THE PHILIPPINES IN ANCIENT TIMES

(200,000 B.C. – 1300 A.D.)

Archaeological evidence suggests that the Philippines may have been

inhabited many thousands of years before then, but that can't be stated with certainty.

THE EARLY SETTLERS

The oldest human fossil found so far is 22,000 years old.) Little is known of the early

human settlement of the Philippines. Scientific evidence remains inconclusive. There is

much written on the Austronesian peoples of the Southeast Asia area and their

descendants. These peoples were the seafaring people who traveled to distant parts of

the world during this period of history.

The Pleistocene Epoch

It is generally accepted that the first significant human settlement occurred

sometime during the most recent ice age. At that time, 300 000 yrs. ago ,sea levels

were lower, creating land bridges that connected the Southeast Asian mainland to some

of the present-day islands of the Malay Archipelago, south of the Philippine Islands.

Paleolithic hunters from the mainland are said to have followed herds of wild

animals across these land bridges, later finding their way to the Philippine Islands.

Aeta and Agta tribes

These people, ancestors, continue to be primarily hunters and food gatherers,

much as their ancestors were thousands of years ago. They are one of the world’s few

remaining populations of Pygmies, who are characterized by shorter-than-average

height. The Spanish colonizers of the 16th century called them Negritos, a term that is

still widely used today.

About 3000 B.C.

People of Malay and Indonesian descent, who now make up the majority of the

population, are believed to have settled in the Philippines in several waves of migration

after the 3rd century BC. Their languages developed independently because they

settled in widely scattered villages, or balangay. Each balangay included from 30 to 100

families and was ruled by a datu, or chieftain. The economy was one of subsistence,

with each village producing most of what it needed, and land was held in common. The

villagers engaged in both shifting (slash-and-burn) and settled agriculture. Religion was

animistic, or based on the worship of ancestors and other spirits, such as nature deities.

1300s A.D.

Extensive trade is being conducted with India, Indonesia, China, and Japan. Arab

traders from Indonesia introduce Islam to the Filipinos.

Communities in the islands eventually established trade contacts with states in East and

Southeast Asia, particularly China. By the 12th century and the powerful Sumatra-based

Malay kingdom of Sri Vijaya had extended its considerable influence to the Philippines.

In the 14th century traders and settlers from the Malay Peninsula and Borneo

introduced Islam to the southern islands of the Sulu Archipelago. In the 15th century

Islam was established on the island of Mindanao. By the 16th century the islands had

several Muslim principalities, including one in the Manila area of Luzon. However, no

major political entity—kingdom, sultanate, or empire—was established in the islands

until the imposition of Spanish rule in the 16th century.

Trading Centers

In the period between the 7th century to the beginning of the 1400s, numerous

prosperous centers of trade had emerged, including the Kingdom of Namayan which

flourished alongside Manila Bay, , the Rajahnate of Cebu, the Confederation of Panay,

the Rajahnate ofButuan, the Kingdom of Sanfotsi situated in Pangasinan, the Kingdoms

of Zabag and Wak-Wak situated in Pampangaand Aparri (which specialized in trade

with Japan and the Kingdom of Ryukyu in Okinawa).

Prehistoric Tabon Man, found

in Palawan in 1962 was, until 2007, the

oldest human remains discovered

by anthropologists in the

Philippines. Archaeological evidence

indicates similarities with two early

human fossils found in Indonesia and

China, called the Java Man and Peking

Man. In 2007, a single metatarsal from an

earlier fossil was discovered in Callao Cave, Peñablanca, Cagayan. That earlier fossil

was named as Callao Man.

SKULL CAP

POPULATION HISTORY

The Negritos arrived about 30,000 years ago and occupied several scattered

areas throughout the islands. Recent archaeological evidence described by Peter

Bellwood claimed that the ancestors of Filipinos, Malaysians, and Indonesians first

crossed the Taiwan Strait during the Prehistoric period. These early mariners are

thought to be the Austronesian people (Malayo-Polynesian). They used boats to cross

the oceans, and settled into many regions of Southeast Asia, the Polynesian Islands,

and Madagascar.

By the 14th century, the Malayo-Polynesian ethnic group had dominated and

displaced the Negrito population in most areas. Traders from southern

China, Japan, India, Malaysia, and Indonesia, also contributed to the ethnic, and

cultural development of the islands.

By the 16th century, Spanish colonization brought new groups of people to the

Philippines. Many settled in the Philippines, and some intermarried with the indigenous

population, although intermarriage was slight. This gave rise to the Filipino mestizo or

individuals of mixed Austronesian and Spanish descent.

Far more numerous were Chinese immigrant workers, known as sangley, as

many Chinese historically had been traders. They married native women. Their children

and descendants were called mestizo de sangley. The mestizo de sangleys were far

more numerous than mestizos of Spanish descent. By the 19th century, the more

successful among them had risen to become wealthy major landowners. They could

afford to have their children educated in elite institutions in the Philippines and Europe.

By the opening of the Suez Canal in the 1800s, the Spanish opened the

Philippines for foreign trade. Europeans such as the British, Germans, and French

settled in the islands to do business. By the end of the Spanish colonial period, the

native ethnic groups of the Philippines began calling themselves Filipinos, a term that

had begun as self-identification for persons of Spanish descent born in the Philippines.

Following its victory in the Spanish-American War, the United States created a

colonial authority in the Philippines in 1898. Military troops and businessmen made their

way to the country, bringing in new ethnic groups, culture and language. In the late 19th

century, some Americans proposed resettling African Americans in the Philippines,

because of discrimination against them in the South, particularly. Post-American Civil

War violence against the freedmen had gone on as southern whites struggled for

political and economic dominance. The resettlement idea did not get implemented.[4]

The Philippines has over 180 indigenous ethnic groups, over half of which represent

unique linguistic groups.

Before the coming of the Spaniards in 16th century, economic activities were

already taking place in the islands. The Pre-Hispanic settlers of the archipelago were

economically self-sufficient. In addition, native products reached neighboring countries

like Cambodia, China, India, Japan, and Borneo. The ancient Filipinos practiced

Agriculture, which was the main source of their livelihood. Rice, corn, coconut, sugar,

fruits and vegetables were raised for them to have foor to eat.

ECONOMIC LIFE

They prefer using the kaingin system and tillage system with it comes to land

cultivation. The kaingin system was the burning of shrubs and bushes, the cleared land

was followed by planting, while the tillage system was plowing and harrowing of land

followed by planting.

AGRICULTURE

It is believed that the Banaue rice

terraces may have been built starting

10,000 B.C. which proves the early

Filipinos' skills in agriculture. Agriculture

was the main source of livelihood in the

pre-colonial Philippines. There was an

abundance of sugar cane, coconut, rice,

cotton, hemp, and many species of fruits

and vegetables. 

The daily food consisted of rice, which is

considered as the 'daily mainstay for the

entire country', together with boiled fish pork

or meat of wild buffalo or carabao. Because of the abundance of coconut and nipa

palms, the pre-colonial Filipinos fermented the sap of these palms and drank it as liquor.

They recognized the existence of private and public property. Cultivated lands were

owned by private individuals while mountainsides and less fertile lands belong to the

public. These private lands were acquired by occupation, purchase, or inheritance.

