The Eisenhower EraThe Eisenhower Era

1952-19601952-1960

AN

AFFLUENT SOCIETY

1950s

GUIDING QUESTION

To what extent did the decade of the 1950s deserve its reputation as an age of political, social, and cultural conformity?

““Conservatism, Conservatism, Complacency, Complacency,

and and Contentment”Contentment”

OROROROR““Anxiety, Anxiety,

Alienation, and Alienation, and Social Unrest”Social Unrest” ????

The Affluent SocietyThe Affluent Society 1950’s prosperity:1950’s prosperity:1.1. Surge of home constructionSurge of home construction 1 of 4 homes in 1960 built in 1950’s1 of 4 homes in 1960 built in 1950’s2. 2. TechnologyTechnology- the transistor - the transistor

(1948)=revolution in electronics (1948)=revolution in electronics (computers).(computers).

ENIACENIAC- US government computer (large as - US government computer (large as a small house) did basic computationsa small house) did basic computations

Transistors & circuits on silicon= Transistors & circuits on silicon= miniaturization of electronics.miniaturization of electronics.

IBM- prototype of “high tech” company IBM- prototype of “high tech” company Computers transformed billing, printing, Computers transformed billing, printing,

telecommunicationstelecommunications

AN AFFLUENT SOCIETY: Suburbia Mass-produced housing on the edge of

cities– Levittown – 17,000 mass-produced, low-

priced homes 1949 William Levitt produced 150 houses per

week. $7,990 or $60/month with no down payment.

Effect on inner cities: increasingly poor and racially divided

ENIAC- US Military computer

Affluent SocietyAffluent Society3. 3. Aerospace Industry-Aerospace Industry- Eisenhower built up Eisenhower built up

Strategic Air Command & passenger airline Strategic Air Command & passenger airline businesses.businesses.

B-52 long range bomberB-52 long range bomber 1957- Boeing Company= 11957- Boeing Company= 1stst large passenger jet large passenger jet

(707)(707) 1959- Air force One1959- Air force One

4. 4. Changing workforce-Changing workforce- service sector jobs offered service sector jobs offered opportunities to women (1950-1970 = 40 million opportunities to women (1950-1970 = 40 million new jobs created= many service & clericalnew jobs created= many service & clerical

1950’s celebrated “1950’s celebrated “cult of domesticitycult of domesticity”” New opportunities for women= social & New opportunities for women= social &

psychological shift= 1960’s, 70’s etc.psychological shift= 1960’s, 70’s etc. **** Betty FriedanBetty Friedan wrote: wrote: TThe Feminist Mystiquehe Feminist Mystique

(1963)(1963)= launched modern feminist movement= launched modern feminist movement

The 1st Air force One

American ConsumerismAmerican Consumerism 1950’s Middle class expanded greatly1950’s Middle class expanded greatly More ‘More ‘white collarwhite collar” than “blue collar” jobs” than “blue collar” jobs Americans have more disposable money & Americans have more disposable money &

leisure timeleisure time 1948- 11948- 1stst McDonalds opens McDonalds opens 1955- Disneyland opens1955- Disneyland opens Easy credit, high volume fast food, new Easy credit, high volume fast food, new

recreationrecreationTelevisionTelevision TVTV- 1951 7million sets sold; 1960 almost - 1951 7million sets sold; 1960 almost

everyone has one = movie going shrankeveryone has one = movie going shrank Mid-1950’s- advertisers were spending $10 Mid-1950’s- advertisers were spending $10

billionbillion

Impact of TVImpact of TV TelevangelistsTelevangelists ( Billy Graham, Oral ( Billy Graham, Oral

Roberts)- used TV to spread the GospelRoberts)- used TV to spread the Gospel

Commercialization of SportsCommercialization of Sports

Movement of sports teams from east to Movement of sports teams from east to west= reflected population shifts west= reflected population shifts

Popular Culture 1950’sPopular Culture 1950’s Music- Music- Elvis PressleyElvis Pressley fused black rhythm fused black rhythm

& blues with white bluegrass & country= & blues with white bluegrass & country= rock & roll= “crossover”rock & roll= “crossover”

