

mould whoever he was dealing with. So in my opinion the qualities the teacher

must have as a leader and everyone in the community knows that teacher is a

leader whether headmaster or senior teacher or an ordinary teacher we must

poses that quality of being a good leader.” (CVT 3)

“What I understand of the teaching profession in our country, Papua New

Guinea, is that a teacher is everything. The Teacher is a trainer, the teacher is

a pastor and the teacher is a plumber or a doctor because the teacher is dealing

with human beings. He is not there for the children only but also for the whole

community. The community looks upon the teacher as a leader. I feel that

teacher must have the qualities of all these so that he’s able to answer questions

from the children and the community when asked.” (CVI 2)

Both teachers and inspectors revealed that teacher professional development was necessary

for all teachers. Teacher professional development involved continuous learning that was

consistent with changes within the teaching profession and in pedagogical issues. As

previously discovered in Case 2, supervision for continuous professional development of

teachers that was focused and systematic could sustain this dimension of teacher

professionalism. These participants said:

“……..Also if there’re other in-services that could take place to help the teacher

equipped themselves better so that they perform to the required standard. So

the teachers, I think, are very important people and they need to be fully

equipped as professionals.” (CVT 2)


255

“I would expect them to be proactive in their work. They have to be

independent learners and workers to produce quality results. They have to be

creative and innovative. Make a shift in their traditional approaches to new

approaches that are suggested and recommended by the reforms and

competently assist others and colleagues they work with.” (CVI 2)

Teacher professional ethics concerned how teachers conducted themselves and the type of

image they portrayed in the community. Teachers and inspectors perceived teacher

professional ethics as being cooperative and supportive with each other amongst other

perceptions. Importantly, all participants considered teacher professional ethics as relating to

teachers having good conduct, were loyal and committed to their responsibilities. These

participants expressed:

“My understanding about teacher professionalism in Papua New Guinea is that

teaching is a professional career. What I understand is that a teacher must

have a good conduct, meaning he has to abide by the Code of Ethics, a teacher

must be an example to the community he or she serves, a teacher must carry out

the duties that is given by the department especially in discharging the

curriculum that is required for the children of Papua New Guinea, a teacher

must be knowledgeable about the communities he or she serve in Papua New

Guinea, a teacher must be ready to accept and be ready to get himself involve

in the communities he or she serves.” (CVT 1)

“Teachers in PNG Primary Schools today, I feel, have better qualifications and

training. But the only problem I see now is with their commitment. Teachers,

especially new graduates or those with new qualifications gained recently, are

not being utilized because these teachers seem to take up positions in rural

areas. They only want better places but the quality of training is good but they

are not really utilized because they (are) teaching in rural areas.” (CVI 2)

Though various perceptions of teacher professionalism existed, the analysis for Case Study 4

revealed that there were five dimensions of teacher professionalism and these were teacher


teacher professional ethics.


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4.6.6 Perceptions of the participants on the linkages between the inspectorial interactive

strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism

Similar to Case Studies 1, 2 and 3, the linkages between the inspectorial interactive strategies

and the dimensions of teacher professionalism for each type of participant (teachers and

inspectors) are compared for similarities and differences for this case. To do this, teachers

and inspectors were asked to identify the linkages they believed existed between the

inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism from their

experiences.

Perceived Linkages: Views of Teachers



professional development; and professional ethics of inspectors to teacher professional

ethics. Figure 4.13 shows these linkages.




Teacher knowledge

Teacher Leadership



Teachers experienced quality assurance activities to have influenced them in complying with

what were required of them, ensured that they were up to date with subject knowledge and

influenced directly on their leadership qualities (particularly through the inspection

processes). The latter implied that the inspection processes as a means of quality assurance

contributed significantly to teacher leadership.

This teacher highlighted his experiences when interacting with the inspectors, particularly in

relation to complying with basic requirements. He also revealed inspectors’ lack of attention

to other dimensions of teacher professionalism:

“With my experience most inspectors do not really look at the characteristics of

teacher professionalism during their inspections. They only concentrate on

looking at areas where we are required to do. For example, with the


257

curriculum they look at the curriculum requirement. What is required of

teachers by the department especially in implementing the curriculum but

otherwise most of the Inspectors do not look at whether the teachers’

involvement with the community is there or the conduct of the teacher himself or

herself. They do not really look at these areas during their visits. They only

concentrate on the teacher performance and the requirement of their

curriculum implementation.” (CVT 1)

This teacher related quality assurance activities that led to enriching teacher knowledge and

skills but expressed disappointments concerning inadequacies being experienced:

“The way that I see it is I believe half of it would be skills. I see that there is not

enough time to learn fully in skills because they are just doing supervision. I

hardly see them aiding us in how to teach the students. This (was) alright before

when the white men were involved but today I don’t see that anymore. So when

they come, they should look more on skills/training on how to teach the

students. The other is giving in-services. I feel they need to train themselves on

how to give in-services based on knowledge, skills and the abilities to teach.

We know the skill but we don’t know the background knowledge which means

we are not ready to give. These results are poor quality and are low results.

Knowledge goes with skills so there will be good quality. The inspectors are

only concerned with supervision. They must try to do rehabilitation courses in

skill implementation which is lacking. This knowledge, skills and maybe

providing quality or high standards must emerge wherever the inspector is

involved.” (CVT 3)

This is an example of the quality assurance activities that encouraged the teacher to excel in

his work and being recognized for leadership roles:

“Some of these activities help me as a teacher to get myself prepared, especially

to work hard when I receive a report that is just satisfactory from an Inspector.

And after knowing this report I am encourage to work hard so that I can be able

to go up the next level which will really give me a lot of courage to work (more)

harder so that I can do my job as a teacher.” (CVT 1)


258

Teachers at the same time perceived professional development activities facilitated and

carried out by inspectors as having impacts on their professional development, as this teacher

implied:

“Most of the inspectors’ activities are based ........ on improving the teachers’

weaknesses. When they are looking through the records they are trying to make

sure that the teacher is performing to the required standard ............ Its not

normally improving the (teacher) character with the community but the

activities that they display is mainly to do with the teaching profession

including improving the teacher in all aspects of his or her work, that’s how I

see it.” (CVT 2)

With professional ethics of inspectors, teachers perceived these to be directly influencing

them in their professional behavior and conduct (teacher professional ethics). These teachers

confirmed their current status in the teaching profession resulting from their experiences with

the inspectors:

“Teacher professionalism has now declined. Most of the teachers are not

behaving the way they suppose to behave because I believe that the supervision

or the ‘inspection’ is also declining. The monitoring system has really slowed

down, therefore the teachers seem to be loose and they think that there is no

watch dog available. There is no one looking at them that they just behave the

way they want to but really it is not improving but it is declining.” (CVT 1)

“The inspectors’ activities that they do with me are important. They help me to

be a professional in the school and also in the community..............” (CVT 2)

Perceived Linkages: Views of Inspectors

The inspectors related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher compliance, teacher


compliance, teacher leadership and teacher professional development; and professional

ethics to teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.14 shows these linkages.


259

Figure 4.14: Inspector Perceptions Linkages



Teacher knowledge

Teacher leadership



The inspectors confirmed that quality assurance activities influenced teachers to comply with

the requirements of their duty statements as well as complying with educational policies.

Quality assurance activities also impacted on teacher knowledge and teacher leadership,

implying that inspectors enriched teachers and head teachers with appropriate knowledge

required to teach their subjects and manage the school respectively. Inspectors also revealed

that leadership qualities were enhanced through the inspection processes that identified

teachers for promotional opportunities. These experiences and beliefs were conferred by this

inspector:

“The activities I do with the head teachers develop the head teachers to be role

models. They provide leadership and they provide assistance to teachers.

They help the BOMs (Boards of Management) and the schools to operate to the

expectation of the NDOE. They must ensure that good relationship is

maintained in the community and with the children. These are the results of me

carrying out my responsibilities with the (teachers) and head teachers.”

(CVI 1)

With professional development interactive strategies inspectors observed that these were

influencing teachers and the head teachers in their professional development, particularly in

order to comply with changes and to develop leadership qualities. These linkages were

advocated by these inspectors:

“The activities we do with teachers in the teaching profession help them to

grow maturely in their work in order to work effectively and to educate the

children to improve in their learning.” (CVI 1)

“In-servicing them (teachers and head teachers) on new concepts and methods

makes them develop teaching programs using the reformed curriculum formats.


260

The process leads to teachers and head teachers developing new skills and

knowledge. Some are slow to learn and adapt while others pick up and take up

new challenges with confidence, both teachers and head teachers.” (CVI 2)

At the same time inspectors admitted that their professional ethics that were caused by a lack

of commitment by employer agencies to manage and facilitate their work effectively,

amongst other educational and professional anomalies, impacted on teachers’ professional

conduct and behavior. Thus inspector professional ethics directly impacted on teacher

professional ethics as these inspectors claimed:

“..............Teachers must be responsible and be honest in what they are doing.

Some activities, like conducting in-services, teachers show good role models to

their colleagues and the community. Through these the teachers gain

confidence and trust in their work.” (CVI 1)

“It is important, in my view, that in order for inspectors to provide effective

professional leadership to lead teachers to implement policy matters such as

curriculum implementation, on-going training to inspectors must be given in

areas of curriculum to gain in-depth knowledge so that they can help teachers

effectively. Qualifications of inspectors must be given top priority with

financial support to train them to be competent to use current techniques such

as computing to produce quality and timely reports. Logistic support for school

visits is a must for inspectors because schools they visit are scattered far and

wide. Money and transport are key factors to inspectors being productive in

their visitations for advisory and inspection work.” (CVI 2)

Synthesis of the Views of Linkages

The findings concerning the linkages of the inspectorial interactive strategies and the

dimensions of teacher professionalism for Case Study 4 varied from simple relationships as

revealed by teachers, to complex relationships as revealed by inspectors. Teachers and

inspectors both agreed that quality assurance impacted on teacher compliance and teacher

leadership. Teachers and inspectors also agreed that professional development and

professional ethics of inspectors interactive strategies influenced teachers in their

professional development and professional ethics respectively. However, contrary to

teachers, the inspectors claimed that professional development activities also impacted on

teacher compliance and teacher leadership. At the same time, only the teachers believed that


261

quality assurance strategies influenced them in acquiring new knowledge and skills. These

differences could explain the fact that, according to inspectors, professional development

strategies basically dealt with changes that required teachers to comply with educational

policies such as the current curriculum reform. According to inspectors, this also implied

that professional development interactive strategies also focused on leadership qualities.

This would indicate that teacher compliance and teacher leadership were more related to the

inspection processes, meaning that teachers and head teachers had to comply with

educational, professional and administrative requirements and showed leadership qualities

before they could be inspected for promotional opportunities.


Similar to the findings of Case Studies 1, 2 and 3, the inspectorial interactive strategies that

emerged from the data were quality assurance, professional development and professional

ethics of inspectors. Quality assurance and professional development interactive strategies

were obvious strategies carried out by inspectors through planned and organized activities.

However, professional ethics of inspectors emerged as interactive strategies that resulted

from the behavior and conduct that the inspectors displayed in the school and community.

Professional ethics of inspectors are also facilitated by organizations cultures that existed

within employing agencies that influenced inspectors in their work.

Collectively, the participants identified the dimensions of teacher professionalism as teacher


teacher professional ethics. These findings and other relevant issues discussed were

consistent with the results for Case Studies 1, 2 and 3.


professionalism are summarized in Table 4.44. As with other case studies, the findings

formed the ‘relationships’ between the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions

of teacher professionalism as perceived by participants through cross-participants analysis.


262


Participants 1


2


Quality Assurance

4


5

Professional Ethics

6 Key: CVT 1 - 2▲ CVI 1 – 2 ◄

Teacher Compliance ▲◄ ◄

Teacher Knowledge ▲◄

Teacher Leadership ▲◄ ◄


▲◄


▲◄

Teachers and inspectors concluded that quality assurance interactive strategies influenced

teachers and head teachers in complying with educational, professional, management,

administrative and leadership requirements of NDOE, TSC, PDOE and other agencies.

Quality assurance activities also allowed for appropriate knowledge that teachers and head

teachers needed to perform responsibilities and addressed changes in the school system. At

the same time, from experiences with the inspection processes, the participants believed that

they developed leadership qualities through quality assurance interactive strategies which

eventually led to promotional opportunities.

The participants disclosed professional development interactive strategies as directly

impacting on teachers’ professional development. However, only inspectors perceived

professional development activities as contributing to teachers adhering to expectations of

authorities, and contributing to teachers developing leadership qualities. The teachers did

not share these perceptions and this could be attributed to the irregular visitations by

inspectors, and the nature of the professional development activities that focused more on

educational requirements and policies rather than professional development of teachers and

head teachers.

As with Case Studies 1, 2 and 3, how inspectors conducted themselves influenced teachers

and head teachers in how they performed their duties. At the same time, the question of

professional ethics of teachers and inspectors could be attributed to the quality of teacher and

inspector training that they have had over the years.

In summary, for Case Study 4, quality assurance interactive strategies related directly to

teacher compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership. Professional development

interactive strategies impacted directly on teacher compliance, teacher leadership and teacher


263

professional development while professional ethics of inspector impacted directly on teacher

professional ethics.

The next chapter, Chapter 5, integrates the findings of the four cases and provides further

discussions through a cross-case participant and cross-case analysis and discussions.


264

CHAPTER FIVE

Cross-Case Findings and Synthesis

5.1 Introduction

In Chapter 4, the findings of the four cases studies were discussed separately, synthesized

and separate conclusions made. As a result, similarities and differences were highlighted

that compared and concluded the findings of each of the cases. Clarifications about the

specific activities of the inspectorial interactive strategies and explanations of the dimensions

of teacher professionalism as perceived by participants were also discussed.

This chapter discusses the findings of the four case studies as a result of the ‘cross-case

participant’ and cross-case analysis. In the cross-case participant analysis, similar groups of

participants’ (teachers, head teachers and inspectors) experiences, beliefs and perceptions are

synthesized before the cross-case synthesis is discussed. The discussions consider the

locations of the schools and inspectorates and the demographical characteristics of the

participants, including experiences and qualifications. The details of the ‘cross-participant’

and cross-case analysis were given in Chapter 3 and Section 4.2. This chapter begins with

the demographic characteristics of the participants followed by the discussions of the main

issues, the inspectorial interactive strategies, the dimensions of teacher professionalism and

their relationship. This is followed by an ‘input-process-output’ structure that summarizes

the cross-case findings. The chapter concludes with a summary.

5.2 Cross-Case Participants’ Demographic Characteristics

The cross-case participants’ demographic characteristics are discussed here to illustrate

similarities and differences in the experiences, qualifications, ages and sex of the

participants, and the positions held by the participants. These characteristics are related to

the issues being studied. The locations of the schools and inspectorates are discussed to

illustrate their relationships with the issues being pursued.

5.2.1 Locations of the Schools and Inspectorates

Case Study 1, which comprised of a remote government school and the inspectorate in a

province in the New Guinea Islands of PNG, revealed the many hardships and difficulties

that teachers, head teachers and inspectors experienced in their work. These hardships

included a lack of visits from inspectors to appraise teachers and head teachers, teachers and

head teachers working on their own with no external and formal internal means of quality


265

assurance, new policies including the outcome based curriculum not being monitored

resulting with ineffective implementation and a lack of attention to the professional

development of the novice teachers, experienced teachers and head teachers. Such situation

was compounded by the fact that inspectors were unable to visit the remote schools due to

logistical and other administrative and management problems. At the same time, only four

out of seven inspector positions in this provincial inspectorate were occupied making it

difficult for the current inspectors to perform their responsibilities effectively because of the

heavy responsibility loads. The vacancies were caused by non-appointment of officers to the

inspector positions by authorities. This situation was experienced in all case studies.

The schools in Case Studies 2 and 3 were located within the provincial head quarters. While

the schools were easily accessible to inspectors and other authorities, many teachers had not

been visited and assisted in their work by inspectors. With the school facilities, there were

inadequate teachers’ houses and inadequate teaching and learning materials. Both schools

represented urban, Church Agency and government agency schools and were fully staffed.

Both schools are also level 8 primary schools with one having thirty-six teachers and the

other having twenty-seven teachers. There were more female than male teachers in both

schools with a percentage ratio of 70% and 78% to 30% and 22% respectively. Such female-

male teacher ratios were quite common in urban schools due to the engagement of married

women whose husbands were working in the urban areas. Case Study 2 inspector positions

were fully occupied though inspector responsibility loads seemed to be too high for

inspectors to cope with. Case Study 3 had eleven inspector positions with six positions

occupied and five vacancies making it very difficult for inspectors to perform responsibilities

effectively because of the heavy responsibility loads.

The school for Case Study 4 was located in the rural part of the province and was easily

accessible by road from the city where basic school supplies and services were readily

available. The school represented the rural schools where schools could easily be reached by

authorities. The school was a level 6 primary school with twenty-one teachers which was

made up of 43% females and 57% males. The ratio of female to male teachers was common

in both rural and remote schools where the number of female teachers was less than the

number of male teachers. The provincial inspectorate was fully staffed with eight inspectors.

However facilities to accommodate the inspectors such as housing and office space were

unavailable with inspectors having to reside and cope with work at their own expenses and

arrangements. These experiences and other conditions of employment for inspectors seemed

to be evidenced in all four cases.


266

5.2.2 Cross-case participant demographical characteristics: Similarities and differences

There were similarities and differences with the interviewed participants’ responses to the

questions concerning the inspectorial interactive strategies, the dimensions of teacher

professionalism and their relationship. These similarities and differences are now discussed

with references to the cross-case demographical characteristics of the participants. As a

backdrop to these discussions the cross-case demographic characteristics of the participants

which were categorized into each type of participants (teachers, head teachers and

inspectors) are shown in Tables 5.1 to 5.3 with columns 6 indicating summaries of analysis.

Table 5.1 shows cross-case demographic characteristics of teachers.


267

Table 5.1: Cross-Case Demographic Characteristics of Teachers

Participants 1

Sex 2

Age 3

Qualifications/Position 4

Teaching/Inspector Experience 5

Analysis of Demographic Characteristics

6 WVT 1 Male 24 • Diploma in Primary Teaching

• Teacher • 2 years • 2 years

Teachers Positions • Base level - 4 (27%) • Senior Teacher - 10 (67%) • Deputy H/Teacher – 1 (6%) Qualifications • Certificate in PT – 6 (40%) • Diploma in PT – 8 (53%) • Bachelor in Ed. – 1 (7%) Teaching Experiences • 0 – 5 years – 1 (7%) • 6 – 10 years – 1 (7%) • 11 – 15 years – 5 (33%) • 15 – 20 years – 5 (33%) • Over 21 years - 3 (20%) Females/males • Female – 7 (47%) • Male – 8 (53%) Ages • < 20 years – 0 • 21 – 30 years – 4 (27%) • 31 – 40 years – 7 (46%) • > 41 years – 4 (27%)

MVT 1 Female 39 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


MVT 2 Male 34 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


MVT 3 Female 45 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Deputy Head Teacher


MVT 4 Female 24 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


MVT 5 Male 39 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Teacher

• 18 years • 2 (+7) years at this school

EVT 1 Female 29 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


EVT 2 Male 28 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


EVT 3 Male 46 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


EVT 4 Male 37 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


EVT 5 Female 46 • Bachelor in Education • Teacher



268

Participants 1

Sex 2

Age 3




6 EVT 6 Female 46 • Diploma in Primary Teaching

• Senior Teacher • 29 years • 16 years

CVT 1 Male 40 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher


CVT 2 Female 32 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Teacher


CVT 3 Male 31 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Senior Teacher



269

About fifteen teachers altogether were involved in this study which was made up of four

base level teachers (27%), ten senior teachers (67%) and a deputy head teacher (6%).

Teachers’ qualifications varied from Certificates in Primary Teaching (40%) to Diploma in

Primary Teaching (53%) and Bachelor in Education (7%). Teaching experiences varied

considerably: 7% of teachers had less than five years teaching experience, 7% had six to ten

years teaching experience, 66% had between eleven and twenty years teaching experience

and 20% had more than twenty-one years teaching experience. Of all the teachers, 47%

were females and 53% were males. Though this may raise the question of gender issues in

the discussions, the nature of the issues being pursued did not consider gender as a critical

issue to be contented with. Other facts to be noted with the teacher-participants were the

ages of the teachers, which varied from twenty-one to thirty years old (representing 27%)

through thirty-one to forty years old (representing 46%) to over forty-one years old

(representing 27%).

Three head teachers were involved in this study. One head teacher had a Certificate in

Primary Teaching while the other two had Diploma in Primary Teaching. Head teacher

experience varied from four years (one head teacher) to over twenty-five years (two head

teachers). All head teachers were males. Table 5.2 shows the demographic characteristics of

head teachers.


270

Table 5.2: Cross-Case Demographic Characteristics of Head Teachers

Participants 1

Sex 2

Age 3




6 WHT 1 Male 38 • Certificate in Primary Teaching

• Head Teacher • 19 years • 4 years HT at this school

Head Teachers Positions • Head Teacher - 3 (100%) Qualifications • Certificate in PT – 1 (33%) • Diploma in PT – 2 (67%) Teaching Experiences • 0 – 20 years – 1 (33%) • Over 21 years – 2 (67%) Head Teacher Experience • < 5 years – 1 (33%) • 6 – 20 years – 0 • 21 – 30 years – 2 (67%) Females/males • Male – 3 (100%) Ages • < 49 years – 1 (33%) • > 50 years – 2 (67%)

MHT 1 Male 50 • Diploma in Education Studies • Head Teacher

• 30 years • 27 years Head Teacher • 3 Head Teacher at this school

EHT 1 Male 64 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Head Teacher

• 39 Yrs • 33 Yrs Head Teacher • 7 HT at this school


271

A total of nine inspectors were involved in this study with three being senior primary school

inspectors. The qualifications of inspectors included Certificate in Primary Teaching (23%),

Diploma in Primary Teaching (44%) and Bachelor in Education (33%). All inspectors were

former head teachers and were promoted from various head teacher levels, from Education

Officer (EO) 3 to EO8. Twenty-three percent (23%) of inspectors had less than five years

inspector experience while 77% had over five years of inspector experience. The female to

male inspector ratio was 11% to 89% respectively while the ages of inspectors varied from

less than forty years (11%) to between forty-one to fifty years (44.5%) and over fifty years

(44.5%). Table 5.3 shows the demographic characteristics of inspectors.


