The American Pageant Chapter 37, The Eisenhower Era Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved

The American Pageant

Chapter 37,

The Eisenhower Era

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Adapted from Ms. Susan M. Pojer

Horace Greeley HS Chappaqua, NY

Adapted from Ms. Susan M. Pojer

Horace Greeley HS Chappaqua, NY

THE 1950s:

THE 1950s:

“Anxiety, Alienation, and Social Unrest” ??

“Conservatism, Complacency, and

Contentment”OROR

Warm-up

1. What do you see in this picture?2. What do you know about life

during the 1950s because of this picture?

3. Who might have been excluded from this lifestyle?

1A. Baby Boom

1A. Baby BoomIt seems to me that every other

young housewife I see is pregnant.

-- British visitor to America, 1958

1957 1 baby born every 7 seconds

1B. Baby Boom

1B. Baby Boom

Dr. Benjamin Spock

and the Anderson Quintuplets

2A. Suburban Living

2A. Suburban Living

$7,990 or $60/month with no down payment.

Levittown, L. I.: “The American Dream”

1949 William Levitt produced 150 houses per week.

2A. Suburban Living:

The New “American Dream”

2A. Suburban Living:

The New “American Dream”k 1 story high

k 12’x19’ living room

k 2 bedrooms

k tiled bathroom

k garage

k small backyard

k front lawn

By 1960 1/3 of the U. S. population in

the suburbs.

And the children go to summer camp and then to the universityWhere they are put in boxes and they come out all the same.

And the boys go into business and marry and raise a familyIn boxes made of ticky tacky and they all look just the same.

• And there's doctors and there's lawyers, and business executivesAnd they're all made out of ticky tacky and they all look just the same.

• And they all play on the golf course and drink their martinis dry,And they all have pretty children and the children go to school

Little boxes on the hillside, Little boxes made of tickytackyLittle boxes on the hillside, little boxes all the sameThere's a green one and a pink one and a blue one and a yellow oneAnd they're all made out of ticky tacky and they all look just the same.

And the people in the houses all went to the universityWhere they were put in boxes and they came out all the same,

Little Boxes by Malvina Reynolds

2B. Suburban Living

2B. Suburban Living

SHIFTS IN POPULATION DISTRIBUTION,

1940-1970

1940 1950 1960 1970Central Cities 31.6% 32.3% 32.6% 32.0%Suburbs 19.5% 23.8% 30.7% 41.6%Rural Areas/ 48.9% 43.9% 36.7% 26.4%Small Towns

U. S. Bureau of the Census.

2c. Suburban Living:

The Typical TV Suburban Families

2c. Suburban Living:

The Typical TV Suburban FamiliesThe

Donna Reed Show1958-1966

Leave It to Beaver1957-1963

Father Knows Best

1954-1958

The Ozzie & Harriet Show

1952-1966

Leave it to Beaver

4. What do you know about life during the 1950s because of this clip? Do you think it is an accurate portrayal?

3a. Consumerism

3a. Consumerism1950 Introduction of the Diner’s

Card

All babies were potential consumers who spearheaded a brand-new market for food, clothing, and shelter. -- Life Magazine (May, 1958)

3B. Consumerism3B. Consumerism

4A. A Changing Workplace

4A. A Changing Workplace Automation:

1947-1957 factory workers decreased by 4.3%, eliminating 1.5 million blue-collar jobs.

By 1956 more white-collar than blue-collar jobs in the U. S.

Computers Mark I (1944). First IBM mainframe computer (1951).

Corporate Consolidation:

By 1960 600 corporations (1/2% of all U. S. companies) accounted for 53% of total corporate income.

WHY?? Cold War military buildup.

4B. A Changing Workplace

4B. A Changing WorkplaceNew Corporate Culture:

“The Company Man”

1956 Sloan Wilson’s The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit

5A. The Culture of the Car

5A. The Culture of the Car Car registrations: 1945 25,000,000

1960 60,000,000

2-family cars doubles from 1951-1958

1956 Interstate Highway Act largest public works project in American history!

Å Cost $32 billion.

Å 41,000 miles of new highways built.

1959 Chevy Corvette

1958 Pink Cadillac

5B. The Culture of the Car

5B. The Culture of the Car

First McDonald’s (1955)

America became a more homogeneous nation because of the automobile.

Drive-In Movies

Howard Johnson’s

5C. The Culture of the Car

5C. The Culture of the Car

The U. S. population was on the move in the 1950s.