Marylyn Monroe-Marylyn Monroe- commercialized & commercialized &

sensationalized new sexualitysensationalized new sexuality

Playboy MagazinePlayboy Magazine (1955) (1955)

Critics of Popular Culture & SocietyCritics of Popular Culture & Society David RiesmanDavid Riesman (Harvard sociologist) (Harvard sociologist) The The

Lonely CrowdLonely Crowd= US citizens are pack of = US citizens are pack of conformists conformists

William H. Whyte JrWilliam H. Whyte Jr.. – –The Organization The Organization ManMan

Sloan Wilson-Sloan Wilson- The Man in the Gray Flannel The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit (1955)Suit (1955)

**John Kenneth GalbraithJohn Kenneth Galbraith (Harvard (Harvard economist) – wrote economist) – wrote The Affluent SocietyThe Affluent Society: : questioned relation between private wealth & questioned relation between private wealth & public good- called for government social public good- called for government social spending.spending.

The 1952 ElectionThe 1952 Election1.Democrats Party problems1.Democrats Party problems Military deadlock in KoreaMilitary deadlock in Korea Inflation at homeInflation at home Whitehouse scandalsWhitehouse scandals

Nominated Nominated Adlai StevensonAdlai Stevenson (Gov. of ILL)(Gov. of ILL)

2. 2. RepublicansRepublicans- nominated - nominated Dwight Dwight EisenhowerEisenhower (‘I Like Ike”)- mostly non- (‘I Like Ike”)- mostly non-partisan & grandfatherly.’partisan & grandfatherly.’

Running mate- Running mate- Richard NixonRichard Nixon (Calf. (Calf. Congressman)- “red hunter”Congressman)- “red hunter”

1952 Campaign Ads

1952 Presidential Campaign1952 Presidential Campaign Nixon –accused Democrats of corruption, ineptitude Nixon –accused Democrats of corruption, ineptitude

in Korea, & soft on communism.in Korea, & soft on communism. Adlai “the appeaser”Adlai “the appeaser” 11stst election in which TV played a role election in which TV played a role ‘‘THE Checker’s SpeechTHE Checker’s Speech”- Nixon was accused for ”- Nixon was accused for

maintaining a “slush fund” while holding a seat in maintaining a “slush fund” while holding a seat in the Senate.the Senate.

Nixon used TV to address charges=“Checkers’ Nixon used TV to address charges=“Checkers’ Speech”= scandal disappeared (candidates could Speech”= scandal disappeared (candidates could bypass traditional party organization & speak bypass traditional party organization & speak directly to voters).directly to voters).

Eisenhower appeared in scripted TV spots (1Eisenhower appeared in scripted TV spots (1stst version of political TV ads)version of political TV ads)

** Eisenhower announced that he would personally go ** Eisenhower announced that he would personally go to Korea to end the war= to Korea to end the war= Eisenhower won electionEisenhower won election!!

1952 Election Outcome

Election of 1952: Dwight D. Eisenhower vs. Adlai Stevenson– Ike won: 34 million to 27 million

popular votes; 442 to 89 electoral votes.

“Modern Republicanism”– Fiscal Conservative: sound

business principles, Reduce federal spending, balance budget and cut taxes

– Social Moderate: maintain existing social and economic legislation

– avoid partisan conflicts

President President EisenhowerEisenhower (Courtesy Dwight D. (Courtesy Dwight D. Eisenhower Library)Eisenhower Library)

Ike with VP Ike with VP Nixon on the Nixon on the Links.Links.

Ike Takes Office & Ends Korean ConflictIke Takes Office & Ends Korean Conflict Republican’ s rode Ike’s coattails= paper thin Republican’ s rode Ike’s coattails= paper thin

majority in Congressmajority in Congress Ike went to Korea (3 days)- Dec. 1952- 7 Ike went to Korea (3 days)- Dec. 1952- 7

months later- months later- an armistice was signed-an armistice was signed-ends Korean Warends Korean War..