FISHING

Due to the country's long coastline and

bodies of water, the early settlers always

had an abundant catch of fishes,

crustaceans, shrimps and shells. They

used three-pointed spears, cages and

fishnets in fishing. They used only large

mesh nets in fishing which protected the

young. The Tausugs, Samals , and

Badjaos were pearl divers and they

hunted for the eggs of sea turtles.

SHIPBUILDING and SEAFARING

When the Spaniards arrived, they

found the early Filipinos' ship to be of

excellent quality. They also learned

that the Filipinos, specifically the

Visayans, used a compass similar to

that found among the Chinese and the

people of Borneo.

WEAVING

Philippine weaving involves many threads being measured, cut, and mounted on a wooden platform. The threads are dyed and weaved on a loom. Before Spanish colonization, native Filipinos weaved using fibers from abaca, pineapple, cotton, and bark cloth. Textiles, clothes, rugs, and hats were weaved. Baskets were also weaved and used as vessels of transport and storage, and for hunting. These baskets were used to transport grain, store food, and catching fish.

However, during Spanish colonization, Filipinos used fabric called nipis to weave white clothing. These were weaved with decorative, flower designs.

POTTERY

Traditional pottery-making in certain areas of the Philippines would use clay found near the Sibalom River. Molding the clay required the use of wooden paddles, and the clay had to be kept away from sunlight. Native Filipinos created pottery since 3500.They used these ceramic jars to hold the deceased.

Filipino pottery had other uses as well. During the Neolithic period of the Philippines, pottery was made for water vessels, plates, cups, and for many other uses.

The family was the smallest unit

of society. Each member had an

important role to play. The father

stood as Head of the family, the

mother took care of the

household, the son accompanied

his father in hunting or farming;

and the daughter stayed home to

learn the household chores.

Members of the nobility were

addressed with the

title Gat or Lakan among the Tagalogs.

The Society is divided into three classes

1. Maharlika which composed of the Datu and his family

2. Timawa or freemen

3. Alipin or Slaves

Composed the third class and divide into two:

a.Aliping Namamalay- servants to a datu and timawas and had the right to own property

b.Aliping Saguiguilid- enjoyed no rights and freedom, were considered properties of

their master.

• in the Visayas, dependents were of three kinds : tumataban, tumarampok, and

the ayuey

Tumataban – who worked for his master when told to do so.

Tumarampok - who worked one day a week for his master.

Ayuey – who worked for his master three days a week.

SOCIAL LIFE

MAHARLIKA

They are the nobles, rich and powerful people in every community.

Maharlikas are the rulers and their relatives. Among them were the datu, sultan

and hadji.

Men who belonged in this class were called Lakan or Gat. The wife of the datu

was called dayang or dayang-dayang.

MAGUINDANAO’S MAHARLIKAS, NOBLES, AND SLAVES

TIMAWAS

Timawas are the freemen. They were the common people.

Some were born free while some were former slaves but they bought their

freedom from their masters.

They have the right to choose their jobs and the right to own properties.

They had to be loyal and cooperative with the datu.

ALIPINS

alipins are the slaves. there are two types of slaves:

o aliping namamahay

o aliping sagigilid

the aliping namamay can own their own house while the aliping sagigilid are just

relying on their master's graces.

WOMENS POSITION IN SOCIETY

The Filipino women before the arrival of the Spaniards are enjoying a very high

position in the society; they were equal with the treatment of men. Women in pre-

colonial Philippine society had the right to inherit property, engage in trade and industry,

and succeed to the chieftainship of the barangay in the absence of a male heir. They

had the exclusive right to name their children. The men walked behind them as a sign of

respect.

MARRIAGE CUSTOMS

The men were in general, monogamous; while their wives are called asawa,

while concubines are called “friends”. In order to win the hand of his lady, the man has

to show his patience and dedication to both the lady and her parents. The courtship

usually begins with paninilbihan.

If the man wins the trust of the parents, he does not immediately marry the

woman, but he has to satisfy several conditions:

- give a dowry or bigay-kaya

- pay the panghihimuyat

- pay the wet nurse bigay-suso

- pay the parents himaraw

- bribe for the relatives called sambon (among the Zambals)

Once he had settled all of the above requirements, he brings his parents to meet with

the bride-to-be’s parents to haggle and make the final arrangements; this is called

pamamalae or pamamanhikan or pamumulungan.

The wedding ceremonies vary depending on the status of the couple; but normally,

those from the upper class, a go-between were employed. Weddings are officiated by

the priestess or babaylan. Uncooked rice is thrown on the couple after the wedding

ceremony.

Muslim Filipinos have similar marriage customs; the first stage was called

pananalanguni or bethrothal; it was followed by the consultation with the girl’s parents,

who relays their decision to the village chief, who in turn informed the suitor’s parents of

the decision.

The dowry was also settled by the chief (pedsungud). This was of seven kinds:

kawasateg, money given to the bride’s close relatives;

siwaka, brassware given to those who helped arrange the wedding;

enduatuan, brassware or animals for the village chief;

pangatulian, jewelry given to the bride’s mother and aunts;

tatas, blade given to the girl’s uncle;

langkad, money given to the girl’s parents as fine for having bypassed the

girl’s elder sister if she had any; and

lekat, amount of money given to the girl’s attendant.

once everything is settled, the pegkawing, or the wedding ceremony

follows

the wedding ceremony is officiated by the hadji

six days of festivities followed, and only on the seventh day could the

couple sleep together

A MUSLIM WEDDING

THE GOVERNMENT

MIXED MARRIAGES, INHERITANTANCE and SUCCESSIONS

mixed marriages were allowed in pre-colonial society

the status of children were dependent upon the status of the parents

often, the status of children in mixed marriages is divided evenly between the

parents

single children of mixed marriage were half-free and half-dependent

legitimate children inherited their parents’ property even without any written

will and was divided equally among the children

natural children inherited only a third of the inheritance of legitimate children

children of dependent mothers are given freedom and a few things

nearest relatives inherit the property of childless couples

in succession, the first son of the barangay chieftain inherits his father’s

position; if the first son dies, the second son succeeds their father; in the

absence of male heirs, it is the eldest daughter that becomes the chieftain

The unit of government was the barangay. The barangay varied in population

from 30-100 families. The early barangays were independent of each other. The head

was called datu and was the chief executive, legislator, judge and military commander.

He made laws, enforced them and judged all cases and trials brought by the villagers.

However, he had a council of elders who assisted him in his administration. A person

could become a datu through inheritance, wealth, wisdom and bravery.

The Philippines was divided into hundreds of independent barangays. For mutual

protection and cooperation, several barangays formed a confederation. The

confederation of Madya-as under Datu Sumakwel was formed in Panay during the 13th

centure.

The barangay had both oral and written laws. Oral laws were the customs and

traditions which were handed down through generations. The early Filipino named

Lubluban, the great granddaughter of the first Filipino man and woman, was the

legendary law-giver.

The written laws were promulgated by the datu and council of elders. A town

crier called umalohokan announced the laws to the people. The contents of ancient

laws involved family relations, property rights, domestic affairs, inheritance, marriage

conflicts, murder and business problems. Punishment for serious crimes was death,

slavery or heavy fines. Minor crimes were punished through with exposure to ants, long

hours of swimming, whipping or fines.

EARLY FILIPINOS SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT

The society during our ancestors' period had two kinds of government: the

Barangay and the Sultanate Government. A datu or raja was the leader of a barangay.