272

Table 5.3: Cross-Case Demographic Characteristics of Inspectors

Participants 1

Sex 2

Age 3




6 WVI 1 Male 52 • Diploma in Education Studies

• Senior Primary Inspector • 7 years Teaching • 24 years Inspector • 7 years Senior Inspector

Inspectors Positions • Inspector - 6 (67%) • Senior Inspector - 3 (33%) Qualifications • Certificate in PT – 2 (23%) • Diploma in PT – 4 (44%) • Bachelor in Ed. – 3 (33%) Teaching Experiences • < 10 years – 3 (33%) • 11 – 20 years – 4 (44%) • > 20 years – 2 (23%) Inspector Experiences • < 5 years – 2 (23%) • > 5 years – 7 (77%) Females/males • Female – 1 (11%) • Male – 8 (89%) Ages • < 40 years – 1 (11%) • 41 – 50 years – 4 (44.5%) • >51 years – 4 (44.5%)

MVI 1 Male 53 • Bachelor of Education (In-service) • Inspector

• 28 years teaching • 2 years Inspector • 2 years in present post

MVI 2 Male 46 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Senior Inspector

• 5 years teaching • 16 years inspector • 6 years current post • 6 years senior inspector

MVI 3 Female 52 • Bachelor of Education (In-service) • Inspector


EVI 1 Male 41 • Bachelor of Education (In-service) • Senior Primary School Inspector

• 6 years teaching • 9 years Inspector • 1 year in present post • 1 year senior inspector

EVI 2 Male 37 • Diploma in Primary Teaching • Inspector

• 19 years teaching • 4 years inspector • 2 years current post

EVI 3 Male 41 • Certificate in Primary Teaching • Inspector



273

Participants 1

Sex 2

Age 3




6 CVI 1 Male 51 • Certificate in Primary Teaching

• Inspector • 18 years teaching • 16 years inspector • 6 years current post

(continued)

CVI 2 Male 46 • Diploma in Primary Education • Inspector

• 17 years teaching • 9 years inspector • 1 year current post


274

5.2.3 Similarities and differences of inspectorial interactive strategies: Teachers’ views

When the teachers responded to the question of “How does the inspectorial system operate in

primary schools?” there were no appreciable differences in their views concerning the

strategies inspectors used in interacting with them. This was despite the demographic

differences of the teacher-participants. All teachers experienced, believed and perceived that

the interactive strategies adopted by inspectors in carrying out their responsibilities were

quality assurance, professional development and professional ethics (of inspectors).

However, inexperienced teachers and teachers in remote schools did not report on the

activities carried out by the inspectors that addressed issues of professional development.

This was probably due to the fact that these schools and teachers had not been visited by

inspectors for a long time.

Some critical issues that arose from the demographic characteristics and findings related to

quality assurance, professional development and professional ethics of inspectors were

teacher qualifications, professional development for teachers with varied experiences and

factors related to inspectors’ responsibilities respectively. These issues were critical because

they were important to the sustainability and evolution of the teaching profession. With

teacher qualifications, despite NDOE policy (Department of Education, 1994a) that all

primary teachers had to have a Diploma in Primary Teaching, 40% of teachers had not

gained such qualification. With professional development of teachers there was a lack of

focus on professional development of teachers at various levels of teaching experiences. The

newly graduated teachers, for example, had never had an induction program in their first

year of teaching. At the same time professional development strategies for teachers, as part

of inspectors’ responsibilities, lacked focus resulting in insufficient evidence of tangible

outcomes.

With professional ethics of inspectors, because of the absence of inspectors’ visits to schools

caused by various factors including the unavailability of logistical support, the professional

status of inspectors and the existence of the inspectorial system were being questioned by

teachers. At the same time, the behavior and conduct of inspectors including factors related

to planning, organization and commitment to their work were concerns to teachers. To add

to the problematic issues of the inspectorial system, the qualifications of most inspectors

which were lower than most teachers, questioned some inspectors’ suitability in the

profession. As a result, the professional ethics of inspectors emerged as a particular concern.

This was commonly raised by teachers including experienced teachers who had experienced

regular visitations from the inspectors.


275

5.2.4 Similarities and differences of inspectorial interactive strategies: Head teachers’

views

As with teachers, the head teachers believed that the main strategies inspectors adopted

referred to quality assurance and professional development. Professional ethics of inspectors

emerged as a strategy that resulted from inspectors performing their planned or unplanned

activities. With the exception of one head teacher, who had not been visited by the

inspectors since he was appointed four years ago, the head teachers were promoted through

the inspection processes. They noted that the inspectorial system had deteriorated in recent

years due to factors that were both within and beyond the control of the inspectors. These

factors included a lack of planning and organization by inspectors in carrying out their

responsibilities, and a lack of logistical support from NDOE for inspectors to perform their

duties effectively.

5.2.5 Similarities and differences of inspectorial interactive strategies: Inspectors’ views

Despite the different demographic characteristics of the inspector participants, there were no

significant differences in the beliefs of the inspectors on the interactive strategies they

applied when performing their responsibilities. Consistent with the experiences and beliefs

of the teachers and head teachers, the inspectors categorized the strategies into quality

assurance and professional development. However, emerging from these two main strategies

was the idea of professional ethics of inspectors. The professional ethics of inspectors were

also viewed as resulted from management factors that were caused by government agencies

that were responsible for the operation of the inspectorial system and the teaching

profession. These included the deteriorating employment conditions of inspectors, a lack of

logistical support, a lack of networking between the stakeholders, and a lack of planning by

the authorities to recognize the significant role the inspectorial system played in the

education system, particularly in monitoring and improving the standard and quality of

education in schools.

Other factors related to the demographic characteristics of inspectors that impacted on the

inspectors applying the interactive strategies included the qualifications of inspectors, the

questionable promotion of head teachers from lower levels to inspectors and the aging

inspectors who could not cope up with the demanding roles of inspectors brought about by

educational changes. For example, only 33% of inspectors had Bachelor of Education, the

desirable qualifications for inspectors; EO3 head teachers being promoted to inspectors

overlooking the experiences of EO7 and EO8 head teachers; over 44% of inspectors were


276

over fifty years old and could not walk to very remote schools as expressed openly by

teachers and head teachers. Such factors questioned the suitability of some inspectors in

their job and could make the inspectorial system ineffective.

5.2.6 Similarities and differences of dimensions of teacher professionalism: Teachers’

views

Despite the differences in the cross-case demographic characteristics of teachers, all

interviewed experienced teachers identified teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher

leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics as dimensions

of teacher professionalism. However, the inexperienced teacher who was only in his second

year teaching did not identify teacher leadership and teacher professional development as

dimensions of teacher professionalism. This observation could be attributed to the teacher’s

lack of experience. At the same time, this would indicate that teacher leadership was

perceived as a formal characteristic of the teaching profession. Teacher professional

development, though would be relevant to inexperienced teachers through induction

programs, was not perceived to be a dimension of teacher professionalism. This could due to

a lack of focus in professional development activities carried out by inspectors.

Within the case studies, the focus groups targeted specific groups of teachers. The teachers

who had not been visited by inspectors for over five years did not regard teacher compliance

and teacher leadership as dimensions of teacher professionalism. Such perceptions

questioned whether teachers concerned had complied with requirements related to their

duties and at the same time revealed that teacher leadership was only recognized through the

inspection processes. Both teacher compliance and teacher leadership were issues closely

monitored by inspectors. The teachers who had basic teaching qualifications (Certificate in

Primary Teaching) did not identify teacher knowledge as a dimension of teacher

professionalism. This perception could be attributed to the idea that the teachers were

contented with what they were doing despite the changes that were taking place with the

current curriculum reform in the schools. The teachers who were only experienced base

level teachers did not reveal teacher leadership as a dimension of teacher professionalism

and this could be attributed to their status in schools. Leadership in their context was a

formal phenomenon. Apart from these differences, teacher professional ethics emerged as a

common and significant dimension of teacher professionalism as revealed by teachers.


277

5.2.7 Similarities and differences of dimensions of teacher professionalism: Head

teachers’ views

Only one experienced head teacher noted teacher professionalism as having all five

dimensions of teacher professionalism; teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher

leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics. The head

teacher who was only in his fourth year did not identify teacher knowledge and teacher

professional development as significant to the teaching profession. This renders the role of

the head teacher in relation to teacher knowledge (concerning curriculum issues) as

problematic. The other experienced head teacher who had thirty-three years of experience

did not identify teacher leadership as a dimension of teacher professionalism and this could

be attributed to his many years of experience as a head teacher and is taking it for granted.

Teacher leadership, to some extent, had become a ‘norm’ for him. Despite these differences,

collectively head teachers noted that teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher

leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics were

dimensions of teacher professionalism.

5.2.8 Similarities and differences of dimensions of teacher professionalism: Inspectors’

views

Despite the differences in demographic characteristics of the inspectors, their experiences as

teachers, head teachers and inspectors confirmed their beliefs that teacher professionalism

concerned teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional

development and teacher professional ethics. There were no significant differences in regard

to inspectors’ experiences, beliefs and perceptions on the dimensions of teacher

professionalism. The inspectors agreed with teachers and head teachers that the identified

dimensions of teacher professionalism were teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher

leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics.

5.3 Linkages between Inspectorial Interactive Strategies and Dimensions of

Teacher Professionalism: Views of Cross-case Participants

In this section, the views of each type of participants (teachers, head teachers and inspectors)

about the linkages of the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher

professionalism are summarized to establish the overall views using the cross-case analysis

approach. The differences between the groups are also discussed to illustrate the different

experiences, beliefs and perceptions about the linkages.


278

5.3.1 Cross-case participant linkages: Views of teachers

The views of teachers on the linkages between the inspectorial strategies and the dimensions

of teacher professionalism for each case are repeated in Figures 5.1 to 5.4 and are

summarized in Figure 5.5. The connections are both simple and complex. The simple

connections in Case Study 1 were perceived by the inexperienced teacher who had not been

visited by inspectors in his two years of teaching while the complex connections in other

case studies reflected the perceptions of experienced and senior teachers in the schools.

Figure 5.1: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 1








Teacher knowledge

Teacher Leadership






Teacher knowledge

Teacher leadership




279




Teacher knowledge

Teacher Leadership



Figure 5.5: Conclusion for Teacher Perceptions of Linkages



Teacher knowledge

Teacher Leadership



In Case Study 1 (Figure 5.1) the teachers, including the inexperienced teacher, revealed that

quality assurance interactivity strategies impacted on teacher compliance, professional

development activities impacted on teacher professional development and professional ethics

of inspectors influenced teacher professional ethics. The views of teachers in Case Studies 2

and 4 (Figures 5.2 & 5.4) were similar and these portrayed the views of experienced and

senior teachers. The different connections in Case Study 3 (Figure 5.3) related quality

assurance interactive strategies as impacting as well on teacher professional development

and teacher professional ethics. Generally, it was concluded (Figure 5.5) that teachers

related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher compliance, teacher knowledge,

teacher leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics;

professional development interactive strategies related to teacher professional development;

and professional ethics of inspectors related to teacher professional ethics. It could be

argued that the inspectorial system was important to the process of quality assurance, and

that quality assurance interactive strategies enhanced the teaching profession holistically.

Respectively professional development interactive strategies and professional ethics of

inspectors influenced teachers to develop professionally in aspects of their profession and to

be ethically responsible to the teaching profession.


280

5.3.2 Cross-case participant linkages: Views of head teachers

The head teacher in Case Study 1 (Figure 5.6) who never received advisory and inspection

visits from inspectors produced complex linkages between the inspectorial interactive

strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism. It was noted that teacher

knowledge was not revealed by the head teacher as a dimension of teacher professionalism

and this was reflected in the perceptions of the linkages. Both head teachers of Case Studies

2 and 3 (Figures 5.7 & 5.8) were experienced head teachers and this was reflected in their

perceptions of the linkages, particularly when they had experienced promotion in various

levels of schools through the inspection processes. Figure 5.9 gives a summary of the views

of the head teachers about the linkages.

Figure 5.6: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 1



Teacher leadership






Teacher knowledge

Teacher leadership




281




Teacher knowledge

Teacher leadership



Figure 5.9: Conclusion for Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages



Teacher knowledge

Teacher leadership



The head teacher in Case Study 1 (Figure 5.6) had never been formally assisted and

inspected by inspectors for promotion since he became a head teacher because of the

remoteness of the school and other factors related to the operation of the inspectorates. This

experience limited his views about the linkages between the inspectorial interactive

strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism. He related quality assurance

strategies to teacher compliance, teacher leadership and teacher professional ethics while

s/he related professional development strategies to teacher professional development and

teacher leadership. He related professional ethics of inspectors to teacher professional ethics.

Teacher knowledge was never a dimension of teacher professionalism to him. The

experienced head teachers of Case Studies 2 and 3 who had been inspected and regularly

interacted with inspectors, viewed the linkages differently and related quality assurance

strategies to all five dimensions of teacher professionalism (Figure 5.7 & 5.8). These views

were similar to the views of teachers in Case Study 3 (Figure 5.3), most of whom were

experienced and senior teachers. It was revealed that head teachers who had been promoted

through the inspection processes and had regular interaction with inspectors experienced

quality assurance strategies to have influenced them holistically.

Generally, it was concluded that the head teachers related quality assurance interactive

strategies to teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional


282

development and teacher professional ethics; professional development interactive strategies

related to teacher professional development; and professional ethics of inspectors related to

teacher professional ethics (Figure 5.9).

5.3.2 Cross-case participant linkages: Views of inspectors

With the inspectors, the connections in all cases were more complex than teachers and head

teachers. The inspector in Case Study 1 (Figure 5.10) viewed the connections between the

inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism differently

to the inspectors of Case Studies 2, 3 and 4. The perceptions of inspectors in Case Studies 2,

3 and 4 were similar as shown in Figures 5.11 to 5.13. Figure 5.14 makes the general

conclusions about the views of the inspectors concerning the connections between the

inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of the teacher professionalism.

Figure 5.10: Inspector Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 1



Teacher knowledge

Teacher leadership






Teacher knowledge

Teacher leadership




283




Teacher knowledge

Teacher leadership






Teacher knowledge

Teacher leadership



Figure 5.14: Conclusion for Inspector Perceptions of Linkages



Teacher knowledge

Teacher leadership



Collectively, the inspectors related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher

compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership; professional development interactive

strategies were related to teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership and

teacher professional development; professional ethics of inspectors were related to teacher

professional ethics (Figure 5.14). However, where the head teacher and the inspector had

not formally interacted, both the head teacher and inspector related quality assurance

strategies to teacher compliance, teacher leadership and teacher professional ethics;

professional development strategies to teacher knowledge, teacher professional development

and teacher professional ethics; and professional ethics of inspectors to teacher professional

ethics. The lack of interaction between the head teacher and inspector of Case Study 1


284

revealed the inconsistent views about the linkages between the inspectorial interactive

strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism compared to the views of head

teachers and inspectors who interacted regularly.

The views of the inspectors in other case studies were similar and differed from the views of

the teachers and head teachers. These differences exposed the inconsistent views of

teachers, head teachers and inspectors about the influences of the inspectorial interactive

strategies on the teaching profession. For example, while inspectors perceived the quality

assurance strategies as restricted to teacher compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher

leadership (Figure 5.14), teachers and head teachers expanded this perception to include

teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics (Figures 5.5 & 5.9). Such

differences questioned the inspectors about what they perceived as specific outcomes of their

responsibilities. The differences also exposed the state of confusions and conflict, and the

deteriorating status of the inspectorial system that exist (Department of Education, 1978;

Apelis, 1984; The National Research Institute, 1988, p. 73; Department of Education, 1991;

Golightly, 1992). With professional development strategies, inspectors believed that these

impacted on teachers and head teachers complying with educational, administrative and

professional requirements, assisted teachers and head teachers in gaining new knowledge and

skills, and assisting teachers and head teachers in developing leadership qualities. However,

the same beliefs were not shared by teachers and head teachers. This indicated a lack of

focus in the professional development strategies that were applied by inspectors for teachers

and head teachers.

5.3.4 Synthesis of Cross-Case Participant Findings

The inspectorial strategies were identified as quality assurance, professional development

and professional ethics of inspectors while the dimensions of teacher professionalism were

defined as teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional

development and teacher professional ethics. The linkages between the inspectorial

interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism are shown on Table 5.4.

Table 5.4 addresses the question, “Do teachers, head teachers and inspectors perceive the

links between the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher

professionalism?”

From the discussions on the similar and different experiences, beliefs and perceptions above

and resulting with the linkages shown in Table 5.4, it was concluded that teachers, head

teachers and inspectors believed that quality assurance interactive strategies impacted


285

directly on teacher compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership. However, only

teachers and head teachers believed that quality assurance activities influenced them in their

professional development and professional ethics. Inspectors did not share this belief

implying a lack of broader understanding about their responsibilities and how these impacted

on teachers. This may imply that inspectors lacked appropriate knowledge in aspects of

quality assurance, professional development and professional ethics, and in aspects of

teacher professionalism in order to supervise teachers and head teachers to achieve specific

outcomes. At the same time, this may also mean that there was a lack of clear focus and

demarcation of strategies used by inspectors when interacting with teachers and head

teachers.

Table 5.4: Cross-Case Participant Findings of Themes and the Linkages

Cross-case Participants

1


2


Quality Assurance

4


5

Professional Ethics

6 Key: Teachers ▲ Head teachers ► Inspectors ◄

Teacher Compliance ▲►◄ ◄

Teacher Knowledge ▲►◄ ◄

Teacher Leadership ▲►◄ ◄


▲► ▲►◄


▲► ▲►◄

With professional development interactive strategies, teachers and head teachers believed

that these strategies influenced them in their professional development. This implied that in-

service and training activities carried out by inspectors for specific purposes, teachers and

head teachers were able to appreciate and benefit from. This belief was confirmed by

inspectors. However, only the inspectors believed that professional development interactive

strategies were impacting on teacher compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership.

This belief was contrary to teachers’ and head teachers’ experiences and beliefs, and

explained a lack of focus and consistencies, and the confusions on the professional

development roles of inspectors.

With the professional ethics of inspectors, all participants experienced and believed that how

inspectors carried out their responsibilities, influenced teachers’ and head teachers’

professional ethics. The professional ethics of inspectors related to the conduct and behavior

through which inspectors interacted with teachers and head teachers. These behavior,


286

conduct and factors include planning or a lack of planning for school visits, qualifications or

a lack of appropriate qualifications for inspectors to perform their roles effectively, and the

availability and non-availability of resources for inspectors to perform their supervisory

tasks. Teachers and head teachers required regular supervision from inspectors if they were

to perform their responsibilities reliably as commonly expressed by all participants.

These findings also revealed that there were many other factors that were caused by cultural,

management, administrative and organizational problems experienced by the participants

that contributed to how the teachers, head teachers and inspectors perceived the linkages

between the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism.

These factors included a lack of corporation amongst the NDOE and PDOE personnel,

teachers and head teachers, and inspectors; a lack of attention to improve the qualifications

of inspectors; the increasing work loads of inspectors brought about by the education reform;

and working conditions of teachers, head teachers and inspectors. These issues and findings

are discussed below as part of the ‘input-process-output’ structure in Section 5.5.

5.4 Cross-case Findings

This cross-case analysis summarizes the findings and discussions as the overall outcome of

the research and answers the questions “How does the Inspectorial System operate in

Primary Schools in PNG? What issues do teachers and school inspectors of primary schools

experience as arising from such inspectorial operation? Do the activities carried out by

inspectors result with intended outcomes being achieved? If not, why? What needs to be

changed? Do inspectors experience difficulties in engaging the strategies to perform their

responsibilities? If so, what are the difficulties? How can these difficulties be addressed?

What are the dimensions or characteristics of teacher professionalism that are perceived by

teachers, head teachers and inspectors? How do these dimensions of teacher professionalism

linked to the interactive strategies applied by inspectors on teachers and head teachers? Do

teachers, head teachers and inspectors perceive the links between the inspectorial interactive

strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism?”

5.4.1 Demographic differences of the case studies and participants

The Case Studies represented the many different types of primary school situations and

provincial inspectorates in PNG. These were remote schools where government services

were minimal and accessibility to schools was difficult, rural schools where some

government services existed and accessibility to schools was easy, and urban Church agency

and government agency schools. The latter two categories of schools had easy access to all


287

government services. The provincial inspectorates included small and large inspectorates

that had different political and administrative differences that existed in provinces, and the

different levels of support being received from NDOE and the provincial administrations.

For example, in all inspectorates the level of financial and logistical support, including lack

of transportation to schools, provided by NDOE was very limited. For two inspectorates

(Case Studies 1 and 4), there was also very limited financial and logistical support from the

provincial administration, while for the other two inspectorates (Case Studies 2 and 3), there

was good financial and logistical support, including provision of vehicles and funds for

inspectors to visit schools, provided by the provincial administration.

Teachers, head teachers and inspectors who participated in this study had varied

demographic differences (refer Table 5.1). With teachers, there were inexperienced teachers

or teachers who were in their first two years of teaching, experienced teachers, teachers who

had minimal teaching qualifications, senior teachers, teachers who had not been visited or

inspected by inspectors for a number of years, and teachers who had been visited or

inspected by inspectors recently. With head teachers, there was a head teacher with minimal

teaching qualification (Certificate in Primary Teaching) and who had not been visited or

inspected by inspectors, and there were two head teachers who were experienced and had

appropriate qualifications (Diploma in Education). With inspectors, there were inspectors

who were inexperienced or who were in their first two years of being inspectors, experienced

inspectors, inspectors who only had basic teaching qualifications (Certificate in Primary

Teaching), inspectors who had appropriate qualifications including Bachelor in Education.

The nature of the study did not consider gender as significant to its outcome. However, with

teacher participants, 47% were females and 53% were males, a reasonable representation.