Chinese ended the war because of the cost- Chinese ended the war because of the cost- mostlymostly

War lasted 3 years (54,000 Americans Killed)War lasted 3 years (54,000 Americans Killed) 1 million Chinese, North Koreans & South 1 million Chinese, North Koreans & South

Koreans killedKoreans killed Status quoStatus quo returned= Korea divided at 38 returned= Korea divided at 38thth

parallel (even today)parallel (even today) Communism had been Communism had been containedcontained in Korea in Korea

Rise & Fall of Senator Joseph McCarthyRise & Fall of Senator Joseph McCarthy Wisc. Republican- anti=communist crusaderWisc. Republican- anti=communist crusader Won Senate seat by defeating Robert La Follette Won Senate seat by defeating Robert La Follette

(called him a red)(called him a red) Feb. 1950- accused Sec. of State Dean Acheson of Feb. 1950- accused Sec. of State Dean Acheson of

employing 205 known communists & stated he had employing 205 known communists & stated he had a list (never produced)a list (never produced)

Republicans – realized usefulness of communist Republicans – realized usefulness of communist accusations-esp.. against Democratsaccusations-esp.. against Democrats

Accused writers, actors, officials= black listed= Accused writers, actors, officials= black listed= could not get workcould not get work

19541954- - Army-McCarthy HearingsArmy-McCarthy Hearings( televised)- ( televised)- McCarthy accused Army officials of being McCarthy accused Army officials of being communist (20 million Americans watched)communist (20 million Americans watched)

Few months later= McCarthy formally censuredFew months later= McCarthy formally censured 1957- died an alcoholic 1957- died an alcoholic

The Foundations Civil Rights MovementThe Foundations Civil Rights Movement 1950- African-Americans= 15 million (2/3 lived in the 1950- African-Americans= 15 million (2/3 lived in the

South)South) 1896- 1896- ****Plessy v. FergusonPlessy v. Ferguson= est. “separate but = est. “separate but

equal” as constitutional= Jim Crow laws in the South. equal” as constitutional= Jim Crow laws in the South. 1950’s= 20% of eligible southern African-American 1950’s= 20% of eligible southern African-American

voters registered (poll taxes still existed & literacy voters registered (poll taxes still existed & literacy tests). tests).

Deep South (Mississippi, Alabama) only 2% Deep South (Mississippi, Alabama) only 2% registeredregistered

1960- White southerners sensitive about race issues1960- White southerners sensitive about race issues Fear & violence used where the Jim Crow laws were Fear & violence used where the Jim Crow laws were

insufficientinsufficient 1946- 6 black war veterans claiming civil rights were 1946- 6 black war veterans claiming civil rights were

killed.killed.

Foundations of the Civil Rights Foundations of the Civil Rights MovementMovement

Niagara Falls ConferenceNiagara Falls Conference – W.E.B. Dubois & others – W.E.B. Dubois & others met = est. NAACP 1909.met = est. NAACP 1909.

FDR executive order- forbidding discrimination in FDR executive order- forbidding discrimination in war factories (FEPC- Fair Employment Practices war factories (FEPC- Fair Employment Practices Commission created) Commission created)

Double V Campaign (WWII)Double V Campaign (WWII) CORE- CORE- Congress of Racial Equality Congress of Racial Equality ( 1942)- used sit-( 1942)- used sit-

ins to protest segregation in public places (more ins to protest segregation in public places (more “militant” than NAACP)“militant” than NAACP)

Post WWII- more racial progress made in the north= Post WWII- more racial progress made in the north= African-Americans secured equal access to public African-Americans secured equal access to public accommodations.accommodations.

1947- 1947- Jack Roosevelt “Jackie” Robinson- Jack Roosevelt “Jackie” Robinson- 11stst African- African-American allowed in the major league (Brooklyn American allowed in the major league (Brooklyn Dodgers)Dodgers)

Civil RightsCivil Rights Post WWII- Generated a new militancy among Post WWII- Generated a new militancy among

African-Americans.African-Americans.