He could make laws and implemented them so that peace and order would prevail in

their community. The members of his community helped and participated in the

realization of the projects in the barangay. There were two kinds of barangay laws:

written and oral. The Sultanate Government was formed because of the presence of the

Islam Religion in the Philippines. This was headed by a sultan. Aside from maintaining

peace and order, it was the sultan's responsibility to let the Islam religion and Muslim

tradition remain in the lives of his constituents. The laws of the sultanate government

did not change because it was based on the Koran which is the Muslim Bible and the

Sunnah which are Mohammed's traditions.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The datu acted as the judge in the barangay. He conducted the trial in full view of

his constituents. He conferred judgment on crimes conducted within his barangay.

In a civil case, the chief tried to have the case settled amicably. When no

amicable settlement was reached by parties concerned, the parties involved were sworn

to obey the judgment of the chief. The parties concerned presented as many witnesses

as they could in order to bolster their defense. When a witness was called to the witness

stand, he took an oath that he would tell the truth by repeating the following words:

"May lightning strike me if I am telling a lie. May the heavens or the sun fall upon me if I

will tell a lie."

The early Filipinos considered swearing as a sacred act. If an accused person

refused to accept the verdict of guilt upon him, the chief could use force to make him

obey the law. If one was accused of committing a serious crime, the accused was

subjected to trial by ordeal. It was assumed that if a person was guilty, he would not be

able to pass the ordeal that would have been given to him. If some persons were

suspected of stealing, they were brought to the deepest part of the river and required to

jump. Whoever came out first was considered the guilty one.

The elders believed that the gods punished those who were guilty and absolved

the innocent ones.

THE AMBIVALENCE OF FILIPINO TRAITS AND VALUES

Hard-working 

 Filipinos over the years have proven time and time again that they are a people

with an industrious attitude. Sadly, this is seen by others as Filipinos being only useful

as domestic helpers, working abroad to help their families in the country. This is also

present in the country’s workforce particularly the farmers. Even with little support,

technological weaknesses and the country’s seasonal typhoons, the Filipino farmer still

strives to earn their daily meal.

 

Even though the government provides small support to the country’s workers,

many people choose to engage in micro businesses—the so-called sari-sari stores and

tiangge, the Filipino version of local markets and ukay-ukay, or second-hand stores.

 

Some would also pursue engaging in transportation with jeepneys, tricycles and

such to offer low-cost transportation to the ever mobile masses.

 

Though these are some examples on how Filipinos get by with everyday living,

these work opportunities offer only minimum pay but Filipinos still pursue them in hopes

of giving their children a decent life and proper education so they could elevate

themselves to a higher standard of living.

 

Strong family ties 

 In the country the people put family ties and relations as one of their top

priorities. Filipinos would do all they could to provide and sustain their respective

families. This is present in Filipino festivals where they invite the whole family and in

Sundays where they would make time to use it to spend the whole day for their families.

 

You will find that it is common in the country to include the extended members

not just the normal nuclear family. It is not unusual that in a single household it would

reach up to ten members of a family living under the same roof. They value each other’s

company, and everyone strives to provide for the whole and not just for them. 

 

Even grandparents still have an active role in the family. It is now the norm in the

society that both parents are out working, leaving the care of their children to the lolo’s

and lola’s, especially if the family cannot afford to hire a nanny. Grandparents therefore

become responsible for instilling into their grandchildren the values and morals they

taught to their own children, further increasing the importance of the elderly in our

society.

 

Honesty

 Being a hard-working people, the Filipinos are also honest. In general, they

would prefer to work hard for an honest day’s pay than to find an easier way like

stealing or cheating.

 

As in the case of overseas Filipino workers or OFWs, they are mostly domestic

helpers and though given a job which requires a lot of trust from the employer as they

are left alone with their belongings or children, it is rare that Filipinos would do anything

to betray or lose the trust that is given to them. We see so many Filipinos working in the

homes of other families precisely because they can be trusted.

 

But even in our own country, Filipinos have displayed honesty in various forms,

may it be from a taxi driver returning a dropped phone or wallet. Filipinos would choose

to do the right thing, though sometimes this is not necessarily true.

 

Religious

 The Philippines is one the most religious countries in world, particularly in

Catholicism and Islam. Families would encourage and strengthen the values of their

children and would at least have one day a week for worship and at the same time

strengthening family ties.

 

Religion is the foundation of most of the country’s morals and values and

sometimes, the church greatly affects the minds and opinions of the general populace,

affecting its decisions. Sadly, this also applies to the government as they are troubled

by whatever the Church’s stand is in every matter, as people see their opinion to be the

“right” one. Thus, many of our politicians go with whatever the Church says, fearing that

they would lose vote if they go against it.

 

Resiliency

 The Philippines is a hotspot for disasters, natural and otherwise. Couple that

with poverty, and one would think that Filipinos have the most reason for being a

depressed people. However, we have demonstrated time and again that Filipinos can

bounce back from a tragedy, emerging stronger and better than before. In the middle of

a disaster, Filipinos can still manage to smile and be hopeful that the next morning

brings new hope. 

 

We have shown the world that by working together as a nation, we have what it

takes to recover from a bad situation. This is something that all of us should be proud

of, no matter where in the world we are. With all of these good traits (and more!), one

would really be proud to say, “I am a Filipino.” Filipinos have shown the world that by

working together, we have what it takes to recover from a bad situation—and this is a

trait that we should all be proud of.

Politeness

Filipinos are taught to become respectful individuals. This is mainly due to the

influence of Christianity that tells us to honor both our parents and our elders. The use

of ‘’po’’ and ‘’’opo’’’ when in conversation with an elder or someone who is older is a

manifestation of how Filipinos respect their elders.

Hospitality

The Filipinos are very hospitable when it comes to their fellowmen. They will

invite their visitors to come into their homes and offer them treats such as snacks and

drinks after a long journey. There are also instances when the Filipinos will serve only

the best to their visitors even if at times they may not be able to afford it. They also go

the extremes as to give up the comfort of their own bedrooms for their guests and to the

point of sleeping on floor just to ensure that their guests are comfortable.

Gratitude

Gratitude or ‘’’utang na loob’’’ is a very popular Filipino characteristic. One does

not forget the good deeds that others may have done to him or her especially at times of

great need. This debt of gratitude are sometimes abused by those who have done well

to others as they may ask favors or things that may either be unreasonable or beyond

the means of the one in debt.

Shame

Shame or ‘’’Hiya’’’ is a very common Filipino value. It is said that Filipinos would

go to great lengths in order for one not to be ashamed. Hiya has a great influence on

one’s behavior for one will do everything, even if it is beyond his means just to save his

reputation as well as the families. Filipinos feel pressured to meet the status quo of the

society when it comes to economic standing. One indication of this might be a

willingness to spend more than they can afford on a party rather than be shamed by

their economic circumstances.

Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity

Filipino's sense of joy and humor is evident in their optimistic approach to life and

its travails. The ability to laugh at themselves and their predicament is an important

coping mechanism that contributes to emotional balance and a capacity to survive.

These are manifested in the ability to adjust to often difficult circumstances and

prevailing physical and social environments. Filipinos have a high tolerance for

ambiguity that enables them to respond calmly to uncertainty or lack of information.

Filipinos often improvise and make productive and innovative use of whatever is

available. These qualities have been repeatedly demonstrated in their capacity to adapt

to living in any part of the world and in their ability to accept change.