There was no volunteered female head teacher involved in the study while with inspectors,

11% females and 89% males volunteered for the study. Coincidently, the female-male

inspector ratio represents the current gender situation with the inspectorates. These factors

were significant to the analysis that summarizes the findings, discussions and that answers

the research questions.

5.4.2 Cross-case analysis

This cross-case analysis summarizes the common and different experiences, beliefs and

perceptions of the participants about how the inspectorial system operated in PNG primary

schools, the participants’ understanding about teacher professionalism, and the relationships

between these two phenomenal issues. With this analysis the findings and discussions were


288

used to establish the ‘relationships’ between the interactive strategies of inspectorial system

and the dimensions of teacher professionalism. This is summarized in Table 5.5.

Table 5.5: Cross-Case Analysis of Themes and Linkages

Participants & Case

1


2


Quality Assurance

4


5

Professional Ethics

6 Key: Teachers ▲ Head teachers ► Focus groups ▼ Inspectors ◄ Case 1 ♀ Case 2 ☼ Case 3 ☺ Case 4 ☻

Teacher Compliance

▲►▼◄ ♀☼☺☻

▼☼ ▲▼◄☺ ◄☻

Teacher Knowledge

▲►◄☼ ▲►▼◄☺ ▲◄☻

▼♀ ◄☼

▲▼◄☺

Teacher Leadership

▲►♀ ▲►◄☼☺ ▲◄☻

◄♀☼☻ ▲▼◄☺

☻


►▼☼ ▲▼►☺

▲►▼◄♀☼☺


►▼◄♀☺ ►☼

▼◄ ►♀ ▲►▼◄☼♀☻ ☺

Note: Examples of interpreting Table 5.5

• ▲►♀ - means that teachers and head teachers in Case Studies 1 related quality assurance to teacher leadership (column4).

• ◄♀☼☻ - means that inspectors in Case Studies 1, 2 and 3 related professional development strategies to teacher leadership (column 5).


289

5.4.3 Common findings

Generally, all participants revealed that inspectors used two main inspectorial interactive

strategies when supervising teachers and head teachers. These interactive strategies were

quality assurance and professional development. Emerging from these interactive strategies

was the professional ethics of inspectors which related to the behavior and conduct of

inspectors when performing their responsibilities. Generally, all participants also revealed

that the dimensions of teacher professionalism were teacher compliance, teacher knowledge,

teacher leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics. The

significant findings concerned the relationships between the inspectorial interactive

strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism. The findings answered the

questions of “How do these dimensions of teacher professionalism linked to the inspectorial

interactive strategies? Do teachers, head teachers and inspectors perceive the links between

the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism?” The

common linkages were that quality assurance strategies related directly to teacher

compliance, professional development strategies related directly to teacher professional

development and professional ethics of inspectors related directly to teacher professional

ethics. These common linkages implied that quality assurance activities inspectors applied,

when interacting with teachers and head teachers, were mainly to ensure teachers and head

teachers complied with requirements of NDOE, TSC and PDOE. Professional development

activities inspectors facilitated or carried out with teachers and head teachers contributed to

the professional development of teachers and head teachers. Professional ethics of

inspectors influenced teachers and head teachers in performing their responsibilities.

5.4.4 Differences in findings

While there were common disclosures concerning inspectorial interactive strategies there

were also differences. While teachers, head teachers and inspectors agreed that the

inspectorial interactive strategies were quality assurance, professional development and

professional ethics of inspectors, teachers and head teachers who had not been visited, did

not reveal any professional development activities carried out by inspectors. This experience

also included novice teachers who had not been inducted into the teaching profession.

While the dimensions of teacher professionalism were teacher compliance, teacher


ethics, there were specific differences in the perceptions of these. Experienced and based

level teachers who had not been visited by inspectors for a number of years did not recognize

teacher compliance and teacher leadership as significant to the teaching profession. Such


290

perceptions questioned the commitment of teachers to comply with basic educational,

professional and administrative requirements. At the same time such perceptions showed

that teachers only complied with educational requirements when inspectors visited and

inspected them. Teacher leadership was revealed as a formal phenomenon but was also not a

significant dimension of teacher professionalism. This meant that teachers only showed

leadership qualities when they knew they were being visited and inspected for promotional

opportunities through the current appraisal system (Baki, 2001a; Baki, 2001 b). This

revelation questioned the sustainability and the deteriorating state of leadership in PNG

primary schools and the validity and reliability of the current appraisal system.

The novice or inexperienced teachers did not view teacher leadership and teacher

professional development as significant dimensions of the teaching profession but believed

that teacher compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher professional ethics were significant

to their work. Teacher leadership in this context was considered as a formal phenomenon.

Teacher professional development, in the absence of induction programs, was also observed

by the inexperienced teachers as not significant to the teaching profession. It could be

ascertained that, at this stage of the novice teachers’ career, complying with basic

educational and teaching requirements, demonstrating subject knowledge and displaying

professional ethics were priority because these were required by NDOE and TSC (Baki,

2001b; Department of Education, 1983; Teaching Service Commission, 1988).

The head teacher, who had no advisory visit or inspection from the inspectors, did not

acknowledge teacher knowledge and teacher professional development as significant to

his/her career. This could be the reflection of his/her current basic teaching qualification

(Certificate in Primary Teaching) which was lower than most teachers’ qualifications.

Again, without head teacher induction programs, teacher professional development was

observed by the head teacher as not a dimension of the teaching profession. At the same

time this could indicate the lack of priority and attention to professional development

programs as part of their leadership roles in the school.

In addressing the question on the relationships between the inspectorial interactive strategies

(quality assurance, professional development and inspector professional ethics) and the

dimensions of teacher professionalism (teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher

leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics), the differences

varied greatly with the participants. All teachers, with the exception of the novice teachers

and experienced head teachers, related quality assurance activities as influencing them in

enhancing teacher knowledge. Inspectors, who had Diplomas and Bachelors in Education


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agreed with this experience. Only the teachers and head teachers related quality assurance

interactive strategies as impacting on their leadership roles in schools. Those who paid

regular visits to schools, agreed that quality assurance strategies impacted on formal teacher

leadership roles. At the same time quality assurance strategies was seen by some teachers as

contributing to their professional development. This was a comparative contrast to most

inspectors who agreed with these experiences and perceptions. Quality assurance strategies

were also linked to teacher professional ethics though only head teachers, supported by some

inspectors, revealed this relationship. Teachers, however, did not agree with this

relationship.

With professional development interactive strategies, some teachers related these to teacher

compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership. These teachers were teachers of

urban schools whose school was regularly visited by inspectors. Most inspectors agreed with

such experiences though all inspectors agreed that professional development strategies did

influence teachers and head teachers in their formal leadership roles. With the exception of

the head teacher who had not been visited or inspected by inspectors, head teachers did not

link professional development strategies to any other dimensions of teacher professionalism

apart from influencing them in their professional development. The head teacher and

teachers of the remote school that was never visited by the inspectors, related professional

development strategies to teacher professional ethics implying that these strategies did

influence the head teachers and teachers in how they conducted their responsibilities.

5.5 Input, Process and Output Structure of the Findings

This section sums up the above cross-case research findings using an ‘input-process-output’

structure that illustrates the issues and factors that influenced the inspectorial system in

enhancing or constraining teacher professionalism. Figure 5.15 shows the ‘input-process-

output’ structure and the relationships between various issues and factors concerning the

operation of the inspectorial system and teacher professionalism.

The participants’ experiences, beliefs and perceptions culminated with the inspectorial

system having three main functions, and that was to maintain, improve and develop the

school system (Box 1). These functions were carried out by inspectors when they interacted

with teachers and head teachers while carrying out their responsibilities. Inspectors already

had the experiences that were required to perform responsibilities while they were head

teachers. However, some inspectors lacked the formal qualifications, professional ethics and

values that were needed by the profession to enrich them and allow them to maintain their


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integrity in order perform their responsibilities effectively and efficiently. To compound the

ineffectiveness and inefficiencies of the inspectorial functions, there were other factors,

including the employment conditions of inspectors that put constraints on inspectors’ work

and welfare (Box 2). At the same time, existing cultures of the organizations responsible for

the inspectors’ operations were not conducive to the management, administrative and

logistical needs of the inspectors to ensure they operate effectively (Box 3). This was

compounded by a lack of feedback and follow-up by inspectors on the outcomes of their

interaction with teachers and head teachers. Thus, as ‘inputs’ (Box 2 & 3), the inspectorial

system needed efficient administrative and management systems and changes in

organizational cultures of government agencies responsible for its operation to facilitate the

inspectorial functions.


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Figure 5.15: Inspectorial System and Teacher Professionalism - Structure of Findings

Personnel/Activities System/Processes Operations

As external supervisors in schools, inspectors performed advisory activities and carried out

the inspection processes (Box 4). These supervisory activities and processes make up the

inspectorial interactive strategies and are further categorized as ‘processes’ (Boxes 4, 5 & 6).

The interactive strategies are categorized into quality assurance, professional development

and professional ethics of inspectors (Box 5) while the processes (Box 6) involved include

observing lessons and providing advice on the quality and quantity of teaching and learning,

monitoring curriculum requirements through checking of teaching and assessment records,

providing appraisal reports, interviewing teachers and head teachers about their

2 INSPECTORS

• Qualifications • Head teacher

experience • Employment

conditions • Professional ethics

1 INSPECTORIAL

FUNCTIONS • Maintenance • Improvement • Development

3 INPUT

• Administration • Management • Organization

culture • Feedback

5 INSPECTORIAL INTERACTIVE STRATEGIES

• Quality assurance • Professional development • Professional ethics

6 PROCESSES

• Interviews • Reports • Observations • Records-checks • Etc

4 EXTERNAL

SUPERVISORY ACTIVITIES

• Advisory activities • Inspection processes

7 TEACHERS & HEAD

TEACHERS • Qualifications • Experience • Employment

conditions • School locations • School infrastructure

8 TEACHER

PROFESSIONALISM • Teacher compliance • Teacher knowledge • Teacher leadership • Teacher professional

development • Teacher professional

ethics

9 OUTCOMES

• Effective & efficient teacher performance

• Quality teaching & learning

• Teachers & head teachers as agents of change

• Achievements of school goals


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responsibilities, and providing training and in-service activities for teachers and head

teachers.

However, there were factors impacting on these inspectorial interactive strategies which

adversely or positively influenced teachers and head teachers. These factors included a lack

of clear demarcations between the advisory and inspection roles of inspectors as ‘advisors’,

‘inspectors’ or ‘professional development officers’. The lack of involvement and

participation by stakeholders, and a lack of concern from stakeholders for inspectors’

functions were also significant issues that impacted on inspectors performing their legitimate

duties.

Teacher professionalism in PNG is perceived to be outcomes of the inspectorial interactive

strategies and is characterized into teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher

leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics (Box 8). This

was the case for teachers, head teachers and inspectors, despite the demographic differences

the personnel had. However, the findings revealed that there were variations depending on

qualifications and experiences of teachers, head teachers and inspectors (Box 2 & 7). Other

factors that enhanced or constrained teacher professionalism were perceived to be

employment conditions of teachers and head teachers, school infrastructure needs that are

required for educating children. Thus what should transpire from the enhanced teacher

professionalism would be effective and efficient teacher and head teacher performance,

teachers and head teachers become agents of change in the school system, quality teaching

and learning taking place and, eventually, the school goals being achieved (Box 9).

The ‘input-process-output’ structure provides an ideal situation for the teacher

professionalism to be enhanced and evolved if inspectors were intrinsically motivated with

working conditions that educationally, professionally and administratively equipped them to

carry out their responsibilities. This is because an enhancing and evolving teaching

profession would provide for the needs of the children and the community. However,

teachers and head teachers themselves had to be equipped to meet the challenges that were

brought about by changes in the school system. Through quality assurance and professional

development inspectorial interactive strategies, and together with improved professional

ethics of inspectors, quality teaching and learning would provide for a quality primary

education (Box 9).


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5.6 Summary of Cross-Case Findings

The cross-case findings summarize the research outcomes for the relationships between the

inspectorial system and teacher professionalism as experienced, believed and perceived by

teachers, head teachers and inspectors of primary schools in PNG. Generally, the findings

revealed that, despite the different locations (remote, rural or urban) and levels of the

schools, the different demographic differences of teachers, head teachers and inspectors, and

the educational, professional, administrative and management problems experienced, the

same situations were experienced. It is concluded that inspectors carried out their

responsibilities through quality assurance and professional development interactive

strategies. Arising from these two inspectorial interactive strategies was the professional

ethics of inspectors that resulted from the behavior and conduct by which inspectors

performed their responsibilities. At the same time, despite the differences in the beliefs of

the participants, it is concluded that teacher professionalism from a PNG perspective

consisted of five dimensions, and these were teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher

leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics.

The findings concluded that teachers, head teachers and inspectors agreed that quality

assurance interactive strategies directly related to teacher compliance, teacher knowledge

and teacher leadership. Professional development interactive strategies directly impacted on

teacher professional development and professional ethics of inspectors directly influenced

teacher professional ethics. These findings are further discussed and interpreted in Chapter 6

to form a theoretical framework that models an improved inspectorial system that enhances

teacher professionalism.


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CHAPTER SIX

Synthesis of the Findings

6.1 Introduction

During the past three years I have considered the research question from a variety of

perspectives, from ideas and theories to realistic complex situations. I first began exploring

the responsibilities of school inspectors and how these responsibilities influenced education

standards and quality education in schools in PNG. However, at the beginning of my study I

realized that achieving better education standards and quality education depended on how

inspectors’ responsibilities influenced or impacted on aspects of the teaching profession. In

other words, teachers are the catalysts for enhancing education standards and quality

education (Hargreaves, 2003). This realization led me to investigate the relationships

between the inspectorial system and teacher professionalism.

This chapter synthesizes the findings of the qualitative case study research and literature

review about the main issues being studied. This is done so that specific answers are drawn

together to produce new information to the following questions, “How does the inspectorial

system operate in Primary Schools? What are the interactive strategies of the inspectorial

system? What are the dimensions of teacher professionalism as perceived by teachers, head

teachers and inspectors? How are these dimensions of teacher professionalism linked to the

interactive strategies applied by inspectors on teachers and head teachers? Do teachers, head

teachers and inspectors openly recognize the links between the interactive strategies of the

inspectorial system and the dimensions of teacher professionalism?”

This chapter follows on from the discussions in Chapters 1, 2 and 5. It begins with an

integrated review of the functions and responsibilities of the inspectorial system and its

interactive strategies as viewed by teachers, head teachers and inspectors in primary schools.

This is followed by an integrated review of the dimensions of teacher professionalism as

viewed by teachers, head teachers and inspectors. Importantly the chapter combines the

views of teachers, head teachers and inspectors about the relationships between the

inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism, and

discusses the factors affecting such relationships. The chapter concludes with a discussion

on how the inspectorial system and its interactive strategies can enhance teacher

professionalism.


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6.2 Functions of Inspectorial System

The main functions of the past and present inspectorial systems are to maintain, improve and

develop the school system so that the schools provide better education for the children in

order to meet the expectations of the stakeholders. This initial idea has remained in PNG

despite the fact that most countries have changed or modified their inspectorial systems by

introducing different responsibilities for inspectors (Ball, Cunningham & Radford, 1961;

Guthrie, 1983; Grubb, 2000; Gurr, 2003; MacNab, 2004; De Grauwe, 2007; Mel, 2007).

The changes most countries have made to their inspectorial systems also came with changes

to the name ‘inspector’ depicting the new mandated responsibilities performed by inspectors.

The changes have also come with parallel developments in the school system including

changes in school management, strategies for professional development of teachers and head

teachers, and other developmental issues in education (Early, Fidler & Ouston, 1996;

Learmonth, 2000; Chapman, 2001; MacNab, 2004; De Grauwe, 2007). While inspectors’

main responsibility is to ensure education standards and quality education are improved,

different supervisory approaches have also evolved with changes, from basic management

principles (Sergiovanni & Starrat, 1993; Glanz, 1994; MacNab, 2004; DeGrauwe, 2007) to

such approaches as school self-evaluation, self-assessment, self-inspection, self-review,

performance measurement and audit done by schools (Smith, 2000; U.S. Department of

Education, 2002; Queensland Government, 2004; MacBeath, 2006; Gurr, 2007). Through

these approaches schools are made to be accountable to their own management and

operational functions in order to achieve their goals. Despite this, inspectors or designated

external supervisors remain central to these processes.

6.3 Inspectors as External Supervisors in Schools

Inspectors are external supervisors within the school system and carry out functions and

responsibilities of central government agencies. In most cases they carry out the same

responsibilities as school based supervisors. However, the functions and responsibilities

they perform relate directly to ensuring that schools are accountable to the central

government agencies and other stakeholders. As external supervisors, inspectors perform

their duties with authority, particularly in monitoring, assessing and evaluating teacher

performance, curriculum requirements, teaching standards and the implementation of

government and educational policies (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007). These responsibilities

directly involve interacting with teachers and head teachers. In interacting with teachers and

head teachers, inspectors use inspectorial interactive strategies which can be identified into

three main categories - that of supervision which encompasses monitoring, auditing,

evaluating and assessing school and teacher performances, and facilitating teacher


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development; quality assurance which encompasses auditing, ‘accountability’, evaluation

and assessment; and professional development which encompasses teacher professional

development and appraisal (Ball, Cunningham & Radford, 1961; Dwyer, 1988; Woods &

Orlik, 1994; Early, Fidler & Ouston, 1996; Wilcox & Gray, 1996; Webb & Vulliamy, 1998;

Mooney & Munton, 1999; Campbell & Husbands, 2000; Grubb, 2000; Smith, 2000; Gurr,

2003; MacNab, 2004; Swaffield & MacBeath, 2005; De Grauwe, 2007) (also refer Section

2.3.3 & Figure 2.1). However, from the review and the findings, this study revealed that the

strategies used by inspectors, in any form, are all central to supervision because they are

interrelated. At the same time, professional ethics of inspectors as external supervisors

emerged strategies that are embedded within the supervision function. In other words,

inspectors use supervisory practices to perform quality assurance and professional

development strategies. These strategies, depending on how ethically or unethically they

were performed, resulted with professional ethics of inspectors as ‘inspectorial interactive

strategies’. These strategies are discussed below.

6.3.1 Inspectorial Interactive Strategies

In answering the questions, ‘How does the inspectorial system operate in Primary Schools’

and ‘What are the interactive strategies of the inspectorial system’, this study revealed that

inspectors interacted with teachers and head teachers using two main inspectorial interactive

strategies. As discussed above, these inspectorial interactive strategies were quality

assurance and professional development and, associated with these two main inspectorial

interactive strategies, was the professional ethics of inspectors, which related directly to how

inspectors behaved and conducted themselves while carrying out their responsibilities.

Quality assurance interactive strategies encompassed accountability, monitoring,

assessment, evaluation and reporting of teachers’ and head teachers’ performances for

suitability and promotion and ensured resources were used for children’s education

(MacBeath, 2006). The ultimatum was that these strategies ensured that schools accounted

for children’s learning. Teachers, head teachers’ and schools’ performances were monitored,

assessed, evaluated and reported to authorities to ensure that the schools served their purpose

and were able to achieve their goals and objectives (Gurr, 2007). At the same time, the

implementation of educational policies was monitored and was reported to authorities. Table

6.1 summarizes examples of quality assurance interactive strategies.

How urgent and serious authorities reacted to reports was an issue that could lead to a

decline or improvement in work performances of teachers and head teachers (Learmonth,


299

2000). The study also revealed that only the inspectors extended quality assurance

interactive strategies to include the monitoring and evaluation of the supervisory and

management processes that existed in the schools, the school physical environments and the

involvement of the stakeholders in aspects of the schools. While these strategies were

indicators that related directly to the quality of education (Welch, 2000), they were not

emphasized by the teachers and head teachers. This could indicate a lack of knowledge on

the management of the educational functions of the schools by teachers and head teachers.

The need to address such issues by the inspectorial system is necessary if schools have to

serve their functions well. However, schools can only serve their functions well if a

philosophy about work, people and human relations are centered around shared values,

exceptional performance and where there is emphasis on public accountability (Lim, 2001;

Travers, 2007). At the same time, quality assurance strategies need to identify and address

indicators of quality education such as qualifications, curriculum resources including

teaching and learning materials, and teacher development programs to enhance education

standards and the quality of education. (Welch, 2000). Quality assurance must also embrace

internal school improvement and should emphasize external accountability through school

self-evaluation, self-assessment, self-inspection, self-auditing and self-review

(Macclaughlin, 2001; va Amelsvoot, et al, 2006)

Professional development interactive strategies related directly to inspectors interacting with

teachers and head teachers to improve teaching and management practices and to ensure they

keep up with changes in the education system. This included inspectors identifying areas of

weaknesses in curriculum implementation, school based supervisory strategies, management

of resources and aspects of leadership, and providing appropriate advice and/or developing

training programs to address the areas of weaknesses. Inspectors, as external supervisors,

were also seen as sources of information on government and educational policies. They

were expected to be knowledgeable in government and educational policies. They were

consulted on educational issues if and when teachers and head teachers needed them. Beside

these perceptions, teachers and head teachers believed that inspectors’ roles were to help

them improve teaching and management practices. This implies that professional

development interactive strategies related more to improvement of professional, educational

and administrative practices as well as contributing to the professional development of

teachers and head teachers.


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Table 6.1: Examples of Themes of Quality Assurance Interactive Strategies

Quality Assurance Teachers Head teachers Inspectors

Case Study 1

• Inspectors check teaching files & records, personal records, delegated duties records, work programs, workbooks, roll books & lesson plans

• Inspectors observe teacher’s lessons. • Registration of teachers through inspection

processes done by inspectors. • Inspectors check teachers’ work at their own

discretion.

• Inspectors carry out inspection for promotion.

• Inspectors write reports on how teachers teach & how they perform their responsibilities.

• Inspectors provide information to help head teachers to abide by policies in managing schools.

• Inspectors’ Operational Plans cover school visits, supervisory duties and training programs.

• Inspectors ensure senior teachers are organized in supervising teachers.

• Inspectors supervise and assess head teachers as curriculum leaders.

• Inspectors ensure that Board of Management (BOM) and Parents & Citizens Association carry out their responsibilities.