NE & Mid-W S & SW (“Sunbelt” states)

1955 Disneyland opened in Southern California. (40% of the guests came from outside California, most by car.)

Frontier Land

Main Street Tomorrow Land

6A. Television6A. Television 1946 7,000 TV sets in the U. S.

1950 50,000,000 TV sets in the U. S.

Mass Audience TV celebrated traditionalAmerican values.

Television is a vast wasteland. Newton Minnow, Chairman of the Federal Communications Commission, 1961

Truth, Justice, and the American way!

6B. Television – The Western

6B. Television – The WesternDavy Crockett

King of the Wild Frontier

The Lone Ranger(and his faithfulsidekick, Tonto): Who is that masked man??

Sheriff Matt Dillon,

Gunsmoke

6C. Television - Family Shows

6C. Television - Family Shows

I Love Lucy

The Honeymooners

Glossy view of mostly middle-class suburban life.

But...

Social Winners?... AND… Loosers?

Lucy, the first pregnant woman

When Lucy became pregnant in 1952 with her 2nd child, CBS became nervous. The network worried about ratings & about sponsorship for the show. Women weren’t portrayed as pregnant on television. I Love Lucy broke this taboo by weaving Lucy’s pregnancy into the storyline of the series. As a result, 44 million viewers tuned in to the program in January 1953 to watch Lucy give birth to Little Ricky. An amazing 72% of all U.S. homes with TV watched this episode.

7A. Teen Culture

7A. Teen CultureIn the 1950s the word “teenager”

entered the American language.

By 1956 13 mil. teens with $7 bil. to spend a year.1951 “race music” “ROCK ‘N ROLL”

Elvis Presley “The King”

7B. Teen Culture

7B. Teen Culture“Juvenile

Delinquency” ???

Marlon Brando in

The Wild One (1953)

James Dean inRebel Without a

Cause (1955)

1951 J. D. Salinger’s A Catcher in the Rye

7C. Teen Culture

7C. Teen CultureThe “Beat” Generation:

f Jack Kerouac On The Road

f Allen Ginsberg poem, “Howl”

f Neal Cassady

f William S. Burroughs

“Beatnik”

“Clean” Teen

7D. Teen Culture

7D. Teen Culture

Behavioral Rules of the 1950s:U Obey Authority.

U Control Your Emotions.

U Don’t Make Waves Fit in

with the Group.

U Don’t Even Think About Sex!!!

8A. Religious Revival

8A. Religious Revival Today in the U. S., the Christian faith is

back in the center of things. -- Time magazine, 1954

Church membership: 1940 64,000,000 1960 114,000,000

Television Preachers:

1. Catholic Bishop Fulton J. Sheen “Life is Worth Living”

2. Methodist Minister Norman Vincent Peale The Power of Positive Thinking

3. Reverend Billy Graham ecumenical message; warned against the evils of Communism.

9A. Well-Defined Gender Roles

9A. Well-Defined Gender RolesThe ideal modern woman married, cooked

and cared for her family, and kept herself busy by joining the local PTA and leading a troop of Campfire Girls. She entertained guests in her family’s suburban house and worked out on the trampoline to keep her size 12 figure. -- Life magazine, 1956

MarilynMonroe

The ideal 1950s man was the provider, protector, and the boss of the house. -- Life magazine, 1955

1956 William H. Whyte, Jr. The Organization Man

A a middle-class, white suburban male is the ideal.

8B. Religious Revival

8B. Religious RevivalHollywood: apex of the biblical

epics.

It’s un-American to be un-religious! -- The Christian Century, 1954

The Robe The Ten Commandments Ben Hur 1953 1956 1959

9B. Well-Defined Gender Roles

9B. Well-Defined Gender RolesChanging Sexual Behavior:

Alfred Kinsey: 1948 Sexual Behavior in the Human Male 1953 Sexual Behavior in the Human Female

v Premarital sex was common.

v Extramarital affairs were frequent among married couples.

Kinsey’s results are an assault on the family as a basic unit of society, a negation of moral law, and a celebration of licentiousness. -- Life magazine, early 1950s

10A. Progress Through Science10A. Progress Through Science1951 -- First IBM Mainframe

Computer

1952 -- Hydrogen Bomb Test

1953 -- DNA Structure Discovered

1954 -- Salk Vaccine Tested for Polio

1957 -- First Commercial U. S. Nuclear Power Plant

1958 -- NASA Created

1959 -- Press Conference of the First 7 American Astronauts

10B. Progress Through Science10B. Progress

Through Science1957 Russians launch SPUTNIK

I

1958 National Defense Education Act

10C. Progress Through Science10C. Progress

Through ScienceUFO Sightings skyrocketed in the 1950s.