Loyalty

Loyalty or ‘’’Pakikisama’’’ is another Filipino value. Filipinos are said to be loyal to

their friends and fellowmen in order to ensure the peace in the group. This is manifested

in their basic sense of justice and fairness and concern for other's well-being. Filipinos

recognize the essential humanity of all people and regard others with respect and

empathy. With this orientation, Filipinos develop sensitivity to the nature and quality of

interpersonal relationships, which are their principal source of security and happiness.

CULTURE OF ANCIENT FILIPINOS

Relationships between barangays are developed through commerce and

treaties. The "Sandugo" is performed as a sign of agreement, alliance and unity.

Representatives of the barangay draw blood by wounding their arms and mixing it into a

cup of "tuba" (coconut wine) that both then drink. From thereon they are blood brothers.

The men wore loin cloths (akin to shorts) and short sleeved collarless shirts in

different colors that state their social status, red for the datu, blue for nobles and black

for the maharlikas. The "putong" was a piece of cloth rolled over the head like a turban.

A red putong means that the wearer has already killed a man and one with knitting

means that he has killed many men. The women wore "baro" (shirt) and "saya" (skirts)

commonly known as "patadyong". Both were barefoot. Jewelry in the form of bracelets,

rings and earrings was usually made out of gold. They even used gold to adorn the

teeth. Tattooing the body on the arms (women), chest and even the face was

considered beautiful and proudly displayed. Tattoos on the Filipinos were so common

that the Spaniards upon seeing them dubbed the islands "La Isla de los Pintados"

(island of the painted ones). Houses were raised above ground and are made out of

bamboo and rattan ideal for the warm tropical climate. Inside the "silid" (sleeping areas)

is the "banig" (weaved sleeping mats) and pillows. The "batalan" serves as a sink to

clean and wash plates and pots. Beneath the house is an enclosed space to raise

chickens and often used as a place for beating grain. The "Kalingga" and "Ilonggot" of

Northern Luzon build houses on top of trees as do the "Bagobo" and "Mandaya" of

Mindanao. The "Badjaos" live entirely on their boats.

Unlike their western counterparts and other asian brothers, ancient Filipino

society treated their women equally. They own property, inherit from their

parents/relatives, engage in trade and even head the baranggay if there is no rightful

male heir. Men treat women with care, walking behind them to act as protectors.

Courtship was done through a series of trials imposed on the suitor by the parents of

the girl usually in the form of servitude. This may last from a few months to even an

entire year. During this time the suitor chops wood, draws water, etc. to prove his

serious intentions, commitment and affection. They are not allowed to talk to each other.

If the parents are satisfied they will ask a "dote" (dowry) from the suitor usually land,

gold and other valuables. It is encouraged that individuals marry into their class but

marriage between different classes is not forbidden. Marriage rituals are officiated by a

"babaylan" or "catalonan" (priest) who also performs burial rites for the dead.

They believe in the "Bathalang Maykapal" (supreme being) or "Dakilang

Lumikha" (ultimate creator) and the existence of the eternal soul. They also believe in

other deities, environmental and ancestral spirits with which they offered gifts and

sacrifices. Prayers are made as thanks or to ensure a good harvest, catch or journey.

Theirs was a culture rich in its own beliefs and practices. They enjoyed the arts

and expressed it through music and dance. Far from being uncivilized, the ancient

Filipinos had a unique identity at par with any of its time.

MOUNTAIN TRIBES IN NORTHERN LUZON

Traveling to the northern part of the island Luzon will bring you not only to

beautiful landscapes with amazing rice terraces. It will bring you also to the regions with

remote villages and colorful and traditional living upland tribal communities. Their

ancestors constructed the fascinating rice terraces with the perfect working irrigation

systems. These mountain tribes still distinguish themselves by their specific cultural

expression and their skills.

They have skills in making bowls, baskets, weapons and clothing. It were the

Bontocs and the Ifugao people who built up the rice terraces. Traveling in the provinces

of Ifugao or other provinces in Luzon, will make clear to you that the way of living of

these people didn't change. They are still living and working as in the past. Many

tourists decide to make the long bus-trip from Manila to these provinces especially to

meet the Ifugao, the Bontocs, the Kankanays or other tribes.

In the past the Ifugao were feared head-hunters, just as other tribes in the

mountainous regions of northern Luzon. The war-dance (the bangibang) is one of the

cultural remnants of the time of tribal conflict.

This dance is traditionally held on the walls of the rice terraces by the men,

equipped with spears, axes and wooden shields and a headdress made of leaves.

Typical houses of the Ifugao

The Ifugao build their houses on

piles. The pyramid-shaped roof is

used as a bedroom, kitchen and

storeroom. All in one space! There

are no windows. To please the

gods, the skull of a sacrificed pig is

fixed on the outside of the house.

The residents still live in the same

type of houses as their ancestors.

The T'boli and B'laan, two indigenous

groups. On Mindanao live 18 tribal Filipino

groups. The most well-known are the T'boli

and the B'laan (or "Bla-an"). The other

groups are the Ata, Bagobo, Banwaon,

Bukidnon, Dibabawon, Higaunon, Kalagan,

Mamanwa, Mandaya, Mangguwangan,

Manobo, Mansaka, Subanen, Tagakaolo,

Teduray and the Ubo.

Most characteristic of these 'indigenous

groups' is that they live in a traditional way,

comparable with how the ancestors lived

centuries ago.

The T'boli and their

subsistence activities.

The T'boli (pronounce "Tiboli")

people live in the southern part

of the province Cotabata, in the

environment around lake

Sebu, west of the city General

Santos. It is estimated

that are between 100000 and

150000 T'boli. In the past

THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE OF MINDANAO

the T'boli practiced the primitive way of agriculture "slash and burn". "Slash and burn"

means that the people will clear a part of the forest by cutting the big trees and burning

the lower and smaller trees and bushes, after which they use the cleared plots as arable

land for some years without any fertilization. Rice, cassava and yams were the most

important agricultural products. Next to that, the people went hunting or fishing for

additional food.

For years slash and burn is no longer possible. The forests are gone by intensive

economic activities as foresting. At present The T'boli live in the mountains. Agriculture

is the only source of income. Some foreigners, in cooperation with the aid organization

Cord Aid, succeeded in developing some hectares of arable land in the last few years.

Nevertheless, the T'boli live in poor circumstances; a struggle for live.

Religion and culture

Only a few T'boli are Christian or Islamite. More than 95 percent of The T'boli

people still has their animistic religion. They were hardly influenced by the spread of the

Islam on the island. The Spaniards too, didn't succeed to Christianize the T'boli during

the Spanish colonial period. Main reason was that the T'boli withdrew to the hinterlands

in the uplands.

The T'boli and members of other indigenous tribes like the Higaunon, still believe

in spirits who live on several places in the natural environment.

“The T'boli distinguish their selves,

like all other "tribal Filipinos", by

their colorful clothes and specific

ornaments like rings, bracelets and

earrings.”

The Higaunon is one of the mountain tribes in

the Philippines. Most Higaunon still have a

rather traditional way of living. Farming is the

most important economic activity.

The belief in many gods and spirits of ancestors

Most Higaunon still have a strong belief in the

existence of gods and spirits. The ‘upper god’ is

Magbabaya, the creator of all aspects of life.