1940’s NAACP- had pushed to end segregation1940’s NAACP- had pushed to end segregation

1948- 1948- President Truman President Truman –ended segregation in US –ended segregation in US civil service & **civil service & **integrated the armed forcesintegrated the armed forces

1950- 1950- Sweatt v. PainterSweatt v. Painter – Supreme Court ruled – Supreme Court ruled separate professional schools for blacks represented separate professional schools for blacks represented unequal treatment (argued by unequal treatment (argued by Thurgood MarshallThurgood Marshall for NAACP- later Marshall appointed 1for NAACP- later Marshall appointed 1stst African- African-American to Supreme Court) American to Supreme Court)

The Movement Begins in EarnestThe Movement Begins in Earnest

1954- **1954- **Brown v. Board of Education of TopekaBrown v. Board of Education of Topeka, , KansasKansas-- Supreme Court ruled that segregation in Supreme Court ruled that segregation in public schools was unequal & unconstitutional- public schools was unequal & unconstitutional- “must end with all deliberate speed”. “must end with all deliberate speed”. --**--**Chief Chief Justice Earl WarrenJustice Earl Warren

Border States made efforts to desegregateBorder States made efforts to desegregate

Deep South= resisted (1956- Deep South= resisted (1956- Southern Southern ManifestoManifesto -101 Southern Congressmen vowed to -101 Southern Congressmen vowed to fight the ruling) States diverted public funds to fight the ruling) States diverted public funds to crate private schools= newcrate private schools= new segregation segregation

*The Montgomery Bus Boycott

Dec. 1955- Dec. 1955- Montgomery, Alabama-Montgomery, Alabama- Rosa ParksRosa Parks refused refused to her seat in the white section of the bus. to her seat in the white section of the bus.

Parks was arrested for breaking segregation lawsParks was arrested for breaking segregation laws

**The Montgomery Bus BoycottThe Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956)- led by (1955-1956)- led by Martin Luther King Jr.Martin Luther King Jr.

**Martin Luther King JrMartin Luther King Jr.- 27 years old, pastor of .- 27 years old, pastor of

Dexter Ave. Baptist Church- born to prosperous Dexter Ave. Baptist Church- born to prosperous Atlanta Atlanta family.family.

advocated advocated **non-violent protestnon-violent protest (influenced by Gandhi)(influenced by Gandhi)

Eisenhower & Civil RightsEisenhower & Civil Rights Reluctant to promote Reluctant to promote integrationintegration (co-mingling of (co-mingling of

the races).the races). Failed to use his popularity to push civil rightsFailed to use his popularity to push civil rights

1. 1. ****1957-Little Rock Nine1957-Little Rock Nine Gov. Orval FaubusGov. Orval Faubus used National Guard to block used National Guard to block

admittance of 9 African-American children to admittance of 9 African-American children to LittleLittle Rock Central High School-Rock Central High School- a state thwarting a state thwarting FEDERAL LAW!FEDERAL LAW!

Eisenhower sent troops to escort the 9 children to Eisenhower sent troops to escort the 9 children to class.class.

2. 2. Civil Rights Act 1957-Civil Rights Act 1957- 1 1stst civil rights act since civil rights act since Reconstruction; set up Civil Rights Commission to Reconstruction; set up Civil Rights Commission to investigate abuses & authorized federal investigate abuses & authorized federal government to issue injunctions to protect voting government to issue injunctions to protect voting rights rights

101st Airborne escorting “Little Rock Nine”

Little Rock Nine

The Sit-In MovementThe Sit-In Movement1957- 1957- Southern Christian Leadership ConferenceSouthern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)- (SCLC)-

founded by MLK ; mobilized black churches. founded by MLK ; mobilized black churches.

*AP writers know that you know MLK –know he headed SCLC *AP writers know that you know MLK –know he headed SCLC

The Sit-In MovementThe Sit-In Movement Feb. 1960- Feb. 1960- Greensboro ,NCGreensboro ,NC: 4 black freshmen from NC ATT : 4 black freshmen from NC ATT

demanded service at Woolworth’s lunch counter-black waitress demanded service at Woolworth’s lunch counter-black waitress refused service.refused service.

Next day-19 students returned to Woolworth’sNext day-19 students returned to Woolworth’s Next Day= 85 students= end of week =1000 studentsNext Day= 85 students= end of week =1000 students

**inspired other students across the south to conduct sit-ins, pray-**inspired other students across the south to conduct sit-ins, pray-ins, ins,

Student Non-Violent Coordinating CommitteeStudent Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) (SNCC) Organized April 1960Organized April 1960 Often were at odds with SCLC Often were at odds with SCLC

Greensboro Sit-In-beginning of a nationwide sit-in movement

Eisenhower’s Domestic Agenda1. *“dynamic conservatism”- “in all things that deal

with people-be human…when it comes to people’s money, or the economy…be conservative”.