Case Study 2 • Inspectors check on performances of teachers. • Inspectors gather reports from head teacher and

write report on teachers. • Inspectors check on curriculum requirements. • Inspectors maintain the standard of teaching and

student learning.

• Inspectors visit, talk and share with head teachers professional issues and new changes that come about.

• Inspectors advise schools on government (education) policies.

• Inspectors ensure administrative requirements, including monthly returns, are done.

• Inspectors ensure school based supervision is effective. • Inspectors ensure support from the community and parent

exists. • Inspectors deal with teacher and student discipline.

Case Study 3 • Inspectors check on curriculum requirements. • Inspectors monitor student welfare. • Inspectors monitor head teacher leadership. • Inspectors check on the management and

responsibilities to enhance quality education. • Inspectors inspect teachers for registration.

• Inspectors inspect head teacher for promotion.

• Inspectors receive and compile reports about the schools for authorities.

• Supervision for accountability to ensure resources is used for children’s education done by inspectors.

• Inspectors inform teachers and monitor implementation of educational policies.

• Inspectors receive and compile reports about the schools for authorities.

• Inspectors appraise teachers’ & head teachers’ performances for promotion.

• Inspectors supervise teaching standards & curriculum requirements.

• Inspectors ensure physical learning environment exists in schools.

Case Study 4 • Inspectors check on curriculum requirements and monitor academic standards.

• Inspectors monitor teacher performance. • Inspectors inspect teachers for registration and

promotion.

Not applicable • Inspectors monitor teaching standards. • Inspectors inform teachers and monitor implementation

of educational policies. • Inspectors appraise teachers’ and head teachers’

performances for registration and promotion. • Supervision done by inspectors for accountability to

ensure resources is used for children’s education.


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Inspectors, on the other hand, emphasized that professional development activities directly

influenced teachers and head teachers in their professional development and that this gave

teachers and head teachers opportunities for promotion. Table 6.2 summarizes examples of

professional development interactive strategies. However, how influential the professional

development interactive strategies were for teachers and head teachers was a concern to

participants, implying that teachers and head teachers were not contented with this aspect of

the inspectors’ role. It was also imperative that productive learning environments and a

culture of learning atmosphere were needed to exist in schools if tangible outcomes were to

be achieved (Day, 1994; Philips, 2003; Harris & van Tassell, 2005). This is paramount to

any professional development strategies that address improvement and development issues

of schools.

Professional development strategies applied by inspectors, either through facilitation or

direct interaction with teachers and head teachers, were not based on any specific model or

theory. This made it difficult for intended outcomes, if they were any, to be achieved.

Developing professional development models that should suite particular groups, levels or

contexts of teachers, head teachers and schools or using existing models is necessary if

professional development strategies are to make a difference in the professional career of

teachers and head teachers (also refer Section 2.3.3). Professional development strategies

applied by inspectors must also be focused on issues that address specific educational

changes and agenda, including moral purposes of teaching. In other words, different

professional development strategies, including models and theories, must be applied within a

particular school context rather than generally applying strategies across all schools that are

of very little or no benefit to teachers and head teachers (MacBeath, 2005).


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Table 6.2: Examples of Themes on Professional Development Interactive Strategies


Teachers Head Teachers Inspectors

Case Study 1

There were no comments from teachers in relation to professional development interactive strategies.

• Inspectors provide advice on areas of weaknesses for improvement.

• Inspectors help in extending head teacher knowledge in order to administer and manage schools.

• Inspectors help head teachers to formulate school policies.

• Inspectors train senior teachers to become Deputy Head Teachers. • Inspectors strengthen head teachers’ and teachers’ supervisory roles

ensuring skills and confidence in supervision and curriculum implementation including teaching methods, knowledge and competence are developed.

• Inspectors work with PDOE personnel and other stakeholders in an advisory capacity.

Case Study 2 • Inspectors are resource people that teachers rely on for advice & assistance.

• Inspectors encourage teachers to improve in their teaching.

• Inspectors help teachers with new curriculum development.

• Inspectors help teachers to be knowledgeable in their subjects.

• Inspectors help teachers with changes including curriculum development.

• Inspectors discuss issues on professional development and growth of teachers.

• Inspectors conduct in-services for the professional development of teachers.

• Inspectors give advice after visits in the classrooms observing teachers’ lessons.

• Inspectors identify the weaknesses in head teacher performance & provide advice accordingly.

• Inspectors look at the areas of teacher professionalism and assist teachers, professionally and personally.

• Inspectors use relevant documents including the Teaching Service and the Education Acts to in-service teachers and head teachers on issues that they are not aware of.

• Inspectors discuss with the head teacher the issues related to supervision of teachers and provide assistance where appropriate.

• Inspectors conduct meetings with teachers and discuss common issues as observed, as well as new development in the education system.

Case Study 3 • Inspectors assist teachers in their professional development.

• Other activities as above.

• Head teacher and teacher professional development is enhanced when in-service and training are pursued by inspectors.


• Teacher professional development being pursued by inspectors. • Inspectors’ direct involvement with teacher and head teacher

professional development. • Other activities as above.

Case Study 4 • Inspectors assist teachers in their professional development.


Not applicable • Inspectors provide good leadership to teachers and head teachers (role models).

• Inspectors’ direct involvement with teacher and head teacher professional development through in-service programs, conferences, meetings and workshops.


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The inspectorial interactive strategies associated with the professional ethics of inspectors

that emerged from this study revealed the deteriorating image and status of the inspectorial

system in PNG. How inspectors behaved and conducted themselves in interacting with

teachers and head teachers, and a lack of recognition of the importance of the inspectorial

functions in enhancing the teaching profession by authorities, had become contentious issues

(refer Table 6.3 which summarizes examples of professional ethics of inspectors). This had

come about because of both operational and professional factors that were affecting the

inspectors in carrying out their responsibilities, including a lack of visitations to schools

caused by a lack of resources and a lack of qualifications and professional development

activities for inspectors respectively. This implies that inspectors were not equipped with

resources to perform their responsibilities effectively. At the same time, most inspectors

were not academically equipped with appropriate management and supervisory skills,

curriculum knowledge and leadership qualities to create good impressions, encourage high

performance (through quality assurance strategies) and facilitate professional development

strategies. These factors were compounded by the deteriorating employment conditions of

inspectors that also affected their morale and commitment to their responsibilities. These

were vital ingredients in sustaining professional ethics of inspectors. Teachers and head

teachers expressed a lack of confidence in the work of inspectors because most inspectors

did not address specific issues in schools, amongst other irregular supervisory practices. The

study revealed that professional ethics of inspectors were a current source of dilemmas

within the inspectorial system. Such ethical dilemmas were also caused by organizational

cultures of central government agencies responsible for the inspectorial system, the teaching

profession and the school system. Such cultural issues included a lack of communication,

collaboration and networking between stakeholders concerning the roles of teachers, head

teachers and inspectors. In general, the central government agencies (NDOE and PDOE)

had shown little or no respect for how significant the inspectorial system was to the

maintenance, improvement and development of the school system. Therefore, the

participants’ concerns challenge these agencies to deal with this situation so that the image

and integrity of inspectors are enhanced.


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Table 6.3: Examples of Themes of Professional Ethics of Inspectors

Case Teachers Head Teachers Inspectors Study 1

Operational issues • Teacher visited only once & only for

registration. • No documents, including newsletters, related to

inspector’s expectations of the teacher were given to teachers.

• No feedback from the inspector after visits. • Inspectors observed teachers’ work less in

remote schools compared to urban schools. Professional issues • Many teachers not performing well but getting

good inspection reports for full registration. • Lack of commitment by inspector in assisting

teachers.

Operational Issues • Head teacher has not been paid advisory &

inspection visits by inspectors for 5 years. • No appropriate documents provided by

inspectors to help the head teacher & teachers in supervision of teachers, management of schools & writing inspection reports.

Professional Issues • Inspector did not look thoroughly at the things

teacher expected him to write about. • Inspection done without advisory visit does not

help teachers.

Operational issues Impact of changes on the lives of teachers in both rural/remote & urban schools not being catered for by inspectors due to lack of resources. Professional issues Duplication of supervisory roles performed by school personnel & inspector – inspector, head teacher & senior teacher supervising based level teachers, etc.

Study 2 Operational issues • Inspectors do their work in school in a hurry. • Some inspectors do not have specific purposes

to visit schools. • Inspectors give excuses, including no transport,

of not visiting schools. Professional issues • Teachers are not sure of inspector’s help during

in-services. • Inspectors are not clear about new changes,

including curriculum changes, for them to help teachers better.

• It’s possible that teachers only prepare for inspectors’ visits to please the inspectors.

Operational issues • Inspectors being promoted from lower positions

as head teachers being questioned. • The inspectors duplicate the work of the head

teacher & senior teachers. • Inspectors are concentrating too much on

inspection role & have neglected their advisory role.

• There is no support from provincial authorities for proper offices for the inspectors to work in & this is affecting their status & their work in assisting teachers.

Operational issues Inspectors have not visited some schools for 5 years due to logistical problems. Professional issues • Without the inspectorial system schools will not

operate well. • Inspectors have to be fully versed & acquire

skills and knowledge to be of help to teachers & head teachers.

• Inspectors contribute indirectly to children’s education.


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Case Teachers Head Teachers Inspectors • Inspectors when not inspecting teachers have

implications on teacher performance, appointment & promotion.

• Since the education reform the performance of inspectors has dropped.

• There is no quality assurance system within the inspectorial system to ensure inspector professionalism is maintained.

Professional issues • The head teacher is happy with particular

inspector’s performance. • There are inconsistencies in the content of the

inspection reports that affected the head teacher’s respect for the inspector.

• Inspectors have no idea about the new curriculum & are being questioned on their roles.

• Some inspectors do not take documents relating to their roles & other educational & professional issues seriously to assist them in their responsibilities.

• There is a big gap between inspectors, teachers & head teachers because teachers & head teachers do not know what inspectors are supposed to do.

Study 3 Operational issues • A lack of resources affecting inspectors’ visits

to schools & teachers. • Inspectors monitor conduct of teachers. • A lack of support & negligence by NDOE &

PDOE to facilitate inspectors’ work in the schools.

Professional issues • Teachers being forced by inspectors to

implement policies without being trained on aspects of concerned policies.

• Inspectors’ roles are valued by teachers. • Inspector employment conditions are affecting

inspectors in their work. • Working cultures in NDOE & PDOE are

disadvantaging inspectors from doing their work effectively.

Operational issues • A lack of planning & organization by inspectors

to carry out work. • Selection & appointment of inspectors from

head teacher candidates are being questioned. Professional issues • Inspector honesty is valued when dealing with

teachers’ problems. • A lack of cooperation between stakeholders

makes it hard for inspectors to perform their duties.

• A lack of confidence, protocol & respect for head teachers does not help with inspector performing their work.

• A lack of confidence in the processes & outcomes of the inspection roles performed by inspectors.

• Current organizational cultures are affecting inspectors’ work in schools.

Operational issues • Inspectors are overloaded with work. • Inspectors use other means to accomplish their

operational plans when logistics & support are unavailable.

Professional issues • Inspectors’ roles are valued by teachers and

head teachers. • Provincial authorities undermining the roles of

inspectors & not working well with inspectors as a result of adverse attitudes towards inspectors because they are performing national functions.

• Inspector qualifications & professional development are neglected & are affecting their work.

• Inspectors provide good leadership to teachers & head teachers (Role Models).

• A lack of networking between stakeholders, inspectors, head teachers & teachers to address educational issues.


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Case Teachers Head Teachers Inspectors • A lack of focus in inspectors’ roles due to a lack

of visits to teachers & clarity on inspectors’ responsibilities.

• Advisory visits have no specific purposes. Study 4 Operational issues

• Inspectors’ integrity being questioned through use of schools’ & teachers’ personal resources.

• Others as above Professional issues • A lack of benefits experienced by teachers from

inspectors’ visits. • Inspectors lack interest in teachers’ work. • Teachers lack confidence in inspectors’ roles. • A lack of clear focus in inspectors’

responsibilities to assist teachers. • A lack of confidence in the processes and

outcomes of the inspection processes performed by inspectors.

• Inspector is an inspiration to the teacher. • Teachers only perform duties to please the

inspectors.

Not applicable Operational issues • A lack of planning & organization by inspector

to carry out his work. • Some documents provided by the inspectors on

professional ethics & inspectors’ operational obligations.

Professional issues • Inspectors ensure good relationships are

maintained. • Inspectors ensure teacher ethical values are

maintained. • A lack of acknowledgements & actions of

inspectors’ reports is frustrating inspectors and demeans inspectors’ roles.


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The responsibilities of inspectors, identified with the interactive strategies above, were

dictated by the policies of the central government agencies that were responsible for

addressing national, provincial and institutional goals and objectives. In reality, however,

inspectors carried out a range of responsibilities through supervisory approaches. These

supervisory approaches emerged from the study as supervision for quality assurance and

professional development. At the same time, how inspectors performed these supervisory

responsibilities and conducted themselves also emerged as a particular issue, and likewise, it

was important because their actions influenced the ethics of the teaching profession. As a

result, teachers and head teachers expressed their frustrations over the inspectors’ level of

performance that was caused by factors that were both within and beyond inspectors’ means

and control (refer Table 6.3). It is argued here that inspectors’ responsibilities must evolve

with changes in the education system, implying that a culture of learning or change must

exist within the organizations responsible for the inspectorial system and the teaching

profession. It is also important that, within this culture of change, there must be clear

demarcations and/or relationships in inspectors’ responsibilities to avoid duplication of

supervisory responsibilities of school based supervisors. At the same time, whether

inspectors’ supervisory responsibilities are means of quality assurance or professional

development, there must be clear outcomes from these interactive strategies if inspectors

have to make a difference in the teaching profession.

Supervision for Quality Assurance

Supervision for quality assurance continued to be based on ‘scientific management’

approaches where monitoring, assessment and evaluation of teacher and head teacher

performance were still the basis of inspectors’ responsibilities as earlier discussed

(Sergiovanni & Starratt, 1993). In other words, inspectors ensured that teachers and head

teachers complied with the expectations of the employing agencies. However, supervision

for quality assurance must monitor, assess and evaluate the quality of ‘inputs’, the processes

involved and the quality of ‘outputs’ if quality outcomes are to be achieved (Welch, 2000).

This is necessary so that deficiencies are detected and problems are prevented before they

occur, and only then can supervision for quality assurance impact on teachers and head

teachers (Hoy et al, 2000; Learmonth, 2000). To achieve the most from supervision for

quality assurance, inspectors need to have appropriate qualifications that encompass relevant

knowledge and skills in curriculum, supervision, management and leadership issues. At the

same time, such knowledge and skills would ensure inspectors are focused on performing

their responsibilities to achieve tangible outcomes. It is also important that supervision for

quality assurance considers a human resource strategy where supervision must account for

the needs, potential and satisfaction of teachers, head teachers and inspectors. Without such


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regard problems are due to emerge (Sergiovanni, & Starratt, 1993). Supervision for quality

assurance can be successful if teachers, head teachers and inspectors, all know exactly the

purpose of the strategies inspectors apply, the outcomes expected of these strategies and how

these outcomes can impact on or influence teachers and head teachers. The ultimate

outcome, however, is that supervision for quality assurance must impact on educational

standards and quality education provided by the schools by improving the quality of teaching

and learning.

Supervision for Professional Development

Supervision and professional development are both concerned with the improvement and

development of organizations. In educational settings, supervision and professional

development strategies are concerned with improving the quality of education by applying

supervisory and professional development strategies that improve the quality of teaching and

learning (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007). However, while supervision is more of a

management function that requires approaches that monitor, assess and evaluate

performances of individuals, professional development relates more to the means of

improvement and development that encourage learning to take place (Sergiovanni & Starratt,

1993; Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007).

Supervision for professional development emerged from this study as a responsibility of the

inspectorial system and is considered crucial to teachers’ and head teachers’ career and

development (Acheson & Gall, 2003). It is crucial because teachers, head teachers and

schools have to continuously develop with changes in society, technology and the economy.

The study revealed that inspectors supervised and interacted with teachers and head teachers

in order to improve and develop them in their profession. This interactive process allowed

for inspectors to identify professional needs and developed training or in-service programs to

address these needs. From this process, inspectors also developed and facilitated training

programs that addressed changes in the school system which included curriculum

development, school management and leadership issues. Generally, supervisory processes

for professional development enabled teachers and head teachers to improve their

performance and for them to work for successes. As a result, the participants in this study

perceived professional development as a process that had to be initiated and facilitated by

outside factors and sources. This means that teachers and head teachers (and inspectors)

relied mostly on changes in the school system to pursue their professional development.

This approach however, did not encourage teachers and head teachers to pursue their own

professional development. This perception existed because there was a lack of opportunities

and incentives for teachers and head teachers to pursue their own professional development.


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Professional development, according to teachers, head teachers and inspectors, therefore was

a process that was extrinsically motivated, implying that professional development was

always initiated and facilitated by outside factors and sources respectively. Such perception

existed because there was no clear demarcation between the inspectors’ roles, whether

inspectors carried out supervision for quality assurance or supervision for professional

development.

Supervision for professional development is well illustrated in many studies as earlier

discussed (Sections 2.3.3 & 6.3.1). These studies that investigated and dealt with the quality

of teaching and learning, and teacher development proved that supervisory practices worked

well for the professional development of teachers and head teachers if they were

systematically and purposefully organized. Importantly, supervision for professional

development served to achieve both personal and school goals through planned and

coordinated activities if it continues to be recognized as a significant responsibility of the

inspectorial system (Barak et al, 1997; Sullivan & Glanz, 2000; Agnew et al, 2000;

Glickman, Gordon & Ross-Gordon, 2001).

However, for supervision for professional development to impact on teachers and head

teachers, inspectors must have knowledge and skills that address particular professional

development issues. For example, supervision for professional development that addresses

the current curriculum reform and outcome based curriculum would be more appropriate at

this time when PNG is going through its education reform. Thus inspectors need to be

equipped with appropriate curriculum knowledge if they are to contribute to the professional

development of teachers and head teachers. This was a common issue raised by participants

in this study, including inspectors themselves in that there was a lack of focus in the

professional development activities being carried out by inspectors. At the same time,

teachers and head teachers themselves have to be aware of their professional needs if

‘supervision for professional development’ is to be of benefit to them. As earlier stated, this

study revealed that, while participants identified professional development as an inspectorial

interactive strategy, there were no particular models that inspectors used to facilitate this. A

‘supervision for professional development model’ that incorporates various theories or

models, including mentorship (Dia-Maggioli, 2004) and clinical supervision (Acheson &

Gall, 2003), and that is focused on specific educational issues would ensure professional

development through the inspectorial system is of benefit to teachers and head teachers. At

the same time, a culture for change that creates a learning atmosphere and environment must

exist in the schools and inspectorates if supervision for professional development is to

impact on the teaching profession (Day, 1994; Philips, 2003; Harris & van Tassell, 2005;


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Hatch, 2006). It is important to take note that supervision for professional development,

whether it is the responsibility of inspectors or not, is central to the responsibilities of

teachers and head teachers. In PNG and/or other developing countries supervision for

professional development is seen as an immediate priority for schools because of the rapid

changes in society and technology, and the need for teachers and head teachers to adapt to

these changes. Changes in the education system are also inevitable and these can be

adversely affected without a systematic external supervisory system.

Professional Ethics of Inspectors: Emerged Interactive Strategies from Supervisory

Practices

The professional ethics of inspectors was not considered as a significant inspectorial

interactive strategy though the context of the problem briefly highlighted issues related to

this aspect of the inspectorial system (refer Sections 1.3.4 & 1.3.8, & Figure 2.2). However,

in this study, the professional ethics of inspectors emerged as a contentious issue of the

inspectorial system because of the adverse and unfavourable experiences and perceptions

being reflected by the participants concerning the behavior and conduct of inspectors in

performing their responsibilities. While the professional ethics of inspectors was a

contentious issue, it was also a very significant and relevant issue to the development of the

teaching profession in PNG because it related directly to ethical values and dilemmas

concerning inspectors’ exhibited behavior and conduct which are also impacting on teacher

professionalism (refer Table 6.3).

The study revealed that the professional ethics of inspectors were seriously being questioned

by participants, including inspectors themselves. This perception arose from the

deteriorating behavior and conduct of inspectors caused by factors that were both within and

beyond the inspectors’ means and control. For example, there was a lack of resources and

conducive working environments provided by the Government of PNG and NDOE for

inspectors to perform their responsibilities effectively. Such situations were compounded by

the unattractive employment conditions of inspectors and raised questions about the

commitment of the Government of PNG and NDOE in monitoring and enhancing the quality

of education in schools. In most cases, these observations amounted to the type of

organizational cultures that existed in these organizations. At the same time, a lack of

planning, a lack of purpose and a lack of focus in inspectors’ responsibilities also raised

ethical dilemmas about how seriously inspectors assisted teachers and head teachers.

Inspectors’ lack of knowledge and skills on educational issues, including curriculum

development, pedagogy, management and leadership that were needed to assist teachers and

head teachers, also resulted in questions raised on their performance. The study also


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revealed that inspectors, apart from their job descriptions, had no specific Code of

Professional Ethics that would guide them in carrying out their responsibilities (Strike &

Ternasky, 1993; Shapiro & Stefkovic, 2005). Generally, there were serious concerns about

the effectiveness of the inspectorial system and how it was influencing and impacting on

teachers, head teachers, schools, PDOE, NDOE and the Government of PNG in achieving

educational policies. The need to address the professional ethics of inspectors by addressing

the above issues is seen as necessary if the inspectorial system has to serve its functions.

6.4 Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism

The study revealed that there were five dimensions of teacher professionalism that teachers,

head teachers and inspectors identified irrespective of their demographic differences. These

five dimensions of teacher professionalism were teacher compliance, teacher knowledge,

teacher leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics.

Irrespective of where the schools were located either in the remote, rural or urban, and

whether the schools were government or Church agency schools, the perceptions of teachers,

head teachers and inspectors about the dimension of teacher professionalism remained the

same. These identified dimensions of teacher professionalism were consistent with other

‘faces’ of teacher professionalism that were reviewed in Section 2.4.2 (refer to Figure 2.2).