There are several ‘lower gods’. Each ‘lower

god’ has dominion over a specific part of the

natural environment. There is a lower god (Igbabasok) who has dominion over the

farms, a lower god (Pamahandi) who has dominion over treasures and properties, a

lower god (Bulalakaw) who has dominion over the waters and fishes and there is a

lower god (Panalagbugta) who has dominion over lands. The (ancestor) spirits have

control on all aspects of the daily life of the people. This belief, called “animism”,

influences the Higaunon people deeply. They believe that all problems like illnesses,

bad harvests and even the death, are due to their failure to satisfy the spirits.

Satisfy the spirits

The Higaunon belief that they have to please the spirits. Only if the Higaunon

succeed during their life to fulfill all the wishes of the spirits, they will not die and a path

will be shown to go from this world into the eternal world where the creator gods live.

One way to satisfy the spirits is having rituals with sacrifices. Pigs and chickens

are the most common sacrifices. Without the sacrifices or when there not enough

sacrifices, there will be problems with their subsistence, crops will fail and illnesses will

not be cured and people will die. If somebody gets ill, an ‘all knowing’ shaman is asked

advice what to do. The shaman is a person in the village who has the ability to tell which

spirit caused the sickness and what should be done to pacify the spirit.

THE HIGAUNON PEOPLE OF NORTHERN MINDANAO

EDUCATION AND SYSTEM OF WRITING

There was education in the Philippines in ancient times. The children were taught

by their parents or by the old men of the barangay. The subjects taught were reading,

writing, arithmetic, tribal traditions and custom and some vacation, such as agriculture,

carpentry, metal work, poultry, fishing and weaving.

Education from Ancient Early Filipinos

The education of pre-Spanish time in the Philippines was informal and unstructured.

The fathers taught their sons how to look for food and other means of livelihood. The

mothers taught their girls to do the household chores. This education basically prepared

their children to become good husband and wives.

Early Filipino ancestors valued education very much. Filipino men and women

know how to read and write using their own native alphabet called alibata. The alibata

was composed of 17 symbols representing the letters of the alphabet. Among these

seventeen symbols were three vowels and 14 consonant.

Educational System during Spanish Period

The educational system of the Philippines during the Spanish times was formal.

The Religious congregations paved the way in establishing schools from the primary

level to the tertiary level of education. The schools focused on the Christian Doctrines.

There was a separate school for boys and girls. The wealthy Filipinos or the Ilustrados

were accommodated in the schools. Colonial education brought more non-beneficial

effects to the Filipinos. The first educational system for students in the country was

established by virtue of the Education Decree of 1863. In furtherance, the decree

required the government to provide school institutions for boys and girls in every town.

As a consequence, the Spanish schools started accepting Filipino students. It was

during this time when the intellectual Filipinos emerged. The Normal School was also

established which gave men the opportunity to study of a three-year teacher education

for the primary level.

The friars controlled the educational system during the Spanish times. They

owned different schools, ranging from the primary level to tertiary level of education.

These missionaries took charge in teaching, controlling and maintaining the rules and

regulations imposed to the students.

Further information: Ancient Philippine scripts and Baybayin

In pre-Spanish times, education was still decentralized. Children were provided

more vocational training but less academics in their houses by their parents and in the

houses of their tribal tutors. They were using a unique system of writing known as the

baybayin. When the Spanish arrived in Manila, they were surprised to find a population

with a literacy rate higher than the literacy rate of Madrid.

EARLY LITERATURE

       The early inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago had a native alphabet or

syllabary which among the Tagalogs was called baybayin, an inscription akin to

Sanskrit. It was through the baybayin that literary forms such as songs, riddles and

proverbs, lyric and short poems as well as parts of epic poems were written. The bulk of

these early literature however was just passed on through oral recitation and incantation

and were transcribed into the Roman alphabet only centuries later by Spanish

chroniclers and other scholars. It is believed that replacement of the baybayin by the

Roman alphabet must have obliterated a significant aspect of indigenous Philippine

literature.

Among the early forms, it is the awit or the song that has endured. Most

ethnolinguistic communities remember the native tunes and lyrics of their songs.

Fathers Chirino and Colin noted that among the Tagalogs, there were some 16 song

forms for various occasions. Among these are the uyayi or hele, a lullaby for putting a

child to sleep; the soliranin is a song for travelers while the talindaw is the seafarers

song; the kumintang is a war song; the maluway is a song for collective labor while the

kundiman is a melancholic love song. The dalit, is a song-ritual usually sung to the

rhythm of dance. The panambitan is a courtship song while the pamanhikan is a song-

ritual of the would-be bridegroom to his would-be bride as he asks permission to marry

her. The subli is another dance-ritual song of courtship and marriage.

       In the north, among the Ilocanos, the more popular song forms are the dallot and

the duayya, both love songs, and the dung-aw which is a dirge or a wake song. The

Bontoc of Mountain Province have the bagbagto, a song ritual for harvest, while the

Ivatan up in the Batanes islands have three most popular folk song forms: the laji, the

kanta and the kalusan. The laji is a lyric rendition of a song usually sung after a day’s

work when people gather together in their houses to chat and drink the native wine,

palek and just find time to be merry. Dr. Florentino Hornedo’s research of the Ivatan laji.

Sometimes, the riddles are relayed through familiar indigenous forms of poetry

such as the ambahan, which is a monorhyming heptasyllabic poem attributed to the

Hanunuu-Mangyan tribe in Mindoro. Apart from relaying riddles, ambahans are also

used to narrate common folk experiences.

Tagalog riddles are called bugtong, while the Ilocanos call these burburtia.

Usually, riddles are made to rhyme and utilize the talinghaga, a form of metaphor

whose signification eventually conveys the meaning of the answer to the riddle. Riddles

such as these for instance illustrate the use of the talinghaga:

Hindi hari, hindi pari Neither king nor priest>

Ang damit ay sari-sari

(Sagot: sampayan)

May puno, walang bunga

May dahon, walang sanga

          (Sagot: sandok)

But has a variety of clothes

(Answer: clothesline)

It is a treetrunk but is without

fruit

It has leaves but has no

branches

(Answer: ladle)

       Sometimes, the riddles are relayed through familiar indigenous forms of poetry

such as the ambahan, which is a monorhyming heptasyllabic poem attributed to the

Hanunuu-Mangyan tribe in Mindoro. Apart from relaying riddles, ambahans are also

used to narrate common folk experiences. Father Antoon Postma has collected a

number of these ambahans, an example of which would be the following:

     

Ako mana manrigsan

sa may panayo pinggan

sa may tupas balian

ako ud nakarigsan

inambing bahayawan

sinag-uli batangan

I would like to take a bath

scoop the water with a plate

wash the hair with lemon juice;

but I could not take a bath,

because the river is dammed

with a lot of sturdy trunks

  A poetic form similar to the ambahan is the tanaga. Unlike the ambahan whose

length is indefinite, the tanaga is a compact seven-syllable quatrain. Poets test their

skills at rhyme, meter and metaphor through the tanaga because not only is it rhymed

and measured but also exacts skillful use of words to create a puzzle that demands

some kind of an answer. Notice how this is used in the following

Katitibay ka, tulos

Sakaling datnang agos,

Ako’y mumunting lumot,

Sa iyo’y pupulupot

You may stand sturdy

But when the waters flow>

I, the humble moss

Can strangle you.