2. Worried about “creeping socialism”- Cut back on Truman’s military spending (MOVED

FROM 13%-10% of GNP)

Control of off-shore oil from federal government to states

Tried to curb power of TVA

Eisenhower’s Domestic Agenda Operation “Wetback”- deported about 1

million illegal Mexicans.

**Termination Policy Cancelled FDR’s “Indian New Deal” &

“terminated” Indian tribes as legal entities=goal is assimilation (Dawes Act 1887)

Legitimatization of New Deal Programs Eisenhower knew that all New Deal

Programs could not be scaled back

***The Interstate Highway Act-1956 $27 Billion to build 42,000 miles of

interstate highwayEffects:1. Created construction jobs2. Sped up suburbanization of America3. Increased growth of trucking, auto oil,

travel businesses. Hurt RR Hurt air quality Crated energy consumption issues we

still deal with today Deteriorating cities

Eisenhower’s Foreign PolicyA. *“new look”- “containment” –negative, futile, immoral–

wanted to “roll back” communist gains & liberate. Promised to cut military spending & balance budget Promoted by Eisenhower & Sec. of State John Foster

Dulles 1. Cut spending on conventional troops (army & navy)– spent

more on super bombers (B-52’s) 2. build up of nuclear weapons= cheaper than conventional=

“more bang for the buck”B. **“massive retaliation”- with increased strength of

Strategic Air Command. C. Negotiations with new Soviet leader (Nikita Khrushchev-

1953)

• The Hungarian Uprising (1956) showed limits of massive retaliation as a threat to the Soviets

Vietnam 1950’s –Western Europe was mostly secure from

communist threat (NATO, MARSHALL PLAN)

Vietnam (French Indo-China) Nationalists had wanted independence from

French colonial rule for decades 1919- Ho Chi Minh tried to appeal at Post WWI

Paris Conference to Wilson-no success Post WWII-Indochina turned back over to French

control= faced resistance from HO CHI MINH & Vietminh

1954- US supported French (to get French support to rearm West Germany) with 80% of costs ($1 billion/year) & about 150 military “advisors” (starting with Truman).

The French leave Indochina 1954- Dienbienphu (French military stronghold)

attacked & taken by communist forces.

*The Geneva Conference (1954) meeting of multiple nations Agreed to divide Vietnam in half at the 17th parallel Ho Chi Minh agreed= if Vietnam wide elections

would be held in the future

• North Vietnam= Communist led by Ho Chi Minh• South Vietnam= “Democratic” led by Ngo Dinh

Diem (supported by the US)

Eisenhower & the Middle East1. The Iranian Crisis (1953)- Iranian government

(backed by Soviets?) began to resist Western owned oil companies operating on Iranian soil.

1953- CIA- engineered a coup (overthrow) of the Iranian government.

US placed the shah of Iran (Mohammed Reza Pahlevi) in charge.

Iranian resentment= 26 years later the shah is overthrown & Iranian’s take US embassy workers hostage for 444 days (CARTER PRESDIENCY)

Eisenhower & the Suez Crisis Egyptian leader Gamal Nasser (plays the US &

Soviets against each other) Nasser wanted to build a dam (US & Britain

reluctantly agreed support $) Nasser started flirt with Soviets= US withdrew

support for the dam. Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal (owned by

British & French companies) Britain & France carried out an attack on Egypt

(Oct. 1956) Soviets threaten nuclear attack on Paris & London US did not support French or British (why??) Troops evacuated Egypt UN “POLICE FORCE” sent to Egypt (1st time) Last time US could use oil as a weapon

*The Eisenhower Doctrine

1940- US produced 2/3 of world’s oil (5% from Middle East)

1948- US was a net importer of oil (Middle East)

*Eisenhower Doctrine (1957)- pledged US military & economic aid to Middle Eastern nations threatened by communism.