War of the Worlds

Hollywood used aliens as a metaphor

for whom ??

10D. Progress Through Science10D. Progress

Through ScienceAtomic Anxieties:

à “Duck-and-Cover Generation”

Atomic Testing:

à 1946-1962 U. S. exploded 217 nuclear weapons over the Pacific and in Nevada.

Duck and Cover

The 50s Come to a Close

The 50s Come to a Close1959 Nixon-

Khrushchev “Kitchen Debate”

Cold War -----> Tensions

<----- Technology

& Affluence

The postwar era witnessed tremendous economic growth and rising social contentment and conformity. Yet in the midst of such increasing affluence and comfortable domesticity, social critics expressed a growing sense of unease with American culture in the 1950s.

Assess the validity of the above statement and explain how the decade of the 1950s laid the groundwork for the social and political turbulence of the 1960s.

Class Discussion Topic:

Class Discussion Topic:

• Economy grew during the 50s– the invention of the transistor

exploded the electronics field• especially in computers• companies such as International Business

Machines (IBM) expand & prosper.

• Aerospace industries progressed, – Boeing company made the

1st passenger-jet airplane (adapted from the superbombers of theStrategic Air Command), the 707.

Affluence & Anxiety

Affluence & Anxiety

• 1956: for the 1st time “white-collar” workers outnumbered “blue collar” workers – meaning that the industrial era was passing on.

• labor unions peaked in 1954 then started a steady decline.– Women appeared more & more in the workplace

• despite the stereotypical role of women as housewives portrayed on TV shows such as “Ozzie and Harriet” and “Leave It to Beaver.”

• More than 40 million new jobs were created.

Affluence & AnxietyAffluence & Anxiety

Affluence & AnxietyAffluence & Anxiety• Betty Friedan’s 1963

book The Feminine Mystique– A best-seller and a

classic of modern feminine protest literature.

– She’s the godmother of the feminist movement.

Consumer Culture in the 50s

Consumer Culture in the 50s• Credit cards• opening of McDonald’s• the debut of Disneyland• explosion in the # of

television stations• Advertisers used television

to sell products • “televangelists” like Billy

Graham, Oral Roberts, and Fulton J. Sheen – used TV to preach the gospel

& encourage religion.

• Sports shifted west– Brooklyn Dodgers & New York

Giants moved to Los Angeles and San Francisco in 1958

• Elvis Presley– a white singer of the new “rock and

roll”– made girls swoon – sexually suggestive gyrations– redefined popular music.– died from drugs in 1977, at age 42.



• Traditionalists were shocked by – Elvis’s shockingly open sexuality– Marilyn Monroe (in her Playboy magazine

spread) – redefinition of the new sensuous sexuality.

• Critics, such as David Riesman in The Lonely Crowd, William H. Whyte, Jr. in The Organization Man, and Sloan Wilson in The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit, lamented this new consumerist style.



• Election of 1952– Democrats chose Adlai E.

Stevenson, governor of Illinois, – Republicans chose Dwight D.

Eisenhower and anticommunist Richard M. Nixon to be his VP

– Grandfatherly Eisenhower =• war hero • liked by everyone• rough part of campaigning to Nixon,

who attacked Stevenson as soft against communists, corrupt, and weak in the Korean situation.

The Advent of Eisenhower


• Nixon then almost got caught with a secretly financed “slush fund,” – he delivered his famous and touching

“Checkers Speech.”• he denied wrongdoing• spoke of his family and specifically, his

daughter’s cute little cocker spaniel, Checkers

• was forgiven in the public arena and stayed on as V.P.

• showed the awesome power of television



• Ike won easily (442 to 89)• true to his campaign promise, he

flew to Korea to help move along peace negotiations, yet failed

• seven months later, after Ike threatened to use nuclear weapons, an armistice was finally signed (but was later violated often).

• In Korea– 54,000 Americans had died– tens of billions of dollars had been wasted in the effort, – Americans took a little comfort in knowing that

communism had been “contained.”



• Blacks in the South– bound by the severe Jim Crow laws

that segregated every aspect of society, from schools to restrooms torestaurants and beyond.

– Only about 20% of the eligible blacks could vote, due to intimidation, discrimination, poll taxes, and other schemes meant to keep black suffrage down.