It is important however, to reaffirm that teacher professionalism, as with other professions, is

culturally and socially constructed and as such, is prone to evolve with social, economic and

political developments. Teacher professionalism in PNG context, as implied by the above

identified dimensions, is of a more generic nature and encompassed characteristics, features

and ideas that have already been researched in other context (Ganser, 2001; Sachs, 2003;

Whitty, 2006; Robson, 2006; Smith, 2007; Rizvi & Elliott, 2007). It must also be noted that

teacher professionalism in PNG has never been studied to ascertain its past, present and

future status. This study, while exploring the inspectorial interactive strategies and

dimensions of teacher professionalism, investigated the linkages or relationships between

them as significant outcomes. This section summarizes the dimensions of teacher

professionalism and discusses the relationships as reviewed through literature and as

perceived by the participants.

6.4.1 Teacher Compliance: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism

As a dimension of teacher professionalism, teacher compliance related to teachers and head

teachers complying with the professional, educational and administrative requirements of the

education system. The professional requirements required teachers and head teachers to

adhere to the standards of dressing and behavior as required by the TSC and NDOE. The


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educational requirements included teachers and head teachers successfully implementing

educational policies such as curriculum, teaching standards, assessments and in-service

programs. The administrative requirements included teachers and head teachers performing

responsibilities as prescribed in their duty statements and keeping educational and

administrative records (Department of Education, 2003b). With head teachers, the quality

of leadership and management of school resources that facilitates quality teaching was the

major expectation that required head teachers’ attention. A requirement that teachers and

head teachers had to comply with and which was fundamental to the teaching profession was

teacher qualification. Teacher qualification was a prerequisite to becoming a teacher.

From a comparative analysis, teachers related teacher compliance more to factors that

ensured teachers performed efficiently, particularly in teaching. These factors included

planning, preparation and organizing lessons, and teachers being resourceful, innovative and

industrious in order to be efficient. On the other hand, head teachers related teacher

compliance more to teachers being able to organize, manage and administer all aspects of

their work and, at the same time, being able to work collaboratively to achieve results. With

the head teachers’ responsibilities, this included formulating school policies to implement

appropriate educational policies. In addition to teachers’ and head teachers’ perceptions,

inspectors perceived teacher compliance as directly related to job descriptions. In other

words teachers and head teachers had to comply with the requirements of their job

descriptions that spelt out appropriate qualifications for each teaching position, areas of

responsibilities including teaching responsibilities and counseling students, internal and

external working relationships, and reporting to appropriate stakeholders (refer Section

1.3.8). Teacher compliance as perceived by the participants referred more to performance

and related directly to individual responsibilities that required teachers and head teachers to

purposefully carry out. Such situations encouraged a culture of teacher compliance, and in

this way, teachers and head teachers were made to be accountable and responsible for the

consequences of their actions (Lyons, 1998; Jarzabkowski, 1999; Becker & Weldon, 2004).

Table 6.4 gives examples of themes of teacher compliance.


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Table 6.4: Examples of Themes of Teacher Compliance

Cases Teachers Head teachers Inspectors Study 1 • Teacher teaching, including preparation of

materials, teacher physical appearance, and teacher performance.

• Teachers as good implementers. • Carrying out work well for the students. • Teachers as planners.

• Teacher professionalism relates to the work that a teacher does.

• Head teacher formulating school policies.

• Teacher professionalism is characterized by what is in the job description or duty statement of each teacher or head teacher.

• Teacher practices – teaching, teacher competence, classroom organization and management practices including curriculum content and context.

• Head teacher & teacher accountability.

Study 2 • Someone who is an implementer of educational policies including curriculum requirements.

• Teachers being good motivators. • A teacher being someone who is resourceful. • A teacher being someone who is innovative and

creative. • A teacher being someone who is industrious. • Being a teacher involves teaching, planning and

programming (teacher performance). • Teacher professionalism is about the teaching

efficiency of the teacher.

Performance of management (human & materialistic resources), organizational & administrative responsibilities

• A teacher being reliable. • Teacher creating good teaching and learning

environment in the classroom. • Teacher professionalism is characterized by

what is in the job description or duty statement of each teacher or head teacher.

• Teachers having a lot of initiatives in their work. • Teachers being dynamic in their profession.

Study 3 • Teacher qualifications. • Teacher performing responsibilities as delegated

and as policy requires. • Teacher responsibilities including administrative

and professional duties as per duty statements. • Being a teacher involves teaching, planning and

programming (teacher performance). • Teacher performance relates to teacher

competence and productivity.

Teacher performance relates to all aspects of head teachers’ and teachers’ work.

• Teacher having been educated as a professional. • Teacher accountability relates to teachers being

accountable to children’s learning and other responsibilities.

• Teacher performance relates to all aspects of head teachers’ and teachers’ work.


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Cases Teachers Head teachers Inspectors Study 4 • Teaching is a profession.

• Teacher classroom organization. • Teacher performance relates to teaching,

preparation and performing other duties. • Teaching methods used in delivering knowledge

and skills to children. • Being a teacher involves teaching, planning and

programming (teacher performance).

Not applicable • Documents requiring teachers and head teachers to comply with educational policies.

• Teacher counseling students on issues. • Teacher performance relates to all aspects of

head teachers’ and teachers’ work.


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6.4.2 Teacher Knowledge: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism

According to the participants, teacher knowledge as a dimension of teacher professionalism

related to initial teacher qualification, curriculum knowledge and teacher competence.

Teacher knowledge encompassed knowledge in the subject contents, teaching and learning

methods, and classroom management that teachers used in imparting knowledge to children.

Teachers revealed that knowledge was gained when they were informed of changes in

curriculum development and other pedagogical issues. At the same time, teachers related

teacher knowledge to knowing well the communities they were serving, implying that

knowledge was not only an individual construction but also a communal and the

environmental construct of understandings of concepts and theories (Ellis, 2007). Head

teachers also emphasized that teacher knowledge was concerned with educational issues

such as having management skills and leadership qualities while inspectors reiterated that

‘knowledge is what we know and how we impart’ this to others. Table 6.5 summarizes

examples of themes of teacher knowledge.


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Table 6.5: Examples of Themes of Teacher Knowledge

Cases Teachers Head teachers Inspectors

Study 1 • Teacher qualifications. • Teacher competence and knowledge relate to

teaching competence and curriculum knowledge.

No comments

• Teacher competence – knowledge, methods, skills, content, etc..

• Teacher curriculum knowledge – content, context, overview, programs, etc.

Study 2 • Teachers being well informed of changes. • A teacher being someone who is educated. • Teacher is knowledgeable on what she or he is

doing. • Teacher knowledge, “how much knowledge you

have in teaching the students”.

Knowledge & implementation of educational,

agency, school and Board of Management policies.

• Acquired knowledge and skills that teachers need to teach children.

• Teacher having a clear understanding of what is expected of him.

• What we know and how we impact ‘what we know’ to students.

Study 3 • Teacher qualifications. • The current status with and integrity of the

teaching profession is questionable due to differences in qualifications.

• Teacher knowledge.

Teacher qualifications. • Teacher having been educated as a professional. • Teacher competence and knowledge relate to

teaching competence and curriculum knowledge..

Study 4 • Teacher knowledge relating to what should be done.

• Teacher knowledge, including knowledge about the communities being served.

• Teacher improvements in teaching.

Not applicable • Teacher qualifications require attention by the government.

• Teacher competence and knowledge relate to teaching competence and curriculum knowledge.


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Teacher knowledge, in any form or production, is a significant dimension of teacher

professionalism and is a critical foundation in the practice of teaching. This implies that the

teaching profession is a “thoughtful activity (that is) underpinned by knowledge as well as

skills” (Li, 2001, p. 188) for without it, teaching and learning strategies cannot achieve the

intended objectives. The above perceptions of teacher knowledge are consistent with Ellis’

(2007) philosophical (epistemological) and psychological views that knowledge is an

individual and a shared phenomenon that can be constructed through responsive interaction

and is a “product of human ideas and understanding as emerged from empirical, hermeneutic

or critical investigation” (Hooley, p. 557). This confirms the justification (and truth) that

teacher knowledge relates to an individual teacher’s view about the ‘world’ as it existed

within a ‘community of practice’ (a set of relations amongst persons and activities).

Consistent with the findings about participants’ perceptions concerning teacher knowledge

as a dimension of teacher professionalism in PNG, Ellis (2007) summarized teacher

knowledge into content knowledge; general pedagogical knowledge that relates to broad

principles of classroom management; curriculum knowledge that covers programs and

materials; pedagogical content knowledge that integrates content and pedagogy; knowledge

of learners and their characteristics; knowledge of educational contexts and communities

amongst other issues; and knowledge of educational ends, purposes and values, and their

philosophical and historical grounds. Hooley (2007), however, stressed that knowledge must

express the “truth and trustworthiness through experiments, measurement, observations and

interpretation” and must be “refined and validated through practice, participation, (and)

research” (p. 557). Such arguments require teachers and head teachers (and inspectors) to

continuously upgrade their knowledge with changes in the context of social, economic and

political environments and at the same time, reflect on their status where new knowledge and

skills become part of their daily practice (Ganser, 2001).

6.4.3 Teacher Leadership: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism

As a dimension of teacher professionalism, teachers, head teachers and inspectors perceived

teacher leadership as directly related to teachers and head teachers performing

responsibilities when occupying promotional and formal teaching positions in the schools

(refer Table 6.6 which summarizes examples of themes of teacher leadership). While such

perception was true it related more to the concepts of formal leadership that encompassed

management and leadership qualities and were concerned with administering responsibilities

and guiding others in carrying out responsibilities (Biott & Rauch, 1999; Reid, Brain &

Boyes, 2007). This perception indicates the common understanding that management,

administration and leadership cannot be isolated from each other and all are related to power


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and authority that maintain and re-enforce dependent relationships between responsibilities

and personnel in schools (Lambert & Harris, 2003). In other words, the crucial concepts and

practices of teacher leadership as significant to promoting moral values and beliefs, and

management as related to how things are done were not clearly distinguished by participants

(Biott & Rauch, 1999). While it can be argued that leadership at promotional levels of the

school system is vital and is a form of intervention that encourages climate for improvement

and change, powers to lead others and energy for change and development, teacher

leadership can be of different contexts or setting. For example; in instructional leadership,

the concerns and practices relate more to improving student and teacher achievements; in

strategic leadership, the concerns and practices relate more to teamwork that ensures teachers

are ‘integral agents of change’; and in organizational leadership, the concerns and practices

encourage the nurturing of leadership that ensure ‘leaders are both teachers and learners’.

Teacher leadership qualifies teachers as principled, honest and ethical, organized, fair and

forward thinking leaders (Gabriel, 2005) and should encompass both formal and informal

leadership qualities because the nature of the teaching profession requires all teachers and

head teachers to be leaders in all aspects of the school life.

The informal aspects of teacher leadership included the qualities that teachers and head

teachers practice in leading and managing both their colleagues and students in achieving

learning outcomes. Sachs (2007), in answering the question of ‘what is teacher leadership’

and in support of other studies (Harris, Day, Hopkins, Hadfield, Hargreaves & Chapman,

2003; Gonzales, 2004; MacBeath, 2006; Reid, Brain & Boyes, 2007; Fulhan, 2007), summed

up teacher leadership as having instructional and relational qualities that enhance learning

outcomes, and having qualities that generate positive relationships to create conditions for

learning. She emphasized that all teachers must contribute to the creation of collegial norms

to address school effectiveness; all teachers must be given the opportunity to lead; as

instructional leaders, all teachers must influence curriculum, teaching and learning; and that

all teachers must contribute to re-culturing schools through “leadership that is the outcome of

a dynamic of interpersonal relationships rather than individual action” (p. 2). Teacher

leadership requires teachers and head teachers to be knowledgeable and be exposed to

qualities and styles of leadership that include interpersonal leadership that encourages

communication and networking, and setting goals and mission statements as a key element

to success; adaptive leadership that navigates and effects changes through relationships; and

motivational leadership that encourages professional climates, support for teachers and

cultivating a learning community, to cater for both formal and informal aspects of the

schools (Gabriel, 2005). At the same time, these leadership styles require commitment to

classroom teaching, teachers and head teachers becoming experts in subject matter and


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pedagogy, teachers and head teachers understanding the contexts of national, provincial and

school educational policies, and teachers and head teachers having well developed

interpersonal skills for effective communication and collaboration (Gonzales, 2004).

However, to sustain these qualities, teachers and head teachers must build knowledge base of

leadership practices through research activities. Such research activities should encourage

teacher leadership through professional learning because teachers, as researchers, are “vitally

important to both worlds of theory and practice – it offers real possibilities for enhancing

educational outcomes” (Loughran, 2007, p. 596). As Duke (2004) (sighted in Sachs, 2007)

summarized, teacher leadership “is a process by which teachers, individually and collectively

influence their colleagues, principals and other members of school communities to improve

teaching and learning practices with the aim of increased student learning and achievement”

(p. 1). The findings explored the lack of knowledge and skills in teacher leadership and call

for strategies the inclusion of teacher leadership in teacher education and development at all

levels of teacher training to be considered to ensure inexperienced and experienced teachers

and head teachers are exposed to this vital dimension of teacher professionalism.


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Table 6.6: Examples of Themes of Teacher Leadership

Cases Teachers Head teachers Inspectors Study 1

No comments • Head teacher working at his best to show fellow teachers.

• Head teacher taking a lead in all aspects of work in the school.

• Leadership is important in Teacher Professionalism.

• Head teacher and teacher leadership skills - management, appraisal, organizational leadership, consultants, etc.

• Head teacher expertise in management, organizational and administrative skills

Study 2 • Teacher leadership. • A teacher being someone who is promoted and

working effectively at that promotional level. • A teacher being a good organizer. • A teacher being a good manager. • Teacher professionalism is when a teacher

becomes a leader and who knows everything.

• A head teacher. • A supervisor. • Senior teachers having supervisory and

management skills. • Having potentials to be in “a level above the others

and (so that) you can be able to pick things very quickly to help everyone”.

• Head teacher having the knowledge to plan and run schools.

• A head teacher gaining teachers’ trust. • A teacher being knowledgeable in all aspects of the

teaching profession. • A head teacher being a good leader. • Head teachers leading by examples.

Study 3 • Head teacher and teacher experience and responsibility for teachers and students.

• Supervision and professional development of subordinates.

No comments

• Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher taking a lead in aspects of work in school.

• Head teacher as a role model.

Study 4 Teacher leadership relating to being a good leader and possessing leadership qualities.

Not applicable Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher taking a lead in aspects of work in school.


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6.4.4 Teacher Professional Development: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism

In Section 6.3.1, the strategies that inspectors used while interacting with teachers and head

teachers were identified into professional development interactive strategies. These

strategies summarized the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of participants and concluded

that inspectors were directly involved with the professional development of teachers and

head teachers through supervisory approaches. Discussion in teacher professional

development in this subsection is therefore restricted to teacher professional development as

a dimension of teacher professionalism.

As a dimension of teacher professionalism, teacher professional development was

recognized by teachers, head teachers and inspectors as vital to the teaching profession.

Participants emphasized that continuous professional development was a necessity in the

teaching profession because it was concerned with the ways that were affecting teaching (Li

2001). This finding revealed that, irrespective of whether teachers were inexperienced or

experienced and/or teachers or head teachers, continuous professional development was an

essential feature of the teaching profession. This was because teacher professional

development in any formats (whether it’s mentoring, skill development programs or

networking) allowed for teachers and head teachers to keep abreast with changes in the

education system (Diaz-Maggioli, 2004). Importantly teachers and head teachers needed to

“keep up with up-to-date academic and vocational subjects, rapid technology, commercial

and industrial advances” (Robson, 2006). At the same time, any reform agenda or change

initiated as part of education development required teacher professional development

because such changes required teachers and head teachers to gain new knowledge and skills

to perform responsibilities that were consistent with the changes (Beijaard, Meijer, Morine-

Dorshimer & Tillema, 2005). Teachers in particular, revealed that as a dimension of teacher

professionalism, teacher professional development had to encourage spiritual, physical,

academic and social aspects of the teaching profession. Such perceptions concerned the

areas of social development of teachers and head teachers where behavior and attitudes were

issues to be addressed, subject knowledge development where subject matter and pupil

attainment were concerns to be pursued, pedagogy development where teaching methods and

classroom management were concerns to be addressed, and cognitive development where

judgment and willingness by teachers and head teachers to consider new evidences in

improving teaching were considered (Li, 2001). This also applied to new development with

government and educational policies where teachers and head teachers were required to

comply with, implying that to comply with such development teachers and head teachers had

to gain knowledge and skills to implement such policies (Al-Hinai, 2007). Teacher


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professional development that enhanced performance, that provided quality leadership and

that sustained professional work ethics, was a crucial factor to ensure these expectations

were met. It must be noted that teacher professionalism is an evolving phenomenon and

within this context, teacher professional development is significant to its evolution.

Generally, however, teacher professional development is continuous education of teachers

because it enlarges knowledge and it appreciates the skills and understanding of their work

(Glickman, Gordon & Ross-Gordon, 2001).

6.4.5 Teacher Professional Ethics: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism

Teacher professional ethics as a dimension of teacher professionalism directly related to how

teachers and head teachers behaved and conducted themselves in performing their

responsibilities. Teacher professional ethics encompassed professional behavior and conduct

that included teachers and head teachers being corporative, collaborative, involved and

supportive of each other and being respectful, loyal, dedicated and committed to work. This

study revealed that teacher professional ethics were also embedded in working and living

conditions, and employment conditions that teachers and head teachers experienced

including a lack of or availability of basic teaching and learning materials, poor or acceptable

classroom facilities and poor or good standards of living (including a lack or availability of

housing for teachers) respectively. Such situations, caused by external factors and

influences, had led to ethical or unethical behavior and conduct that, in some cases, had

frustrated teachers and head teachers in performing their work (refer Tables 6.3 & 6.8). For

teachers and head teachers to be committed to producing expected results, the working and

living environments must be conducive to them carrying out their responsibilities. The study

revealed that teacher professional ethics was a contentious issue that had to be dealt with by

authorities and employing agencies otherwise teachers and head teachers would not be

committed to their responsibilities. At the same time teachers and head teachers needed a

code of ethics that ensured they performed their responsibilities effectively (Strike &

Ternaskey, 1993). Teacher professional ethics as a contentious dimension of teacher

professionalism had to be dealt with through teacher education and training, and professional

development programs in schools.


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Table 6.7: Examples of Themes of Teacher Professional Development

Cases Teachers Head teachers Inspectors Study 1 • Teacher continuous professional development.

Teacher professional development as a continuing phenomenal in teaching.

No comments

• Teacher supervisory roles in subordinate appraisal, conflict resolution, contextual skills and life skills.

• Teacher professional development.

Study 2 • Someone who is spiritually, physically, academically and socially developed and developing.

• Being a teacher is having “a drive for professional (development and) growth” including “intellectual grow with aspects of my profession including teaching”.

Professionals who are continually in-serviced and trained in aspects of their teaching career.

Supervision of teachers in their work for professional development.

Study 3 • Professional development activities for teacher professional development.

• Teacher continuous learning or pursues professional development.

• Other as above.

Professionals who are continually in-serviced and trained in aspects of their teaching career.

• Teachers of today are changing and improving with new ideas.

• There is need for focus and systematic professional development programs for teachers.

Study 4 • Teacher continuous learning or pursues professional development.

• Other as above.

Not applicable • Teacher professional development is pursued through training programs and in-service sessions.


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While teachers, head teachers and inspectors identified the above ethical issues as related to

the general behavior and conduct (and similarly as in the professional ethics of inspectors as

earlier discussed in Section 6.3), teacher professional ethics are conceived within school

cultures and are the values of being a teacher (Shapiro & Stefkovic, 2005). Keyton (2005)

explained that ethics are based on values and are central elements to school cultures. Within

this context, teacher professional ethics can be distinguished into personal and professional

ethical issues which result from individual upbringing, education and experiences, and/or as

a result of a set of principles and code of ethics that guide a particular profession, including

the teaching profession, respectively. These personal and professional ethics are socially

constructed and can be supported by values of organizations or schools (Hatch, 2006).

However, where personal or professional ethics are conflicting with organizational or school

values, negative social outcomes can result in unethical behavior and conduct experienced by

members of organizations or schools. Thus ethics are “a sense of identity that defines an

individual or an organization’s core beliefs and values” (Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 402) and

that can hold together or disintegrate organizations, including educational institutions.

Marsh (2004), in affirming the cultural context of ethics, reiterated that teacher professional

ethics also relate specifically to the ethics of teaching and ethical relationships. The ethics of

teaching directly involve the passing of specific knowledge and skills to students so that the

“young acquire the ethical standards and enduring moral habits they will need to manage

their own lives and contribute to the common good” (p. 330). In other words, teachers and

head teachers must teach the values associated with good citizen without violating the values

of individuals and individual groups. Teachers need to provide caring and responsible

behavior for children to take responsibility and to participate in thinking, deciding and

acting. Ethical relationships relate to the ethical rights of teachers and head teachers to

participate in decision making and “to collaborate on decisions which relate to utilization of

labor” (p. 333). Ethical relationships also concern teachers and head teachers creating a

‘community’ atmosphere, teachers and head teachers serving as role models for students and

teachers and head teachers using open lines of communication to understand and resolve

problems.

In addition, Ladson-Billings (1998), identified the ethical dimensions of teaching into

informed empathy which encourages teacher interactions with students and adult, and caring

for and pitying their children; reflective practice whereby teachers and head teachers reflect

on teaching to ensure that they do more than just thinking about lessons, teachers and head

teachers reflect on and understand moral and the ethics of teaching and what made school


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meaningful so as to reflect on their qualities; and cultural relevant teaching where teachers

and head teachers deal with a pedagogy that empowers students intellectually, socially,

emotionally, and politically through imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes. The latter

encourages teachers and head teachers to understand the social contexts in which they teach

(including social inequalities) and to emphasize that knowledge is created, shared and

recycled, and to ensure that students are seen as producers of knowledge rather than

consumer of knowledge.