1960- OPEC (Oil Producing Exporting Countries) formed (Saudis, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Venezuela)

**The Space Race 1956- Eisenhower re-elected= lost control of

Congress. Oct. 1957- Soviets launch *“Sputnik” -184 lbs.

ball that beeped. Nov. 1957- launched “Sputnik II”- 1,120 lbs.

carrying a dog into space.Effect- fear in the US! Soviets with “ICBM’S” could place a warhead on

one & hit the US 1. US created NASA- to compete against the

Soviets= 1958 US launched its 1st satellite. By late 1950’s US had tested its own ICBM’s2. 1958- (NDEA) *National Defense & Education

Act- $887 million on math & science education & loans for college.

Sputnik I

“Laika” 1ST ANIMALIN SPACE-Sputnik II

Eisenhower & Khrushchev Goal- discuss “détente”- easing of tensions, arms

limitations, testing restrictions. March 1958- Soviets & US announce a halt to

underground & atmospheric atomic testing. 1959- Eisenhower & Khrushchev met in NY;

Khrushchev appeared before the UN general assembly – proposed disarmament

CAMP David- Khrushchev demands evacuation of Berlin

Paris Summit (MAY 1960) Eisenhower & Khrushchev met US spy plane (U-2) shot down (pilot survived-Gary

Powers) Ike denied at first-then admitted to it Later Powers was released

The Cuban Revolution Latin Americans resented US aid to Europe 1954- CIA directed coup in Guatemala US supported dictators in Latin AmericaCuba 1930’s-1960- US supported Cuban dictator Fulgencio

Batista Encouraged US investment 1959- Fidel Castro ousted Batista & denounced the US=

NATIONALIZED US businesses & redistributed property. US cut off imports of Cuban sugar Castro aligned Cuba with the Soviet Union= threat 90 miles

off US coast!! 1960-2000- almost 1 million Cubans escaped communist

Cuba & came to the US 1961- US broke diplomatic relations with Cuba Soviets declare Monroe Doctrine dead-threatened nuclear

attack for US INTERVENTION.

Eisenhower’s Legacy Limited to 2 terms by 22nd Amendment

(1951) universally admired & respected Cemented some New Deal policies Failure: to address civil rights Alaska & Hawaii added as US states Prosperity & real income increase

Election of 1960 Democrats-nominate John F. Kennedy/Lyndon

Johnson Republicans-nominate Richard Nixon Campaign Issues:1. Kennedy accused Republicans of falling behind

the Soviets= “missile gap”2. Kennedy & Nixon called themselves “Cold

Warriors”3. Kennedy's Catholicism- many Americans still

hesitant about electing a Catholic to the WH. Kennedy allayed many fears in a

speech=northern dems gravitated to Kennedy in big numbers.

The Nixon-Kennedy Debates Both candidates agreed to a series of 4

debates audiences of 60 million or more watched Kennedy held his own against the

seasoned Nixon 1st Debate was a clincher- Kennedy

appeared to be more relaxed & confident JFK won by 100,000 popular votes (303-

219) **1st Catholic elected President

(youngest man elected)-workers, Catholics, AA

Democrats swept both houses of Congress Called Americans to a “New Frontier”

Election of 1960 TV Campaign ADS

Literature- ‘Realism”- “Psychedelic Prose

Hemingway, Steinbeck, Mailer gave way to : Searing Realism gave way to fantastic & psychedelic

prose 1961- Joseph Heller- Catch 22- antics & anguish of WWII

Mediterranean among US airmen. Kurt Vonnegut Jr. – Slaughterhouse Five (1969)- dark,

comedy war tale. New Mobility & Affluence created dilemmas *John Updike- “Rabbit, Run” 1960 John Cheever- “The Wapshot Chronicle” (1957) Playwrights- Tennessee Williams & Arthur Miller Disintegrating forces of modern American life &

search for values Jewish Authors: J.D. Salinger : A Catcher In the Rye ; E.L.

Doctorow Black Authors- Richard Wright- “Native Son” Ralph Ellison- “Invisible Man”

The Beats Poets /writes disillusioned with

materialism, conformity & “establishment” of Eisenhower era

AP TIP: Most similar to the 1920’s “lost generation poets”

* Jack Kerouac- “On the Road” * Allen Ginsberg- “Howl”