Mataas man ang bundok

>Pantay man sa bakod

Yamang mapagtaluktok

Sa pantay rin aanod.

The mountain may be high

It may reach the sky

Riches greedily accumulated

Will eventually be leveled

       Tagalog proverbs are called salawikain or sawikain while they are termed

sarsarita in Iloko. Like most proverbs the world over, Philippine proverbs contain

sayings which prescribes norms, imparts a lesson or simply reflects standard norms,

traditions and beliefs in the community. Professor Damiana Eugenio classifies

Philippine proverbs into six groups according to subject matter. These are (1) proverbs

expressing a general attitude towards life and the laws that govern life; (2) ethical

proverbs recommending certain virtues and condemning certain vices; (3) proverbs

expressing a system of values; (4) proverbs expressing general truths and observations

about life and human nature; (5) humorous proverbs and (6) miscellaneous proverbs.

From her study, Eugenio observes that it is possible to formulate a fairly comprehensive

philosophy of life of the Filipino. The following proverb for instance, which is one of the

most popular, signifies the importance of looking back at one’s roots and origins. In a

way, this proverb also echoes the Filipino value of "utang na loob" or one’s debt of

gratitude to those who have contributed to his or her success.

Examples:

1. Ang hindi lumilingon sa pinanggalingan, hindi makararating sa paroroonan.

2. Nasa tao ang gawa, nasa Diyos ang awa.

3. Aanhin pa ang damo kung patay na ang kabayo

4. Maraming salita, kulang sa gawa.

5. Walang lumura sa langit na di sa kanyang mukha nagbalik.

6. Pag may tiyaga, may nilaga

The most exciting poetic as well as narrative forms of early Philippine literature

however are the Philippine epics or ethno-epics as critics and anthropologists call them.

Almost all the major ethnic groups in the country have an epic that is chanted in a

variety of rituals. Because chanting is the mode by which these epics have been

produced, many of them still remain unwritten. The ASEAN-sponsored study of Filipino

epics asserts that there are about one hundred (100) extant epics in the Philippines that

have been discovered, most of these from the island of Palawan. The ASEAN anthology

features only translations into English and Filipino on Aliguyon (Hudhud) of the Ifugao,

translated by Amador Daguio, and edited by Josefina Mariano, Biag ni Lam-ang of the

Ilocano, composite text by Leopoldo Yabes and translated by Jovita Ventura Castro,

Labaw Donggon, the Sulod epic, the text by Dr. F. Landa Jocano and translated by

Rosella Jean Makasian-Puno; Agyu or Olahing or Ulahingan of the Manobos,

composite text by Patricia Melendres Cruz from transcriptions of E. Arsenio Manuel,

Elena Maquiso, Carmen Ching Unabia, and Corazon Manuel and Sandayo of the

Subanun, text and translation by Virgilio Resma.

       The editor/translators of these epics cite five common characteristics of these

Filipino epics. One, most of these epics are designated by names which means song, or

chant, like the Ifugao hudhud, the Manobo olaging or the Subanon’s guman. Two, the

epics are episodic and proceed through constructions that are en palier. There are

repetitions of scenes at every episode the more familiar among these would be the

chewing of the betel nut, battle chants, getting dressed for marriage, etc. Three, the

epics abound with supernatural characters – the diwatas, anitos, and other benign

spirits who come to the aid of the hero. Four, these epics are also reflective of the

society where they originate . They portray tribal society before the coming of the

Muslims (1380) and the Christians (1521) and serve as vehicles for the transmission of

tribal customs and wisdom. Five, there are always several versions of these epics, as

well as a proliferation of episodes, phenomenon that is explained by orality of the genre

and its transmission through the ages to among the generations of the group.

       Aliguyon or the Hudhud of the Ifugaos tells of the exploits of Aliguyon as he battles

his arch enemy, Pambukhayon among rice fields and terraces and instructs his people

to be steadfast and learn the wisdom of warfare and of peacemaking during harvest

seasons.

       Biag ni Lam-ang (Life of Lamang) tells of the adventures of the prodigious epic

hero, Lam-ang who exhibits extraordinary powers at a very early age. At nine months

he is able to go to war to look for his father’s killers. Then while in search of lady love,

Ines Kannoyan, he is swallowed by a big fish, but his rooster and his friends bring him

back to life.

       Labaw Donggon is about the amorous exploits of the son of a goddess Alunsina,

by a mortal, Datu Paubari. The polygamous hero battles the huge monster Manaluntad

for the hand of Abyang Ginbitinan; then he fights Sikay Padalogdog, the giant with a

hundred arms to win Abyang Doronoon and confronts the lord of darkness,

Saragnayan, to win Nagmalitong Yawa Sinagmaling Diwata.

       The Agyu or Olahing is a three part epic that starts with the pahmara (invocation)

then the kepu’unpuun ( a narration of the past) and the sengedurog (an episode

complete in itself). All three parts narrate the exploits of the hero as he leads his people

who have been driven out of their land to Nalandangan, a land of utopia where there are

no landgrabbers and oppressors.

MUSIC AND DANCE

       Sandayo, tells of the story of the hero with the same name, who is born through

extraordinary circumstances as he fell out of the hair of his mother while she was

combing it on the ninth stroke. Thence he leads his people in the fight against invaders

of their land and waterways.

       Other known epics are Bantugan of the Maranao, the Darangan which is a Muslim

epic, the Kudaman of Palawan which was transcribed by Dr. Nicole McDonald, the

Alim of the Ifugao, the Hinilawod of Panay, the Ibalon of Bikol and Tuwaang of the

Manobo, which was transcribed by anthropologist E. Arsenio Manuel.. The Tagalog

have no known epic but it is generally believed that the story of Bernardo Carpio, the

man who has been detained by the huge mountains of Montalban is their epic. >

       Dr. Resil Mojares, literary scholar, asserts that the generic origins of the Filipino

novel are found in the epic narratives .

       As for shorter narratives, there are stories that tell of the origins of the people, of

the stars, the sky and the seas. A common story of the origin of man and woman is that

of Sicalac (man) and Sicavay (woman) who came out of a bamboo after being pecked

by a bird. This, and other stories of equal birthing of man and woman throughout the

archipelago could actually assert woman’s equality with man among indigenous

settings.

       The eminent scholar and critic, Don Isabelo de los Reyes, had collected a good

number of folk tales, legends and myths which he had exhibited in Madrid in 1887 and

won a distinguished award of merit for it. These are now anthologized in a book El

Folklore Filipino (1996).    

It is impossible to know when exactly dancing became a part of life in the

Philippines. Many traditional dances were designed to thank the gods for natural and

agricultural events, such as rain and harvests. The dances were performed during

festivals and remembrances of past military victories, and still are performed at

celebrations of births and weddings in modern times. Many modern folk dance festivals

still feature ancient dances performed in costume of the tribal period of the Philippines.

Some dances such as the Palok and the Lumagen are performed with traditional

percussion instruments such as the gangsa (a small copper gong), a tobtob (brass

gong) or a hibat (a gong played with a soft wooden stick). For many tribal dances there

are no external musicians; the dancers generate their own accompaniment with

stomping and hand clapping.

Later Dances in Philippine History

More recent dances done in the Philippines derive from historical events such as the

arrival of the Spaniards in the 16th century and the conflicts with the Moors. While

certain words and movements from those cultures have been integrated into the

dances, the Filipino dance genre remains true to its ancient tradition and roots.