Ethical issues exist in all and at all levels of schools, however it is the unethical behavior and

conduct of teachers and head teachers that need to be overcome. A school that has a culture

that allows for feedback, reflection and reporting on changes that influence teachers’ and

head teacher’s roles, and a school that has a leader that facilitates ongoing conversations and

encourages consensus about issues, can result in teachers and head teachers committing

themselves to the teaching profession (Keyton, 2005). Though this study revealed teacher

professionalism as having five dimensions (teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher

leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics), there was a

lack of theoretical and practical evidence to show case the understanding of what constitutes

teacher professionalism from a PNG context. At the same time, with the exception of the

Teaching Service and Education Acts where aspects of teacher professionalism were briefly

referred to, there was no documented evidence to clearly spell out these dimensions of

teacher professionalism. This was clearly a direct result of a lack of research into aspects of

the teacher professionalism despite the various developments in education over the years

(Section 1.3.2). It is high time that research into the teaching profession in PNG is

encouraged and, consequently, this can lead to the evolution of teacher professionalism in

PNG (Robson, 2006; Johnson, Monk & Swain, 2007; Honan, 2007).


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Table 6.8: Examples of Themes of Teacher Professional Ethics


Study 1 • Teacher as good role model. • Teacher respecting other teachers. • “Teaching is what you do with children”. • Dedication to work. • Commitment to work. • Honesty, “Because we are teachers I think work

commitment, dedication and honesty are important areas that we need to consider in our work”.

• Teacher commitment. • Teacher being honest in his/her work. • Teacher being dedicated to his/her working

life. • Teacher interaction with children.

• Teacher-interaction with children, teachers, colleagues, community and parents.

• Head teacher integrity and impartiality and leadership.

Study 2 • “Teaching is as a noble profession” with a big responsibility.

• Teachers valuing students and the profession. • A teacher being “someone who is also a parent”. • Teacher is having a drive, a vision & a purpose to

teach. • Being a teacher is when collaboratively participating to

improve educational standards. • Teacher is able to disseminate information, knowledge

& skills to children. • Teacher being a listener when counseling children. • Teacher “is dealing with children”. • Teacher is respectful. • Teacher is obedient. • Teacher professionalism is about the good conduct of

the teacher. • Others as above.

• Specifically trained professionals who are singled out from public servants.

• Teaching fellow. • Professional relationships with others including

colleagues. • Understanding people and having people

understanding you as a teacher, senior teacher and head teacher.

• Someone who has a heart for the children. • Someone who has an image that is acceptable to

the community. • Attitudes of teachers. • Teacher punctuality with work. • A teacher being honest. • A teacher must have trust. • A teacher having a good behavior. • A head teacher being humble. • A teacher having good communication skills.

Others as above.

Study 3 • Teacher ethical values including professional conduct. • Teacher cooperation and cohesiveness. • Teacher integrity including honest, commitment and

dedication. • Teachers live and work in difficult situations in PNG

primary schools. • Others as above.

• Teacher positive image in the community. • Teachers valuing children’s education. • Teachers respecting each other.

• Head teacher and teacher commitment and dedication.

• Head teacher & teacher as a role model. • Teacher professional relationships with others.


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Study 4 • Teacher positive image in the community. • The characteristics of teacher professionalism are

lacking and are not being displayed by teachers. • Teacher performing extra curricular duties. • Teacher relationships with community, colleagues and

students. • Teacher confidence. • Teacher personal appearance. • Others as above.

Not applicable • Teacher is everything, a jack of all trades. • Teacher community involvement. • Teacher cooperation and support.

Teacher ethics include dedication, loyalty and honesty.

Others as above.


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6.5 Influence of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies on Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism

The main focus in this study is to investigate and establish the relationships between the

inspectorial interactive strategies and each of the dimensions of teacher professionalism.

Teachers and head teachers were asked to reveal their experiences, beliefs and perceptions

about how the inspectorial interactive strategies influenced or impacted on their profession.

The inspectors’ responses were analyzed to confirm the teachers’ and head teachers’

disclosures, and by doing so, provided answers to the questions, “How are the dimensions of

teacher professionalism linked to the interactive strategies applied by inspectors on teachers

and head teachers? Do teachers, head teachers and inspectors openly recognize the links

between the interactive strategies of the inspectorial system and the dimensions of teacher

professionalism?” These relationships or linkages are synthesized in this section.

6.5.1 Quality assurance and teacher professionalism

It was the collective experience of teachers and head teachers that quality assurance

interactive strategies related directly to teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher

leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics. This implies

that when inspectors applied quality assurance strategies, teachers and head teachers were

made to implement policies, gained new knowledge on educational issues, developed

leadership qualities, developed management skills, developed professionally and maintained

their professional ethics.

However, with the novice teachers, quality assurance activities often influenced them to

adhere to implementing policies that required them to perform their responsibilities and to

meet the expectations of NDOE. This experience restricted the perceptions of inspectors’

responsibilities to the inspection role (refer Section 1.1.3). Most experienced teachers also

revealed that quality assurance activities influenced them in complying with policies and

requirements, gained new knowledge (including curriculum knowledge) and developed

leadership qualities. This showed that professional development and professional ethics of

teachers and head teachers were not impacted on by quality assurance activities. At the same

time, those teachers who had not been visited by inspectors for a number of years believed

that their professional ethics were only sustained when inspectors monitor their

performances.

The head teachers who were new and never visited or inspected by inspectors also believed

that quality assurance interactive strategies only impacted on them complying with the


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expectations of authorities, improved and developed their leadership qualities, and

maintained their professional ethics. It was noted that quality assurance strategies had not

impacted on head teachers’ knowledge and their professional development because of the

head teachers’ lack of opportunities to interact with the inspectors. This indicated the

importance of regular contact between head teachers and inspectors, and the need for

inspectors to assist newly appointed head teachers with their roles as head of educational

institutions.

Collectively inspectors believed that the quality assurance strategies they applied impacted

only on teacher compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership. Teachers’ and head

teachers’ professional development and ethics were never perceived to be influenced by

inspectors, a similar observation with teachers and head teachers who never had

opportunities to be visited by inspectors. This implies that inspectors perceived quality

assurance interactive strategies as having limited impact and influence on teachers and head

teachers. This was contrary to most teachers’ and head teachers’ experiences, beliefs and

perceptions that quality assurance activities influenced them in all dimensions of teacher

professionalism (teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher knowledge, teacher

professional development and teacher professional ethics). This also showed that there were

conflicting experiences, beliefs and perceptions about the influence of quality assurance

strategies on the dimensions of teacher professionalism (Maha, 1992; Tololo, 1995;

MacNab, 2004).

The above conclusions reveal the importance of quality assurance interactive strategies as a

form of audit that is essential for accountability purposes. The strategies ensure that the trust

and responsibility invested in schools and teachers exist; that the quality of services and

outputs are provided by the teachers, head teachers and schools; and that the confidence of

what teachers and head teachers are producing meets the expectations of the stakeholders

(MacBeath, 2006; Gurr, 2007). Thus, it can be concluded that the inspectorial system is

important to the processes of quality assurance, and that quality assurance interactive

strategies enhance the teaching profession holistically.

6.5.2 .Professional Development and teacher professionalism

It was obvious that the professional development strategies applied by inspectors impacted

on the professional development of teachers and head teachers, particularly from a

‘supervision for professional development’ context (Learmonth, 2000; Glickman, Gordon &

Ross-Gordon, 2001; Acheson & Gall, 2003; Sergiovanni & Starrat, 2007). However, most


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teachers and head teachers, who were never visited and inspected by inspectors, believed that

professional development interactive strategies could also influence their leadership roles.

This implies that professional development strategies when focused on leadership issues

would help teachers and head teachers to develop appropriate leadership qualities

(MacBeath, 2006; Gorinski, 2007). These experiences and beliefs, however, were restricted

to the professional development strategies as impacting on formal leadership roles of

teachers and head teachers but not necessarily on informal teacher leadership roles (refer

also Section 6.4.3).

The inspectors also perceived professional development strategies as influencing teachers

and head teachers with teacher compliance, knowledge and leadership. This implies that the

professional development strategies inspectors used or facilitated ensured teachers and head

teachers complied with policies and requirements as spelt out by authorities, gained new

knowledge about educational issues and developed formal leadership qualities (Learmonth,

2000; Gorinski, 2007; Sergiovanni & Starrat, 2007). This perception was inconsistent with

teachers’ and head teachers’ experiences, beliefs and perceptions and raised many questions

about the effectiveness of the current context of the inspectorial system.

The varied experiences, beliefs and perceptions about the influences of professional

development strategies on teachers and head teachers, with the exception of impacting on

teacher professional development, confirmed that there was a lack of clear focus and purpose

for professional development strategies carried out by inspectors. This was quite obvious as

frustratingly revealed by participants (refer Table 6.7). Such arguments also confirmed the

confusions that teachers and head teachers had about the responsibilities of the inspectors,

including a lack of clear demarcations between the specific roles of the inspectors (refer also

Section 1.3.4).

6.5.3 Professional ethics of inspectors and teacher professionalism

Professional ethics associated with inspectorial interactive strategies emerged from factors

that were within and beyond the inspectors’ means and control (refer also Section 6.3.1).

Teachers and head teachers believed that professional ethics of inspectors influenced them in

how they behaved and conducted themselves in performing their responsibilities (refer also

to Section 6.4.5). For example, in the absence of inspectors’ visits to schools, because of a

lack of logistical support, teachers and head teachers displayed a lack of commitment and

professionalism in their work. In other words teachers and head teachers only performed

with commitment and to expectations if their performances were being monitored, assessed


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and evaluated by inspectors. At the same time, factors that inspectors could easily resolve

such as a lack of focus in their supervisory roles which questioned their commitment, also

contributed to teachers’ and head teachers’ behavior and attitudes towards the inspectorial

system and the teaching profession (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007). These experiences and

beliefs admitted by teachers and head teachers were supported by inspectors.

This study disclosed the reality that by supervising for quality assurance and professional

development, inspectors directly influenced teachers’ and head teachers’ professional ethics.

The study also explicitly revealed the importance of the inspectorial system as an external

supervisory system that played a significant role in sustaining teacher professional ethics. It

is important, therefore for central agencies (NDOE and PDOE) to ensure inspectors are well

equipped with resources and are supported in carrying out their responsibilities. Inspectors’

living, working and employment conditions must be improved so that inspectors perform to

expectation. At the same time, inspector qualification and professional development needs

must be addressed so that inspectors are able to perform their responsibilities effectively.

The current development in education in PNG still requires the inspectorial system, and until

such time teachers and head teachers can sustain professional ethics without outside

influences, the inspectorial system is still appropriate for PNG schools. However, the

current status and image of inspectorial system requires the system to be re-contextualized to

meet the demands of the current development in education, and at the same time, contributes

to an evolving teaching profession in PNG schools.

6.6 Organizational Culture: How it can impact on Inspection System and


The findings synthesize in this chapter reveal that organizational cultures of institutions that

are responsible for the inspectorial system and teacher professionalism have a lot to do with

the quality of ‘inputs’, ‘processes’ and ‘outputs’, that is, the operational functions of the

inspectorial system, the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher

professionalism respectively; and how the inspectorial interactive strategies relate to the

dimensions of teacher professionalism Bolman & Deal, 2003, Keyton, 2005). In other

words, the organizational cultures of institutions play significant roles on how the

inspectorial interactive strategies impact on the dimensions of teacher professionalism and

how the relationships between these two phenomenal issues are cohesively sustained. At the

same time, the structures of these organizations need to be reviewed so that the inspectorial

strategies can relate directly to each dimension of teacher professionalism. This implies that

clear demarcations of inspectorial interactive strategies that enhance each dimension of


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teacher professionalism need to be appropriately mandated to NDOE, PDOE, Inspections

and Guidance Division, Schools, head teachers, senior teachers and teachers and with a

culture of learning, the inspectorial system can impact positively on teacher professionalism

(Stacey, 1996; Bolman & Deal, 2003; Mullins, 2005; Owens & Valesky, 2007; Ivancevich,

Konopaske, 2008). This requires more than a review of job descriptions for all personnel

within each agency that dealt with the inspectorial system and teacher professionalism. It

requires a new approach to conducting inspectorial activities through renewal of

organizational cultures, management of changes, workplace ethics, management and

leadership issues, and administrative issues that can be integrated into systems of governance

that are efficient and effective. This would encourage changes in working cultures that

would be conducive to the roles of inspectors (Finchan & Rhodes, 2005; Mullins, 2005;

Fullan, 2007; Owens & Valeskey, 2007) and that should result in effective supervision for

quality assurance, professional development and professional ethics. Importantly the

changes in organizational cultures would result in stakeholders recognizing the importance

of the inspectorial system (Learmonth, 2000) and how it could influence teacher

professionalism positively with the ultimate outcomes of improving academic standards and

the quality of education for the children.

Ivancevich, Konopaske & Matteson (2008) suggested three structural models that can be

useful to the inspectorial system and how it can impact on teacher professionalism. These

models are the mechanistic model which emphasizes productivity and efficiency, the organic

model that encourages adaptability and development, and the matrix model which

emphasizes project-based strategies (refer also to Section 2.2.2). These structural models

however will need to consider organizational cultures that encompass human relations,

behavior and values if goals are to be achieved (Bolman & Deal, 2003; Rhodes, 2005;

Mullins, 2005). Hatch (2006) suggested three perceptions of organizational cultures that are

considered as relevant to an effective inspectorial system that can impact on the teaching

profession, and these are modernism, symbolic-interpretivism and postmodernism (refer also

Section 2.2.2). These perceptions emphasize the need for personnel to value the positions in

the inspectorial system and the teaching force; for the personnel to openly discuss what they

do and how these impact on them and the organizations; and how they share their

understanding of cultures that exist in their workplaces. Changes in organizational cultures

are prerequisites to how productive, efficient and effective the inspectorial system influence

teacher professionalism.


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6.7 How Inspectorial System can Enhance Teacher Professionalism

There were clear indications made by participants for the inspectorial system to remain

because there was still need for teachers and head teachers to be supervised thoroughly for

quality assurance, professional development and professional ethics. However the

inspectorial system has to be improved and/or its specific functions and strategies have to be

reviewed so that conflicts and confusions are avoided and tangible outcomes are achieved.

These alternatives are discussed in this section so that an improved inspectorial system is

developed that specifically enhances teacher professionalism.

6.7.1 An improved Inspectorial System that Enhances Teacher Professionalism

The inspectors’ responsibilities must have clear demarcations between the two main

interactive strategies, that of quality assurance and professional development. Quality

assurance activities performed by inspectors must be clearly identified and implemented to

focus specifically on the five related dimensions of teacher professionalism. In other words

the quality assurance activities must be clearly focus on teacher compliance, teacher


ethics. This suggestion calls for a review of all activities that inspectors carry out when

interacting with teachers and head teachers to strategically address each dimension of teacher

professionalism. Such an approach would allow for teacher professionalism to be enhanced,

sustained and evolved. Teachers and head teachers must also be aware of such activities and

how these impact on each of these dimensions so that they realize the importance of the

inspectorial system and how they can benefit directly from it.

In regard to professional development interactive strategies, activities must be clearly

demarcated from quality assurance activities and must specifically concentrate on aspects of

the teaching profession that teachers and head teachers professionally need. These activities

must be based on a need analysis for both individuals and specific groups of teachers and

head teachers. For example, novice teachers and head teachers having their own separate

induction program of professional development while experienced teachers and head

teachers having their own separate program of professional development (Li, 2001). At the

same time, changes and developments must be addressed separately through systematic and

focused professional development strategies. Such professional development strategies

should incorporate school based professional development activities that effectively address

the concerned curriculum and other agenda such as pedagogical issues, management and

leadership. In other words supervision for professional development should focus on

improving and developing the school system. Again teachers and head teachers must be


334

made aware of such professional development strategies so that there is purpose and tangible

outcomes from the activities which then should be followed up through performance

measurable strategies (Queensland Government, 2004).

Professional ethics of inspectors must be addressed by improving employment conditions of

inspectors including salary levels, improving logistical support for inspectors to visit schools

such as transportation and allowances, working conditions including the provision of office

space and living conditions such as the provision of housing for inspectors. These proposals

are made because of the evidence of the deteriorating status of inspectorial system. At the

same time, qualifications of inspectors must be addressed and upgraded so that they are well

equipped to supervise teachers and head teachers. The qualifications must be above the

qualifications of teachers and head teachers so that inspectors are respected for advice they

offer. This is a major concern when it comes to how professional ethics of inspectors are

influencing professional ethics of teachers and head teachers. Generally, however

professional ethics must be addressed in all quality assurance and professional development

strategies applied by inspectors. Professional ethics for teachers, head teachers and

inspectors emerged from the study as a major concern. For this reason, professional ethics

must be addressed at all levels, including teacher education and training, so that teachers,

head teachers and inspectors are ethically developed in their profession.

6.7.2 A Reviewed Responsibility of the Inspectorial System

Though teachers, head teachers and inspectors noted the importance of retaining the

inspectorial system, the system has not been supported well by the systems of governance

either at the district, provincial or national level. The argument is that the inspectorial

system is too expensive to maintain even though the importance of its existence has not been

analyzed thoroughly (Australian Government, 2005). However, if significant changes have

to be made then it is imperative that the inspectorial system, its functions, responsibilities

and strategies are restricted to quality assurance. Generally, quality assurance strategies

were experienced, believed and perceived by teachers, head teachers and inspectors as

impacting directly on all dimensions of teacher professionalism (teacher compliance, teacher


ethics). However, specific quality assurance strategies that relate directly to each of these

dimensions must be clearly identified and demarcated to ensure direct impacts are

experienced on teacher professionalism. For example, monitoring curriculum

implementation in schools ensures schools comply with basic curriculum requirements. This

can be done using an approved checked list and a standard reporting format.


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Professional development has to be considered as an intrinsic matter by stakeholders in that

teachers, head teachers and inspectors must be encouraged to personally pursue. At the same

time, other responsible agencies, including divisions of NDOE as per their mandated

functions, provinces and schools, should be tasked to address this important aspect of the

teaching profession. Clear demarcations between the responsibilities of individuals (teachers

and head teachers), schools, and provincial and national agencies on continuous professional

development of teachers and head teachers must be established through systematic and

focused professional development programs. Within the schools the head teacher or

designated senior teachers can be responsible for professional development of teachers and

other school staff. This requirement can be supervised by inspectors as a component of

quality assurance strategies. Such approach would relieve inspectors of the multiple,

conflicting and confusing roles that they are currently performing and that would result with

tangible outcomes. At the same time, an improved inspectorial system that has attractive

terms of employment, working and living conditions of inspectors, that sustains efficient

management and administrative processes of resources and data base, encourages effective

planning and organizational strategies by inspectors, that has sufficient logistical support

given by stakeholders, and has a qualified and adequate manpower, can enhance teacher

professionalism.

The above suggestions may also require changes in current legislation but importantly the

main rationale behind these suggestions is the enhancement and sustainability of teacher

professionalism with the ultimate purpose of improving children’s education in terms of

academic standards and quality education.

6.8 Summary of Synthesis and Conceptual Framework

In integrating the main issues discussed in the preceding chapters and in this chapter, and in

answering the question, ‘what redeveloped conceptual framework grounded in the realities of

teachers’, head teachers’ and inspectors’ experiences, beliefs and perceptions about the

inspectorial interactive strategies that can enhance teacher professionalism’, a conceptualized

framework is now produced to illustrate the synthesis, the gap in current knowledge and the

findings of the study. Figure 6.1 summarizes, synthesizes and interprets information with

explanations given below.

The inspectorial system, its functions and responsibilities are covered in the Education Act

(Department of Education, 1983). The inspectors, their employment conditions and aspects


336

of their work, their responsibilities are covered under the Public Service Act (The

Independent State of PNG, 1975) and their duty statements. The teaching profession and

related issues, including employment conditions of teachers, are covered under Teaching

Service Act (Department of Education, 1988). These legislations are over twenty years old

and how they are interpreted to meet the changes and developments in the education system

are of concern. At the same time different legislations have different influence on

leadership, management and administration and with this come the qualifications and

experiences of personnel implementing these legislations. This is hindering developments,

efficiency and effectiveness of the school system, the inspectorial system and the teaching

profession. The responsibilities of inspectors and how these responsibilities are performed depends on

the resources they are provided with and how these resources are managed and administered

by agencies that are responsible for the inspectorial system. Thus it is important to ensure

that inspectors are supported with logistics and essentials if their work is going to impact on

the teaching profession. At the same time leadership in various agencies that are fully or

partially responsible for the operations of the inspectorial system is also impacting on how

inspectors fulfilled their responsibilities. This is because the importance of the inspectorial

system and how it impacts on the teaching profession and eventually student academic

standards and quality of education are not always recognized by stakeholders, resulting in a

lack of commitment to support the inspectors in their work. This study revealed that the

decentralized and centralized systems of government, resulting in the separation of the

functions of the education system, were also adversely influencing the operations of the

inspectorial system. There were obvious situations where inspectors were not treated fairly

by personnel from PDOE, not because of their work but simply because they worked for the

centralized agency, the NDOE.

Some inspectors were also handicapped within their own organization. Their qualifications,

experiences and employment conditions, living and working conditions were impacting on

their work. At the same time how they valued their work and the culture within their own

organization were also influencing how they performed their responsibilities.

Though the main activities that the inspectors carry out as external supervisors are advisory

and inspection, both are supervisory in nature. These supervisory activities are categorized

into quality assurance, professional development interactive strategies and professional

ethics of inspectors.


337

The effectiveness of these strategies, their feedback and the specific outcomes achieved are

questionable, and have contributed to the negative status and image that teachers and head

teachers portray of the inspectors and the inspectorial system.

Inspectors, with their qualifications and experiences, interact with teachers and head teachers

who have their own qualifications and experiences in the school system. Beside the

teachers’, head teachers’ and inspectors’ backgrounds (including employment, working and

living conditions) there are also factors such as school locations and school infrastructure

that impede or enhance the success and effectiveness of the inspectorial interactive strategies

(quality assurance, professional development and professional ethics). The study concluded that, as its contribution to current knowledge about the inspectorial

system and teacher professionalism, the inspectorial system is an external supervision

function that encompasses ‘supervision for quality assurance’ and ‘supervision for

professional development’. Emerging from these two major supervisory strategies were the

issues related to professional ethics of inspectors as external supervisors within the school

system.

These ethical issues can be both ethical and/or unethical depending on the nature of each

situation. The study also concluded that the dimensions of teacher professionalism are


development and teacher professional ethics.

The most significant conclusion the study made is that ‘supervision for quality assurance’

strategy influence directly on teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership,

teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics; professional development

interactive strategies relate directly to teacher professional development though in reality

professional development interactive strategies should impact on all dimensions of teacher

professionalism; and professional ethics of inspectors relate directly to teacher professional

ethics.


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INSPECTORIAL SYSTEM

TEACHER

PROFESSIONALISM

SUPERVISION

Teacher

Compliance

Teacher

Knowledge

Teacher

Leadership

Teacher

Professional

Ethics

Teacher

Professional

Development

• Teaching Service Act • Education Act • Provincial/National

Responsibilities

Public Service Act

Education Act

Public Service Act

Education Act T

EA

CH

ER

S IN

TE

RA

CT

IVE

Quality

Assurance

Professional

Development

Professional

Ethics

OR

GA

NI

SA

TI

ON

AL

OR

GA

NI

SA

TI

ON

AL

Education Act

INP

UT

OU

TP

UT

P

RO

CE

SS

INSP

EC

TO

R

S

Figure 6.1: Conceptual Framework - Relationships between the Inspectorial System

and Teacher Professionalism


339

The dimensions of teacher professionalism are outcomes when they were influenced by the

inspectorial interactive strategies and resulting with teachers and head teachers performing

their responsibilities efficiently and effectively. At the same time, the behavior and conduct

by which teachers and head teachers performed their duties are direct outcomes of the

influence of supervision for quality assurance and professional development. It also

reaffirmed the fact that teacher professionalism is not a static phenomenon but it is an

evolving phenomenon that must be continually contextualized with changes and

developments in the society.

6.9 Implications and Conclusions

The main purpose of this qualitative multi-case study was to investigate the phenomenon of

the inspectorial system and teacher professionalism and the relationships between them as

perceived by teachers, head teachers and inspectors. The study constructed a conceptual

foundation from a practical and theoretical framework for an inspectorial system that would

enhance teacher professionalism that totally represented the experiences, beliefs and

perceptions of teachers, head teachers and inspectors (Diagram 6.1). This section concludes

the study and highlights the implications the findings of the study would have on the current

inspectorial system and teacher professionalism.

6.9.1 Research questions and answers

This chapter, through the preceding discussions, has answered the main research question,

‘how and to what extent does the inspectorial system enhance and hinder teacher

professionalism in primary schools in PNG?’ and has specifically addressed in detail the

specific questions as introduced earlier in Chapter 1. The specific questions and answers are

summarized below:

• How does the inspectorial system operate in primary schools in PNG?

• What are the interactive strategies of the inspectorial system?

The study concluded that the current inspectorial system operates using two main interactive

strategies that of supervision for quality assurance and supervision for professional

development. Resulting from these two main strategies was the interactive strategy of

supervision for professional ethics.

• What are the dimensions of teacher professionalism that are perceived by



340

• How are these dimensions of teacher professionalism linked to the interactive

strategies applied by inspectors on teachers and head teachers?

The dimensions of teacher professionalism were revealed as teacher compliance, teacher


ethics. These dimensions of teacher professionalism were seen to be evolving with changes in

the development of education.

• Do the teachers, head teachers and inspectors openly recognize the links between

the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher

professionalism? What are the relationships?

It was concluded further that the inspectorial interactive strategies were directly influencing

the dimensions of teacher professionalism, as in supervision for quality assurance impacting

on teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional

development and teacher professional ethics; supervision for professional development

impacting teacher professional development; and professional ethics of inspectors

influencing teacher professional ethics. Though these linkages were revealed there were also

indications of linkages that were possible such as supervision for professional development

impacting on teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership (see Figure 6.1).

6.9.2 Implications of the study on current inspectorial system and teacher professionalism

The study exposed the need to consider improving and/or developing an inspectorial system

that has clear demarcations of responsibilities for inspectors as external supervisors. In other

words, the inspectorial system should have a clear and specific supervisory role so that it can

impact and influence directly on specific dimensions of teacher professionalism. At the

same time, the need to strengthen various capacities of the inspectorial system, including

issues related to logistics and human resources, is critical to how effective the inspectorial

functions impact on education standards and the quality of education provided by the

schools.

Furthermore, the study revealed the need to understand the dimensions of teacher

professionalism as evolving processes of development in education. This implies that any

new development, innovations and initiatives that any education system implements, teacher

professionalism must be a prime target as the catalyst for changes and development. Teacher

professionalism needs to be continuously researched to ascertain its current and future status.


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6.9.3 Future of Inspectorial system

Grounded and constructed within the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of teachers, head

teachers and inspectors, and reaffirmed by literature, the inspectorial system should be more

responsible for the standards and quality of education in schools. Thus quality assurance

interactive strategies are more relevant and appropriate to perform this responsibility. By

concentrating on this phenomenon, the inspectorial system will impact holistically on teacher

professionalism. To facilitate this, firstly as in many countries, the inspectorial system

should be an entity outside the education system. It has to be specifically responsible for

education standards and the quality of education provided by the schools. Its main function

would be ‘supervision for quality assurance and professional ethics’. Secondly, ‘supervision

for professional development’ as an inspectorial responsibility, should be a school based

supervisory function that can be monitored by inspectors only as a component of the quality

assurance processes. Supervision for professional development for head teachers, however,

should be the responsibility of an external supervision system and not necessarily the

inspectorial system. In other words, the roles of the head teachers as administrators,

managers and leaders must be strengthened so that they are empowered to ensure the schools

serve their intended purposes. This study has concluded that the inspectorial system is still

appropriate for some developing countries like PNG until such time teacher professionalism

takes a different dimension.


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APPENDIX 1

Map of Papua New Guinea: the provinces and towns


343


344

APPENDIX 2

Structure of NDOE


345

National Department of Education Organisational/Functional Structure Chart as approved by DPM 15/12/2000

Minister

National LibrarianLibrary & Archives

Grade 15

SecretaryEx. 5

Deputy SecretaryPolicy & Administration

Grade 18

Deputy SecretaryHuman Resource

DevelopmentGrade 18

National EducationBoard

First Assistant SecretaryEducation Standards

Grade 17

First Assistant SecretaryHuman Resource

DevelopmentGrade 17

First Assistant SecretaryFinance &

AdministrationGrade 17

First Assistant SecretaryPolicy, Planning,

Research & Communication

Grade 17

Assistant SecretaryGeneral Administration

& PersonnelGrade 16

Assistant SecretaryFinance & Budgets

Grade 16

Assistant SecretaryPolicy, Research &

CommunicationGrade 16

Assistant SecretaryPlanning, Facilitating

& MonitoringGrade 16

Assistant SecretaryInspections & GuidanceGrade 16

Assistant SecretaryCurriculum

DevelopmentGrade 16

Assistant SecretaryTechnical/Vocational

EducationGrade 16

Assistant SecretaryTeacher Education

& Staff DevelopmentGrade 16

Assistant SecretaryGeneral Education

ServicesGrade 16

Assistant SecretaryNCD Education

ServicesGrade 16

SuperintendentAdministration& Personnel

Grade 14

ManagerElectronic Data

ProcessingGrade 14

Officer in ChargeOrganisation& MethodsGrade 13

Personnel OfficerGrade 13

Officer in ChargeLogisticsGrade 12

Chief AccountantAccountsGrade 14

SuperintendentBudgetsGrade 14

SuperintendentOperationGrade 14

Principal Legal AdvisorLegal

Grade 15

DirectorResearch & Evaluation

Grade 14

DirectorMedia &

CommunicationGrade 14

DirectorOverseas Organisation

Grade 14

SuperintendentOperationsGrade 14

National CoordinatorPlanning, Facilitating

& Monitoring UnitGrade 14

DirectorCooperate Data

Grade 14

CoordinatorProject Coordination

& ImplementationGrade 14

SuperintendentInspections

– Primary schoolsGrade 14


– Secondary schoolsGrade 14

SuperintendentGuidance & Counselling

Grade 14



– Elementary SchoolsGrade 14

SuperintendentMeasurement Services Unit

Grade 14

SuperintendentCurriculum Unit

Grade 14

SuperintendentMaterialsGrade 14

DirectorLiteracy & Awareness

SecretariatGrade 14


SuperintendentTechnical &

Vocational CurriculumGrade 14

SuperintendentTechnical &

Vocational InspectionsGrade 14

SuperintendentSupport Services

– VocationalGrade 14


SuperintendentStaff Development Unit

Grade 14

SuperintendentTeacher Education

DevelopmentGrade 14

SuperintendentCurriculum

& InspectionsGrade 14

CoordinatorSpecial Education

Grade 14


SuperintendentSchool Administration

Grade 14

SuperintendentSecondary &

Open LearningGrade 14

Project ManagerSecondary Education

Grade 14


Chief Internal AuditorAudit

Grade 14

ChairmanTeaching Service

CommissionEx. 4


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APPENDIX 3

Samples of Protocol Documents


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PROJECT TITLE: THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE INSPECTORIAL SYSTEM AND TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM

Name and contact details: Eliakim T. Apelis Queensland University of Technology Centre for Learning Innovation Kelvin Grove Campus Victoria Park Road Brisbane, Qld 4059 Telephone: (617) 3864 3074 Mobile: (614) 2213 3315 Facsimile: (617) 3864 3025 Email: [email protected]

PO Box 1199 The Provincial Education Advisor Date: 10th February 2006 Provincial Education Division QUT Student No.: 03107680 GOROKA EHP Papua New Guinea Dear Sir, SUBJECT: PERMISSION TO ENGAGE TEACHERS – (NAME OF CONCERNED) PS

I have written to the Secretary for Education to seek permission to engage (name of concerned) PS and six (6) volunteer-teachers, including the Head Teacher, for my research project. The research project leads to the award of a Doctor of Philosophy which I am pursuing. The title of the Research Project is “The Relationships between the Inspectorial System and Teacher Professionalism: A Papua New Guinea Primary School Case Study”. I will brief you about the research project during the course of the project. Meanwhile I am also writing to the Head Teacher of (name of concerned) PS to seek volunteer-teachers for my project. Three (3) volunteer-inspectors are also being sought through a separate letter to the Senior Primary School Inspector of EHP.

I write to formally request your permission to engage volunteer-teachers for the project. I will be conducting the research from 29th of May to 9th June 2006. I will be available should the Provincial Education Division and the school require my help in conducting workshops and in-service. My areas of interest are: Curriculum inquiry, research & leadership (school based curriculum); Professional development of teachers; Teacher professionalism; Educational supervision and Performance measurement (quality indicators of education in Schools).

I thank you in advance for your cooperation.

Yours Sincerely,

ELIAKIM T. APELIS PhD Candidate Queensland University of Technology cc: Senior Primary School Inspector - EHP cc: Head Teacher – (name of concerned) PS


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PROJECT TITLE: THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE INSPECTORIAL SYSTEM AND TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM: A PAPUA NEW GUINEA PRIMARY SCHOOL CASE STUDY

Name and contact details: Eliakim T. Apelis Queensland University of Technology Centre for Learning Innovation Kelvin Grove campus Victoria Park Road Brisbane, Qld 4059 Telephone: (617) 3864 3074 Mobile: (614) 2213 3315 Facsimile: (617) 3864 3025 Email: [email protected] Date: February 5, 2006 QUT Student No: 03107680

SUBJECT: INFORMATION ABOUT THE RESEARCH PROJECT

Introduction

My name is Eliakim Apelis and I am a full time student at the Queensland University of Technology

(QUT), Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. I am carrying out a Research Project towards an award of a

Doctor of Philosophy. The Research Project is titled: “The Relationships between the Inspectorial

System and Teacher Professionalism: A Papua New Guinea Primary School Case Study”. The

Research Project will involve volunteer teachers, including head teachers, and primary school

inspectors from selected schools and inspectorates located five (5) provinces of the four (4) regions of

Papua New Guinea (PNG). The five (5) provinces are the National Capital District, West New Britain

Province, Madang Province, Eastern Highlands Province and Central Province.

Objectives

The aim of the Research Project is to seek and identify how the Inspectorial System, through its

functions and interactive strategies, enhances and/or hinders the dimensions of teacher

professionalism. The specific objectives are to:

• investigate how the inspectorial system operates in primary schools in PNG,

• investigate the issues, including strengths, weaknesses and difficulties as perceived

and experienced by teachers, head teachers and primary school inspectors within the

operation of the inspectorial system,

• investigate how teacher professionalism is perceived by teachers, head teachers and

primary school inspectors,

• identify the linkages between the inspectorial interactive strategies and the perceived

dimensions of teacher professionalism by teachers, head teachers and primary school

inspectors,

• use the linkages to identify the perceived strengths, weaknesses and difficulties, to

analyze the appropriateness of the inspectorial system in relation to teacher

professionalism, and


349

• use the findings to recommend a new contextual framework for existing inspectorial

systems.

It is also hoped that the findings of the study will contribute knowledge to the current literature on the

inspectorial systems and teacher professionalism from a developing country’s perspective.

Rationale

The context of the PNG school inspectorial system by which it currently exists has never been explored

for its relevance and suitability to the past and present education developments. The complex

management of education services in PNG, brought about by the growth of the education system and

the provincial and national functions of the education system, is considered as hindrance to achieving

tangible outcomes, outcomes of which teacher professionalism is one. By investigating the perceptions

of teachers, head teachers and primary school inspectors on the functions of the inspectorial system and

its interactive strategies (supervision, professional development and quality control/assurance) currently

used by inspectors in assisting teachers in their work, this study intends to identify the relationships

between the inspectorial system and teacher professionalism in primary schools in PNG as a case study.

The study will seek to identify the dimensions of teacher professionalism from a PNG perspective and will

use these to relate to the inspectorial interactive strategies. By doing so linkages will be made between

the interactive strategies of the inspectorial system and the dimensions of teacher professionalism that

will allow for a conceptual and contextual framework to be developed that will suit current education

development in PNG.

Participation

You are expected to participate by taking part in an in-depth interview and by providing appropriate

personal or professional documents that will be requested by the researcher (self). It is important

that, since you have volunteered to participate, you participate fully in the research project.

Risks

There will be no risk involved with you participating in the Research Project. There will be no

repercussions and danger to your personal and professional status taken as a result of your responses

or comments.

Inquiries

If you have queries or questions regarding any issue related to this Research Project you can contact

me using one of the above means of contact (phone, mobile, postal address, email or facsimile) or the

Research Ethics Officer on (617) 3864 2340 or on email: [email protected] if you have

concerns about the ethical conduct of the study.


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Freedom

Your participation is on a volunteer basis and you are at liberty to withdraw without any comments or

penalty whatsoever from the Research Project. You are expected to sign a consent form provided by

the researcher before you participate in the project.

Confidentiality

You are informed and assured that all matters related to your participation in the Research Project,

including your comments and responses during the interview, will be kept confidential. There will be

no references made to discredit you in anyway and your name will not be disclosed publicly for any

sensitive issues you make.

Acknowledgement

I acknowledge your participation and thank you in advance for your cooperation and willingness to

take part in this Research Project. Your contributions will be valued and will contribute to the

development of education in PNG should the National Department of Education decides to pursue the

improvement of the inspectorial system and teacher professionalism in PNG.

ELIAKIM APELIS

PhD Candidate

Queensland University of Technology


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CONSENT FORM

PROJECT TITLE: THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE INSPECTORIAL SYSTEM AND TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM: A PAPUA NEW GUINEA PRIMARY SCHOOL CASE STUDY

Name and contact details: Eliakim T. Apelis Queensland University of Technology Centre for Learning Innovation Kelvin Grove Campus Victoria Park Road Brisbane, Qld 4059 Telephone: (617) 3864 3074 Mobile: (614) 2213 3315 Facsimile: (617) 3864 3025 Email: [email protected] Date: 31ST January 2006 QUT Student No.: 03107680

The researcher conducting this research project abides by the principles governing the ethical conduct of research and, at all times, avows to protect the interests, comfort and safety of all research participants.

This form accompanies the Subject Information Package (SIP) and is given to you for your own protection and information. Both this form and the SIP contain description of the study to be undertaken.

When you sign this form, it indicates that:

1. You have received the SIP and that you have read and understood its contents; 2. You understand that all the data which you provide will only be revealed to the researcher and

yourself. When the results of the study are published you will remain anonymous; 3. Your participation in the study is voluntary; 4. You may direct any queries and further questions to Eliakim T. Apelis at any time during the

study. You may also direct complaints and concerns regarding the ethical conduct of this investigation to Queensland University of Technology’s Registrar on telephone: 07 3864 1056;

5. Only interviewees will receive feedback on the original transcript for comments and proof reading;

6. You agree to participate in this research titled “The Relationships between the Inspectorial System and Teacher Professionalism: A Papua New Guinea Primary School Case Study” as part of a postgraduate thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy for Eliakim Tokacap Apelis.

To be signed by participant: Name of participant: ___________________________ Phone: ______________ Address: _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ Signature: ___________________________________ Date: ________________ To be signed by the Researcher: Researcher’s Name: ___________________________ Phone: _______________ Signature: ___________________________________ Date: ________________


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APPENDIX 4

Interview Guiidelines


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QUESTION GUIDELINES FOR HEAD TEACHER INTERVIEW

NAME: _____________________ FEMALE/MALE: __________________ AGE: _____________________ MARITAL STATUS: ________________ PROVINCE OF ORIGIN: ____________ PROVINCE PRESENTLY BASED: ______ SCHOOL CURRENTLY HEADING: ____________________________________ PART A: PERSONAL DATA AND INFORMATION 1. What is your current highest teaching qualification? 2. How many years have you been teaching? 3. How many years have you been a head teacher? 4. How many years have you been the head teacher at this school? PART B: INSPECTORIAL OPERATIONS 1. Describe your current responsibilities? 2. Have you been visited or inspected by an inspector during the last 2 years? Tell me about your

experiences as a head teacher with the inspectors when they visit you in school. 3. Describe the actual activities that the inspectors do when they visit you in their advisory visits.

Could you tell me about the activities the inspectors do when they visit you during their inspection visits? Can you make sense out of these activities and put them into groups? For example, some activities (to specify as revealed by the interviewee) help you to improve your teaching strategies, what about the others (to specify where appropriate)?

4. In your view, describe the work of the inspectors. What do you feel about the inspectors’ work? 6. Describe the issues and challenges that you have experienced or felt, as a head teacher, as arising

from your interaction with the inspectors. 7. From your experience as a head teacher, describe the outcomes or benefits you have gained from

interacting with the inspectors. 8. From your experience, describe the problems about the inspectors’ work. Can you suggest some

solutions to these problems (make reference to each problem)? 9. In your view, do you think the inspectors benefit from interacting with you? Tell me more about

these benefits (if any given by the interviewee). 10. From your experience as a head teacher, tell me about the qualities of the inspectors you value. 11. You have provided some documents to me about the inspectors’ responsibilities and what they

require of you as a head teacher (refer to documents provided by the interviewee). What are your views about these documents (refer to each of these documents)?

12. Overall, tell me about your view concerning the inspectors’ work in primary schools in PNG. PART C: TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM 1. Tell me about what you know or understand about ‘teacher professionalism’ from your

experience, both as a teacher and a head teacher. 2. Describe the characteristics that you have as being former teacher and a head teacher. 3. How do you feel about the activities that the inspectors do with you? How do these activities

affect you as a head teacher? 4. Describe the connections between the activities the inspectors do with you and the characteristics

you display as being a head teacher. 5. You have provided some documents to me about ‘teacher professionalism’ or what is expected

of you as a head teacher (refer to documents provided by interviewee). What are your views about these documents (refer to each of these documents)?

6. Describe what value you have as a teacher and a head teacher. 7. In general what is your view about the characteristics of teacher professionalism (as described in

(2) above) being displayed by teachers at this school? 8. Overall, tell me about your views about the teaching profession in PNG primary schools.


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PART D: A NEW CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 1. If you are to suggest improvements to the inspectors’ work that support and enhance your work,

what are some priority areas that the inspector would improve on? 2. What would you suggest as specific outcomes in your work as a result of your interaction with

the inspector? PART E: ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE WITHIN INSPECTORIAL SYSTEM From your experience tell me about your feeling towards the NDOE, District/Provincial Education Office, Inspectorate and School concerning the inspectors’ work and your work as a head teacher. PART F: FURTHER COMMENTS Do you have further comments to make on the work of the inspectors and your understanding and perceptions of teaching profession in PNG primary schools?


355

APPENDIX 5

Samples of the Four Stages of Analysis


356

DATA ANALYSIS

STAGE 1: CONTENT ANALYSIS - CLUSTERING AND IDENTIFYING EMERGING THEMES FOR INDIVIDUAL PARTICIPANTS AND DOCUMENTS

Introduction In this Stage the content analysis for each participant, focus group and documents involving the clustering of similar experiences, ideas and perceptions, is done. The clusters of similar experiences, ideas and perceptions are then identified into emerging themes for each participant, focus group and documents. In this case study, the content analysis comprises of 5 Holy Spirit PS Volunteer Teachers (MVT 1 - 5), Holy Spirit PS Volunteer Head Teacher (MVH 1), Madang Volunteer Inspectors (MVI 1 - 3), Holy Spirit PS Focus Group (MFG 1) and the Madang Province Document Analysis (MDA 1) as per interview transcripts and documents provided by each participant. Transcripts Analysis The primary and secondary questions of the research are used for the analysis. The transcripts of the interviews are analyzed followed by the document analysis for each participant. Primary Question: To what extent does the Inspectorial System enhance and hinder Teacher Professionalism in PNG

Primary Schools? Secondary Questions: Inspectorial Operation 1. How does the Inspectorial System operate in Primary Schools in PNG? 2. What issues do teachers and school inspectors of primary schools experienced as arising from such inspectorial

operation? Do the activities carried out by inspectors result with intended outcomes being achieved? If not, why? What needs to be changed? Do inspectors experience difficulties in engaging the strategies to perform their responsibilities? If so, what are the difficulties? How can these difficulties be addressed?