Philippine Folk Dances

From courtship dances to those portraying various elements of nature, many different

sub-genres exist within Philippine folk dancing.

Courtship Dances

Several dances, especially those influenced by Spanish dance forms, re-enact the

courtship of a man and a woman in all its many aspects from the sublime to the

ridiculous. For example, the Maria Clara is named after the main female character in

Jose Rizal's Noli Me Tangere.

Idudu: A Snapshot of Ancient Culture

From the area of Abra, Cordillera comes the Idudu, which is a celebration of the family

as the fundamental building block of Philippine culture. Depicting a typical day in the life

of a family, the father is shown working in the fields while the mother cares for the

children. As soon as the father is done, the mother goes into the fields to continue the

work while the father goes back to the house to put the baby to sleep.

A singer usually provides a well-known lullaby during this part of the dance, and it

emphasizes the necessity of cooperation and mutual support in the Tingulan family

structure.

Maglalatik: The Dance of War

A dance from before the conversion of the Philippines to Christianity is called

the Maglalatik. It represents a fierce battle between the Moro tribesmen (wearing red

trousers) and the Christian soldiers from Spain (wearing blue). Both groups wear

harnesses with coconut shells attached tightly to their bodies which are struck

repeatedly with other shells held in the hands.

Originally from the Binan, Laguna province, it is now one of the most common dances in

Philippine folk dance performances.

Pandanggo sa Ilaw: Grace and Balance

Derived from the Spanish word fandango, this dance is one of several designed to show

off the grace, balance, and dexterity of the performers. Three glasses of wine (or, in

modern times, water) are held in hands and on top of the dancers' heads as they move,

never spilling a drop.

This is similar to the Binasuan dance from the Pangasinan Province which is done with

drinking glasses.

Tribal and Ritual Dances

The cultural minorities living in mountain regions throughout the Philippines

considered dancing a basic part of their lives. Their tribal and ritual dances predated the

emergence of Christianity and Islam in the country. These Filipinos preserved their

ancient dances, which were essentially performed for the gods, goddesses and nature.

These dances were closely intertwined with ceremonies, rituals and sacrifices.

In the Ifugao region in northern Philippines, the native Igorots dance to pray for good

harvest, ask for blessings before going to war, appease ancestors, ward off bad luck,

heal the sick, request family blessings, celebrate feasts and offer sacrifices. There are

also dances used to congregate, socialize, express feelings and mark milestones in the

cycle of life.

Spanish Influence

The more than 300-year Spanish occupation in the Philippines greatly influenced

Philippine folk dancing. As the Spanish brought Christianity to the country, the religion

reflected most of the stories and presentations of Filipino folk dances. Apart from using

Spanish-style clothes slightly modified with Filipino elements, these dances also infused

the Filipinos' everyday struggles during the Spanish rule. Filipino dancers also used

local resources as props like the bamboo castanets and abanico (Asian fans).

Some dances also utilized Spanish steps and footwork with Filipino modifications.

For instance, Mindoro's pandanggo sa Ilaw, derived from the Spanish dance fandango,

adapted the use of lively steps and clapping while balancing one oil lamp on the head

and one on each hand throughout the dance.

National Dance

Tinikling is the Philippines' national dance. Its name originates from the word tikling,

a native bird that roams around fields, crushes tree branches and avoids traps set by

farmers.

The dance comes from the province of Leyte in the Visayan region. It imitates the

bird's unique movements, speed and grace by skillfully maneuvering between fast-

moving bamboo poles. Tinikling involves two people beating, tapping and sliding the

bamboo poles on the ground and against each other while one or more dancers step

over and in between the poles without getting their feet caught between them. These

poles are banged against the ground and each other. The sound and rhythm they make

play significant parts on the tinikling's Iberian-influenced staccato music.

ARTS

Fight and Celebration Dances

Most Filipino folk dances, regardless of which region they come from, tell stories

about fights and struggles or celebrations and feasts. For instance, the maglalatik

dance of Binan, Laguna is a mock-war dance demonstrating a fight between the

Moros (Muslim Filipinos from Mindanao) and the Christians. The sakuting dance of

Abra uses the arnis, a native weapon made out of two sticks that serve as extensions of

the hands, to demonstrate a fight between the Christian Filipinos and the non-Christian

natives of the Cordillera region. The sinulog in San Joaquin, Iloilo is a ceremonial

dance performed for the feast of San Martin (Saint Martin). The bulaklakan of the

Tagalogs, meanwhile, is an annual procession followed by a social gathering where

girls dance while holding a U-shaped garland held upside down. Each dancer uses one

of these arch-like props filled with leaves and flowers.

Ancient and pre-Spanish Era

It is believed that the first inhabitants of the Philippines arrived over many

thousands of years ago. It is commonly thought that they migrated over a land bridge,

which existed at that time; from the Asian mainland. The next known inhabitation is

when the Negrito or Aeta arrived in the islands. However, they were driven back by

several waves of immigrants from Indonesia, only to be followed by the maritime

peoples of the Malayan islands.

SCULPTURE

Sculpture is three-dimensional artwork created by shaping or combining hard

materials, typically stone such as marble, metal, glass, or wood, or plastic materials

such as clay, textiles, polymers and softer metals.

Shown above are the most well-known of the old designs, the sarimanok. The

figure represents a fowl with wings, feathered tail, and a head decorated with ornaments

of scrolled and painted motif of leaves, spirals, and feather-like forms. It usually stands

on a fish and another one hangs from its beak. The wooden figure, usually perched atop

SARIMANOK

a bamboo pole, stands among decorative flags during weddings and other festive

occasions.

Ang hagabi ay isang upuang kahoy na gawa sa narra o ipil. Ang orihinal na anyo

nito ay tinatawag na ginulgulding na ang ibig sabihin ay "kagaya ng kambing", sapagkat

sa dalawang dulo ng upuan ay mayroong nakaukit na animo'y ulo ng kambing. Sa

kasalukuyan ang hagabi ay may iba't iba nang anyo - ang isang dulo nito na tinatawag

na ngiwi ay kagaya na ng ulo ng isang hayop na may mahabang ilong at dalawang

malalaking tainga.

HAGIBI

The Torogan is the ancestral house of the upper-class Maranao in

the Lanao Region of Mindanao. It is the dwelling place of the datu along with his wives

and children.There could not be any house larger than torogan of the datu within the

sultanate, for this signifies rank, prestige and wealth.

One of the richest survivors of Philippine pre-Spanish art is Maranao decorative

art, described by critics as graceful and rhythmical. The floorbeams of the houses

project beyond the walls, and the ends or panolong, such as the decorative figure, are

carved and multi-colored.

POTTERY

TOROGAN, the ancestral House of the Maranao Sultan or Datu

Potteries are objects that are first shaped of wet clay, and then hardened by

baking. Pottery includes both decorative and practical items such as bowls, vases,

dishes, and lamps.

Pottery is the material from which the pottery ware is made, of which major types

include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain. The place where such wares are made

is also called a pottery (plural "potteries"). Pottery also refers to the art or craft of the

potter or the manufacture of pottery.