Secondary Question: Teacher Professionalism 3. What are the dimensions or characteristics of teacher professionalism that are perceived by teachers, head

teachers and inspectors? How do these dimensions of teacher professionalism linked to the interactive strategies applied by inspectors on teachers and head teachers? Do teachers, head teachers and inspectors perceive the links between the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism?

Secondary Question: New Conceptual Framework 4. What redeveloped conceptual framework grounded in the realities of teachers’, head teachers’ and inspectors’

experiences and perceptions can be constructed to address the answers to questions 2 and 3? MVT 1: Transcript content analysis Interviewer: MVT 1 Date: 12/05/2006 Name: MVT 1 Sex: Female Age: 39 years old Marital Status: Married Province of Origin: New Ireland Province Province Presently Based: Madang School Currently Teaching: (Name of) PS No. of Years at Present school: 10 years Qualifications: Certificate in Primary Teaching Teaching Experience: 20 years Position: Senior Teacher Teacher’s Current Responsibility “My responsibility is to teach in the classroom. As a senior teacher, I provide leadership in the organizing and running of some aspects of the school and I perform extra duties in the school”.

How the Inspectorial System operates in primary schools

• Teachers apply for inspection before they are inspected for promotion. Theme: Inspection is done by inspectors for promotion.

• Inspectors ensure educational policies and requirements are carried out by teachers. • Inspectors check on performances of teachers. • Inspectors look at how we teach the students, “whether we follow the Departments’ strategy and

carry out our teaching profession”. Theme: Monitoring teaching standards and curriculum requirements - Quality control and

Assurance.


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• Inspectors represent the Department of Education in what they do. Theme: Inspectors have the authority to deal with teachers on behalf of NDOE.

• Inspectors give priority to teachers for registration.

Theme: Inspections carried out for teacher registration. • Inspectors visit teachers and deal with them in groups. • Inspectors advise and assist teachers, “Inspectors come and assist and advice us on things that we

should be doing to help the kids under our care. One other thing is (for them) to help in the teaching profession to improve the skills I lack to help me help my students, so in other words the inspector helps me to help the students as well as my professional development”. Theme: Advice and assistance are given to teachers by inspectors for professional development -

Supervision for professional development. Issues arising from the Inspectorial System Operational issues

• Teacher has not been visited for more than 5 years. • Inspectors do their work in schools in a hurry, “For the inspectors, I see that they go to schools and

return in a hurry. How will the teachers work well, maybe the teachers need more help but they have not gained any. So the inspector must be honest, such that the logistics and funds they get must be put to use and their work must be done properly so that the teachers can work well”. Theme: Lack of commitment to visit schools and help teachers thoroughly.

• No follow up action done from inspectors’ discussions, “I’ve already mentioned that the inspector

comes and discusses so many things. There’s so much talk but no action is done”. Theme: Lack of follow-up action by inspectors.

• Inspectors sometimes misused funds “and work is not properly done”.

Theme: Inspectors’ integrity being questioned for misused of funds. • Priority is given to teachers for registration while neglecting others. • Inspectors usually ‘inspect’, “us in group but not on an individual basis”.

Theme: Rigid strategies used by inspectors in carrying out advisory and inspection duties. Professional issues

• Inspectors do bad and good things, “Some things are bad and some are good. Working with an inspector who is neutral is good. I ask that the inspectors must work with the teacher to help the students further… . One good thing is they observe and report on my work, which is necessary”.

• Teacher is not sure of inspector’s help during in-services. • Inspectors not being honest in their work, “I’ve been teaching for 10 years now at primary school,

there’ve been many changes and the inspector comes and inspects but has not been honest enough”. • Inspectors are not clear about new changes, including curriculum changes for them to help teachers

better. Theme: Inspectors’ integrity being questioned for inconsistent approaches to assist teachers and

not being honest.

• Discussions in groups with inspector help each of the teachers to learn more from each other. Theme: Inspector creates a learning environment in group discussions.

Do activities carried out by inspectors result with intended outcomes? If not why? What needs to be changed?

• Checking on teaching performance resulting with requirements, including curriculum, being met by teachers. Theme: Requirements on curriculum implementation are met by teacher.

• Report is produced by inspector for the teacher for evaluation and other purposes. • Inspector helps teacher personally. • From advice and assistance teacher improves on skills that she lacks. • From advice and assistance teacher develops professionally.

Theme: Inspector supervisory activities result with teacher professional and personal development.

• Teacher unsure of inspector’s help during in-service. • There is too much talk by inspector but no action taken on issues discussed. • Inspector should help teacher gain information for her work – this is not the case.


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• Teachers have not gained any help from inspectors, “For the inspectors, I see that they go to the schools and return in a hurry. How will the teachers work well, maybe the teachers need more help but they have not gained any”. Theme: No significant outcomes generally in teacher’s work as a result of inspector’s activities.

• Group discussions amongst teachers and inspector help teachers “learn from them and they learnt

from us (teachers)”. Theme: A learning environment is enhanced from group discussions between teachers and

inspector.

Difficulties with inspectors performing their responsibilities. What are the difficulties? How are these difficulties being addressed?

Operational difficulties • Lack of funds for inspectors to carry out their duties. • Lack of funds experienced by inspector is affecting their work. Theme: Lack of resources and logistics resulting with inspectors not visiting schools.

• Funds are misused by inspectors resulting with “work is not properly done”.

Theme: Inspector’s integrity being questioned for misused of funds. Professional difficulties

• Group ‘inspection’ and not individual making it difficult for individual professional development. • Theme: Lack of organization & planning to cater for individual teachers.

• Inspector not working closer with teacher and not writing honest reports.

Theme: Inspector’s integrity being questioned for not writing honest reports.

• Inspector lacks knowledge on curriculum to help and direct teachers, “Just like a family growing, curriculum is too. I think the inspector should be clear on this and the new changes. A good knowledge is needed to help and direct us. The inspector must be aware so that we are helped. I should be able to get help from the inspector”. Theme: Inspector lacks knowledge on curriculum to facilitate teacher curriculum knowledge.

• There is no cooperation between organizations concerning the inspectors’ work.

Theme: Working cultures within stakeholders’ organizations affecting inspector’s work.

The dimensions or characteristics of Teacher Professionalism • Teacher performance relates to teachers implementing policies, meeting curriculum requirements,

carrying out teaching. • Teaching the students and how “I take care of them”.

Theme: Teacher performance relates to teaching and in performing other duties.

• Teacher commitment relates to how the teacher is committed to her job through preparation and planning.

Theme: Teacher ethics or ethical values including honesty, commitment and dedication. • Teacher knowledge, “how much knowledge you have in teaching the students”. Theme: Teacher knowledge. • Teacher professionalism relates to teaching, learning materials, professional development and living

conditions of teachers. Theme: Teacher organization relates to planning, preparation and organizing teacher records

and files. The current perceptions of the status of the teaching profession in PNG Primary Schools

• “The teaching profession, in my opinion, is one of the many jobs we have chosen today. Okay, I am satisfied as a teacher, but I think, I should get more support in my work. These include teaching and learning materials, professional development and living conditions”. Theme: Teachers need support in their professional development and teaching and learning

resources. Perceived linkages or relationships between what inspectors do and the dimensions of Teacher Professionalism

• Inspection activities inspectors do with teachers lead to teacher full registration. Theme: Inspection processes result with requirements met in teacher registration.

• Advisory activities done by inspectors help teachers to develop personally.


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• Inspector’s advisory activities help teacher “to improve the skills I lack to help me to help students as well as for my professional development”.

• Inspector helps teacher to gain new knowledge on changes. Theme: Advisory activities carried out by inspectors resulting with teacher professional and

personal development.

• Group discussions by teachers and inspectors create a learning environment within the school staff, “Maybe, as I’ve mentioned, with other teachers the inspector sits with us as a group and discuss our work, we work in groups and teach the students. We learn from them and they learn from us”. Theme: A learning environment is enhanced from group discussions between teachers and

inspector.

• Inspectors help teachers to help students further. • When inspector helps the teacher, she commits herself to her responsibilities.

Theme: Inspector helping the teacher resulting with teacher committing herself to the profession. Secondary Question: New Conceptual Framework Suggestions for improvement

• Inspector must help the teacher to help students further. • The need for actions to take place after visits to schools and discussions with teachers. • Teachers should get more support from inspectors.

Theme: Improve current practices including advisory and inspection roles, communication and reporting to help students further.

• Inspectors must have more funds to carry out their advisory and inspection visits to schools and

teachers. Theme: Improve logistical support and resources for inspectors to effectively do their work.

• Inspector knowledge on changes is needed “to help and direct us”.

Theme: Inspector knowledge needs on changes need addressing – Inspectors as Agents of Change.

• Provincial needs need to be looked at by NDOE, through inspectors, when implementing new

changes, including changes in the curriculum. Theme: Introduce new strategies in inspection, and generally in inspector’s roles.

• There is no cooperation between organizations concerning the inspectors’ work.

Theme: Changes in organizational culture within PEO, NDOE and IGD.

MVT 1: Document Analysis With the exception of her duty statement which was part of the Performance Based Duty Statement package, there was no other document provided by the teacher despite the advance notice. The duty statement is analyzed as part of the PBDS analysis. Asked what the teacher taught of other documents that she was aware of such as the Education and Teaching Service Acts, the teacher expressed that “I see that for me, my role is a classroom teacher, I must commit myself and the inspector should come and help me. We are also trying our best to work and these documents guide us. I think that my work is my responsibility”. Theme: There is lack of documentation relating to the operation of the inspectorial system from the inspector, the

school or the province. Theme: There is lack of documentation relating to teacher professionalism from the inspector, the school and the

province.


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STAGE 2: ANALYSES - EMERGED THEMES AND LINKAGES OF INSPECTORIAL OPERATIONAL STRATEGIES AND THE DIMENSIONS OF TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM

Introduction In this Stage, the emerging themes for each participant, focus group and documents are categorized into 2 emerged themes of the main phenomenal issues, the inspectorial strategies and teacher professionalism. With the results the linkages between the inspectorial emerged themes (interactive strategies) and teacher professionalism emerged themes (dimensions of teacher professionalism) are summarized to allow for the findings and discussions for each participant to be made.

MVT 1 Analysis This analysis summarizes the emerging themes for the activities of the inspectorial operation and the dimensions of teacher professionalism as experienced and perceived by this participant (MVT 1) into emerged themes and then links these up into ‘relationships’ that forms part of the findings and discussions. Summary of Table 11a: Table 11a reveals the emerging themes of the inspectorial operation (Column 1) derived from Stage 1 Analysis above for the participant (MVT 1) and summarizes these into emerged themes (Column 2, 3), issues and outcomes. Table 11a: Analysis 1- Inspectorial Operation

EMERGING THEMES FROM CLUSTERED ACTIVITIES, IDEAS, PERCEPTIONS & EXPERIENCES

(1) Key: ¥ - Quality control & assurance activities, ⌂ - Professional development strategies, ♣ - Professional ethics, √ - Organization & planning, × - Outcomes, € - Organizational culture, ♫ - qualifications

EMERGED THEMES (2)

INSPECTORIAL STRATEGIES

(3)

ISSUES AND DIFFICULTIES

(4)

ACHIEVABLE OUTCOMES (5)

Inspectorial Operation • Inspection is done by inspectors for

promotion. ¥ • Monitoring teaching standards and

curriculum requirements ¥ • Inspectors have the authority to deal with

teachers on behalf of NDOE. ¥ • Inspections carried out for teacher

registration. ¥ • Advice and assistance are given to teachers

by inspectors for professional development - Supervision for professional development. ⌂

• Quality control

and assurance ¥

• Professional development ⌂

• Teacher leadership through inspection process. ¥

• Teacher registration ¥

• Teacher professional development ⌂

Inspectorial Issues Operational issues • Lack of commitment by inspectors to visit

schools and help teachers thoroughly. ♣ • Lack of follow-up action by inspectors. √ • Inspectors’ integrity being questioned for

misused of funds. ♣ • Rigid strategies used by inspectors in

carrying out advisory and inspection duties. €

Professional issues • Inspectors’ integrity being questioned for

inconsistent approaches to assist teachers and not being honest. ♣√

• Inspector creates a learning environment in group discussions. €

• Organization

and planning √ • Inspector

Professional Ethics ♣

• Organizational culture €

No tangible outcomes, more of maintenance nature ×

Inspectorial Difficulties Operational difficulties • Lack of resources and logistics resulting

with inspectors not visiting schools. √ • Inspector’s integrity being questioned for

misused of funds. ♣ Professional difficulties

• Organization


Professional Ethics ♣


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• Lack of organization & planning to cater for individual teachers. √

• Inspector’s integrity being questioned for not writing honest reports. ♣

• Inspector lacks knowledge on curriculum to facilitate teacher curriculum knowledge. ♫

• Working cultures within stakeholders’ organizations affecting inspector’s work. €

• Inspector qualifications ♫


Intended outcomes from inspectorial operation • Requirements on curriculum

implementation are met by teacher. ¥ • Inspector supervisory activities result with

teacher professional and personal development. ⌂

• No tangible outcomes generally in teacher’s work as a result of inspector’s activities. ×

• A learning environment is enhanced from group discussions between teachers and inspector. ⌂ €

• Quality control

and assurance ¥

• Professional development ⌂

Organizational culture €

• Curriculum

requirements met. ¥

• Teacher professional development. ⌂

• Teacher personal development. ⌂

• No tangible outcomes ×

Suggestions for improvement • Improve current practices including

advisory and inspection roles, communication and reporting to help students further. ¥⌂

• Improve logistical support and resources for inspectors to effectively do their work. √¥

• Inspector knowledge needs on changes need addressing ‘Inspectors as Agents of Change’. ♫ ♣

• Introduce new strategies in inspection, and generally in inspector’s roles. €√

• Changes in organizational culture within PEO, NDOE and IGD.

• Quality control

& assurance ¥ • Professional

development ⌂

• Organization


qualifications ♫ ♣


Document examination • There is lack of documentation relating to

the operation of the inspectorial system from the inspector, the school or the province. ♣

• There is lack of documentation relating to teacher professionalism from the inspector, the school and the province available in the school. ♣

• Professional

ethics ♣

Due to unavailability of documents: • Lack of focus

in quality control and assurance role of inspectors. ♣

• Lack of ‘conceptual development’ in teacher professionalism. ♣

Teacher lack of knowledge on inspectorial operation and teacher professionalism. ♣


362

Summary of Table 11b: Table 11b reveals the emerging themes of the dimensions of teacher professionalism (Column 1) derived from Stage 1 Analysis above for the participant (MVT 1) and summarizes these into emerged themes (Column 2). Table 11b: Analysis 2 – Teacher Professionalism

EMERGING THEMES FROM CLUSTERED PERCEPTIONS (1)

EMERGED THEMES (2)

Key: ¥ - Quality control & assurance activities, ⌂ - Professional development strategies, ♣ - Professional ethics, √ - Organization & planning, × - Outcomes, € - Organizational culture, ♫ - qualifications Dimensions of teacher professionalism (transcript) • Teacher performance relates to teaching and in performing other duties. ¥ • Teacher ethics or ethical values including honesty, commitment and dedication.

♣ • Teacher knowledge. ♫ ¥ • Teacher organization relates to planning, preparation and organizing teacher

records and files. ¥

• Teacher compliance ¥ • Teacher ethics ♣ • Teacher knowledge. ♫

¥

Summary of Table 11c: Table 11c reveals the linkages between the emerged themes of the strategies of the inspectorial operation (Column 1) and the dimensions of teacher professionalism (Column 2) derived from the interview-transcripts (section 1) and document analysis (section 2) as perceived by the participant (MVT 1) and as analyzed in Tables 11a and 11b. The symbols indicate the linkages. For example, ‘Professional Development’ activities (⌂) imply that the activities enable the teacher to develop professionally (Teacher Professional Development) (⌂). Table 11c: Analysis 3a – Participant’s perspectives of linkages of emerged themes

Emerged Theme of Inspectorial Operation (1)

Emerged Themes of Teacher Professionalism

(2) Section 1: Transcript Final Analysis

Key: ¥ - Quality control & assurance activities, ⌂ - Professional development strategies, ♣ - Professional ethics, √ - Organization & planning, × - Outcomes, € - Organizational culture, ♫ - qualifications • Inspection processes result with requirements met in teacher registration. ¥ • Advisory activities carried out by inspectors resulting with teacher professional

and personal development. ⌂ • A learning environment is enhanced from group discussions between teachers

and inspector. ⌂ • Inspector helping the teacher resulting with teacher committing herself to the

profession. ♣

• Teacher compliance ¥ • Teacher knowledge ¥ • Teacher Leadership ¥ • Teacher professional development. ⌂ • Teacher professional ethics. ♣

Section 2: Document Final Analysis • Inspector professional ethics ♣ Teacher professional ethics.

♣ Summary of Diagram 1: This diagram reveals that the ‘Quality Control and Assurance’ activities (which emerged from the clusters of activities and the emerging themes) apply by inspectors relate directly to ‘Teacher Compliance’, ‘Teacher Knowledge’ and ‘Teacher Leadership’ according to the participant’s perception. The ‘Professional Development’ strategies lead to a ‘learning environment’ in the school (Teacher Professional Development). The emerged theme of ‘Professional Ethics’ relates directly to ‘Teacher Professional Ethics’ implying that how the inspectors conduct themselves does relate to how the teacher conducts himself in carrying out responsibilities. Diagram 1: Analysis 3b – Perceived Relationships between Inspectorial Strategies and the Dimensions of Teacher professionalism as per Table 11c. Inspectorial Strategies Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism • Quality assurance Teacher compliance Teacher knowledge Teacher leadership • Professional development Teacher professional development • Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics Summary: This analysis reveals that, according to this teacher, there are 2 main interactive strategies inspectors apply as external supervisors when they carry out their responsibilities with teachers, and these are ‘quality control and assurance’ and ‘professional development’. However how inspectors conduct themselves in carrying out their roles and aspects of organizational cultures also emerged as an integral issue of their roles, and this is categorized as ‘professional ethics’. The analysis also reveals that the emerged dimensions of teacher professionalism are teacher compliance, teacher leadership, teacher knowledge, teacher professional development


363

and teacher professional ethics. Thus the analysis reveals that the ‘Quality Control and Assurance’ activities apply by inspectors relate directly to ‘Teacher Compliance’, ‘Teacher Knowledge’ and ‘Teacher Leadership’ according to the participant’s perception. The ‘Professional Development’ strategies lead to a ‘learning environment’ in the school (Teacher Professional Development). The emerged theme of ‘Professional Ethics’ relates directly to ‘Teacher Professional Ethics’ implying that how the inspectors conduct themselves does relate to how the teacher conducts himself in carrying out responsibilities. 3. STAGE 3: ANALYSES - SIMILAR PARTICIPANTS ANALYSIS FOR CASE 3 Introduction Within the school and inspectorate of this case the linkages from the emerged themes for each type of participants (teachers, head teachers and inspectors) including documents are compared for similarities and differences to allow for the findings and discussions for each type of participants for the case to be made and to produce intra-case analysis. The following are the results: Teachers – MVT 1, MVT 2 and MVT 3 Inspectorial Strategies Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism MVT 1 • Quality assurance Teacher compliance Teacher knowledge Teacher leadership • Professional development Teacher professional development • Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics MVT 2 • Quality assurance Teacher compliance

Teacher knowledge Teacher Leadership

• Professional development Teacher professional development • Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics MVT 3 • Quality assurance Teacher compliance • Professional development Teacher professional development • Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics Conclusion for Teachers • Quality control and assurance Teacher compliance

Teacher knowledge Teacher Leadership

• Professional development Teacher professional development • Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics Summary: Teachers in this case relate quality control and assurance interactive strategies relate to teacher compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership; professional development interactive strategies relate to teacher professional development; and professional ethics relate to teacher professional ethics.


364

4. STAGE 4: ANALYSES - SIMILAR PARTICIPANTS ANALYSIS FOR CASE 3 Introduction In this stage the results from Stage 3 covering similar participants (teachers, head teachers, focus groups and inspectors) from within the case are used to identify common and different linkages to allow for the findings and discussions to be made for the case. The results of this stage analysis become the analysis for the case. Case 3 Analysis Summary of Table 18: In Table 18, the results of Stage 3 above are summarized into an analysis for this case. With this case analysis then findings and discussions are used to establish the ‘relationships’ between the interactive strategies of inspectorial system and the dimensions of teacher professionalism as perceived by participants and as documented. Table 18: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case 3

Participants 1


2


Quality Control & Assurance

4


5

Inspector Professional Ethics 6

Key: MVT 1 - 3▲ MVH 1 ► MFG 1 ▼ MVI 1 – 2 ◄

Teacher Compliance ▲►▼◄ ▼ Teacher Leadership ▲►◄ ◄ Teacher Professional Development

► ▲►▼◄


►▼ ▲►▼◄

Teacher Knowledge ▲►◄ ◄ Findings: Inspectorial Interactive Strategies • The activities that inspectors use in carrying out their responsibilities are emerged into quality control and

assurance, professional development and professional ethics. Dimensions of teacher professionalism • Teacher professionalism is perceived to have the dimensions of teacher compliance, teacher leadership,

teacher professional development, teacher professional ethics and teacher knowledge. Linkages between the interactive strategies and dimensions of teacher professionalism • Teachers, head teachers and inspectors perceive quality control and assurance activities carried out by

inspectors as having direct influence in teachers and head teachers: o complying with requirements of the NDOE and TSC, o developing leadership qualities and being promoted, and o having appropriate knowledge needed to perform their responsibilities.

• Only head teachers perceive quality control activities as having influence on their professional development. • Only teachers and head teachers perceive quality control and assurance activities as having influence in how

they conduct themselves in their work. • Teachers, head teachers and inspectors perceive professional development activities carried out by inspectors

as having direct influence in teachers’ and head teacher’s professional development. • Only inspectors perceived professional development activities as having influence on teacher leadership and

teacher knowledge. • Only teachers perceive professional development as having related to teacher compliance. • Teachers, head teachers and inspectors perceive how inspectors and personnel of central organizations

conduct themselves (professional ethics) in carrying out their responsibilities as having direct influence in how teachers and head teachers conduct themselves in carrying out their responsibilities.


365

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