WEAVING

PALAYOK

Weaving is a method of fabric production in which two distinct sets of yarns or

threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. The other methods

are knitting, lace making, felting, and braiding or plaiting. The longitudinal threads are

called the warp and the lateral threads are the weft or filling. (Weft or woof is an

old English word meaning "that which is woven". The method in which these threads are

entering woven affects the characteristics of the cloth.

Cloth is usually woven on a loom, a device that holds the warp threads in place while

filling threads are woven through them. A fabric band which meets this definition of cloth

(warp threads with a weft thread winding between) can also be made using other

methods, including tablet weaving, back-strap, or other techniques without looms.

The way the warp and filling threads interlace with each other is called the weave. The

majority of woven products are created with one of three basic weaves: plain

weave, satin weave, or twill. Woven cloth can be plain (in one color or a simple pattern),

or can be woven in decorative or artistic designs.

Weaving in the Philippines has different forms, functions and materials. They

also vary in design and techniques used. Most of the common forms of weaving in the

Philippines are in the form of hats, mats, bags, baskets and textiles (clothes and

blankets).

A malong bearing okir designs, the

Maranaos call their ornamental design okir, a

general term for both the scroll and the

geometric form.

Okir a datu (gentlemen’s design), the

scroll is the dominant feature in the men’s work

composed of various spiral forms. In contrasts,

the zigzag and angular forms are the

dominating motifs in women’s geometric art –

okir a bay (ladies’ design).

PHYSICAL ORNAMENTS

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

Bontoc, Ifugao, and Kalinga tribal textileswith a variety of silver and brass

"LINGLINGO" Fertility Charms

Bontoc Warriors ritual “Boaya” headhunting necklace: shell, boar tusk, rattan, fire band bone

Physical ornamentation can be categorized to three areas specifically the use of

traditional costumes (textile), jewelries and tattoos. The designs vary depending on the

location, users and function of the ornaments.

Our ancestors believed in a supreme being whom they called Bathala

Maykapal. They also believed in lesser gods or spirits called anitos whom they also

invoked. There was anitos every place they went to-fields, forest, sea, home.

Malayan Filipinos believed that when a person died, his spirit went to another

world. There were rewards for the good, and punishments for the bad.

Most of the early Filipinos believed that the souls are immortal and there is life

after death. Many of them believed that after death, the souls traveled to the next world

to receive their punishment or reward according to what they did while on earth. The

souls of the brave and good men were believed to go to heaven, known as

kaluwalhatian among the Tagalogs. On the other hand, the souls of the unjust, the

cruel, and the evil went to hell, called kasamaan. The Bontoks of today still believe that

the soul of the dead will live in huts and villages in the future world like those they left on

earth.

Finally, in keeping the memory of their departed relatives, the early Filipinos

carved idols made of gold, stone, wood, or ivory. Among the Tagalogs, these idols were

called larawan or likha.

The Manunggul Jar is a secondary burial jar excavated from a Neolithic burial

site in Manunggul cave of Lipuun Point,Quezon, Palawan dating from 890-710 B.C. The

two prominent figures at the top handle of its cover represent the journey of the soul to

the afterlife. The Manunggul Jar is widely acknowledged to be one of the

finest Philippine pre-colonial artwork ever produced and is a considered as a

masterpiece. It is considered as a national treasure and it is designated as item 64-MO-

74 by the National Museum of the Philippines. It is now housed at the Museum of the

Filipino People and is one of the most popular exhibits there. It is made from clay with

some sand soil.

Ancient Indigenous Belief

During pre-colonial times, a form of

animism was widely practiced in the

Philippines. Today, the Philippine is mostly

Catholic and Christian, and only a handful of

the indigenous tribes continue to practice the old traditions. These are a collection of

beliefs and cultural mores anchored more or less in the idea that the world is inhabited

by spirits and supernatural entities, both good and bad, and that respect be accorded to

them through nature worship. These spirits all around nature are known as "diwatas",

showing cultural relationship with Hinduism (Devatas).

Some worship specific deities, such as the Tagalog supreme deity, Bathala,

and his children Adlaw, Mayari, and Tala. The ancient Visayans believed in a similar

god they called Laon. He was said to be the creator of heaven, earth, people and the

entire universe.

Aside from this Supreme Being, they also worshipped lesser gods and

goddesses whose functions were close to the daily lives of the people. These were

some of the various ancient deities;

Idiyanale – Tagalog goddess of agriculture

Sidapa – Visayan god of death

Barangao – Visayan god of the rainbow

Lalahon – Visayan goddess of harvest

Apolaki – Pangasinan god of war

Darago – Bagobo god of war

Dal-lang – Ilokano goddess of beauty

Kidul – Ifugao god of thunder

Dian Masalanta – Tagalog god of birth

The ancient Filipinos also believed in and worshipped lower spirits called anitos

or diwatas. Anitos were either good or bad. They were good if they were the spirits of

relatives and ancestors; they were bad if they were the spirits of enemies. To these

anitos and minor deities, prayers and sacrifices were offered. Religious sacrifices, called

maganilo, were performed by priests and priestesses called babayland, baylana, or

katalona. The usual minister for religious worship was a woman. If a man performed

the religious ritual, he was called asog (effeminate). Food, drink, fruit, animals, and

sometimes human beings were offered or used in the sacrificial rites. By such means a

person hoped to gain the blessings of the spirits and avoid their wrath.

The ancient Filipinos–and a number of Filipinos today–intense feared certain

gods and goddesses which they believed to be mostly harmful. There are known by a

great many names because there are some eighty different languages in the country–

languages, not dialects, since the speakers of a dialect cannot communicate with the

speakers of the other dialects.

In his extensive research on these creatures, Dr. Maximo D. Ramos has shown

them to fall under the twelve groups according to what the creatures look like, what they

do, and where they are usually found: Demons such as the kapre and the tikbalang;

Dragons such as the moon-swallowing minokawa and bakunawa that are believed to

cause the eclipse; Dwarfs such as dwende, matanda sa punso, and lamang lupa that

live underground; Elves such as the encantada and kibaan; Giants such as Angngalo

and Onglo; Ghouls such as the corpse-eating aswang; Mermaids and mermen such as

sirena, magindara, and siukoy; Ogres such as the busaw and siring; Vampires such

as the blood-sucking mandurugo and aswang; Viscera suckers such as the

manananggal and buroka, which leave their lower body from the waist down and soar

out to suck internal organs of the people especially pregnant women and unborn

infants; Werebeasts such as the malakat and segben (sigbin) which is a man who

could become fierce dog, hog, or any other animal and attacks wayfarers at night;

Witches such as the mangkukulam and manggagamod, which made their victims ill

by magically inserting various sharp objects into their bodies.

In general, the spiritual and economic leadership in many pre-colonial Filipino

ethnic groups was provided by women, as opposed to the political and military

leadership according to men. Spanish occupiers during the 16th century arrived in the

Philippines noting about warrior priestesses leading tribal spiritual affairs. Many were

condemned as pagan heretics. Although suppressed, these matriarchal tendencies run

deep in Filipino society and can still be seen in the strong leadership roles modern

Filipino women are assuming in business, politics, academia, the arts and in religious

institutions.

Folk religion remains a deep source of comfort, belief and cultural pride among

many Filipinos. Nominally animists constitute about one percent of the population. But

animism's influence pervades daily life and practice of the colonial religions that took

root in the Philippines. Elements of folk belief melded with Christian and Islamic

practices to give a unique perspective on these religions.