Desegregating American SocietyDesegregating

American Society

• Jackie Robinson cracked the racial barrier by signing with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947

• Rosa Parks– December 1955, refused to give up

a bus seat in the “whites only” section• Martin Luther King, Jr.,

– believed in peaceful methodsof civil rights protests, blacks were making their suffering &discrimination known to the public.

Desegregating American SocietyDesegregating

American Society

• After he heard about the 1946 lynchings of black soldiers seekingrights for which they fought overseas– Truman seeks to improve black

rights by desegregating the armed forces

– Eisenhower failed to continue this trend by failing to support laws.

Seeds of the Civil Rights Revolution


• Earl Warren– appointed Chief Justice of the

Supreme Court– Shocked his conservative backers by

actively assailing black injustice &ruling in favor of African-Americans.



• 1954 landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas– reversed the previous 1896 ruling

of Plessy v. Ferguson– Brown case said that “separate but

equal” facilities were inherently unequal

– Under the Brown case, schools were ordered integrated.



• Border States usually obeyed this new ruling• states in the Deep South did everything they

could to delay it and disobey it, – diverting funds to private schools– signing a “Declaration of Constitutional Principles”

• promised not to desegregate, and physically preventing blacks to integrate.

• 10 years after the ruling, fewer than 2% of eligible black students sat in the same classrooms as whites.

• Real integration of schools in the Deep South occurred around 1970.



• decreased government spending – by decreasing military spending,

• Secretary of Health, Education, & Welfare – condemned free distribution of the Salk

anti-polio vaccine as being socialist• cracked down on illegal Mexican

immigration – cut down on the success of the bracero

program, by rounding up 1 million Mexicans and returning them to their native country in 1954.

Eisenhower Republicanism at Home


• Indians: proposed ending the lenient FDR-style treatment toward Indians– Wanted to revert to a Dawes Severalty Act-

style policy toward Native Americans– due to protest and resistance, this

was disbanded• Backed the Interstate Highway Act, (1956)

– built 42,000 miles of interstate freeways• only balanced the budget 3Xs in his 8 years of office• in 1959, he incurred the biggest peacetime deficit in

U.S. history up to that point.



• Slow to move:– refused to issue a statement

acknowledging the Supreme Court’s ruling on integration (Brown)

• Little Rock Nine: (September 1957)– Orval Faubus: governor of AK

• mobilized the National Guard to prevent nine black students from enrolling in Little Rock’sCentral High School,

– Ike sent federal troops to escort the children to their classes.

Eisenhower Republicanism at

Home:On Civil Rights



• 1957 Civil Rights Act:– first Civil Rights Act since the

Reconstruction days– set up a permanent Civil Rights

Commission• investigate violations of civil rights • authorized federal injunctions to protect

voting rights.





• Meanwhile, MLK:– formed the Southern Christian

Leadership Conference• aimed to mobilize the vast power of black

churches on behalf of black rights—a shrewd strategy, since churches were a huge source of leadership in the black community.

• Greensboro North Carolina Sit-in– February 1, 1960

• four black college freshmen launched a “sit-in” movement in Greensboro, North Carolina, demanding service at a whites-only Woolworth’s lunch counter, thus sparking the sit-in movement.





• Background:– Secretary of State John Foster Dulles

• stated that the policy of containment was not enough

• U.S. was going to push back communism & liberate the peoples under it

• became known as “rollback.” • All-the-while he advocated toning down

defense spending by building a fleet of superbombers

– called Strategic Air Command, which could drop massive nuclear bombs in any retaliation.

A New Look Foreign Policy


• Eisenhower had a "new look" on a policy of Massive Relatiation.– = the building up of our forces in the

sky to scare the enemys.– created the Strategic Air Command

(SAC)• = airfleet of superbombers equipped with

city-flattening nuclear bombs• fearsome weapons would inflict "Massive

Retaliation" on the enemy• also a great bang for the buck



• 1955 Geneva Conference:– Ike tried to thaw the Cold War by

appealing for peace to new SovietPremier Nikita Khrushchev • Krushchev rejected such proposals, along

with one for “open skies.”

• hypocritically, when the Hungarians revolted against the U.S.S.R. and appealed to the U.S. for help…– America did nothing

• earning the scorn of bitter freedom fighters.



• Background: – revolutionary Ho Chi Minh had tried

to encourage Woodrow Wilson to help the Vietnamese against the French• gained some support from Wilson• as Ho became increasingly communist,

the U.S. began to oppose him.

The Vietnam NightmareThe Vietnam Nightmare

• March 1954– French became trapped at Dienbienphu– Eisenhower’s aides wanted to bomb the

Viet Minh guerilla forces– Ike held back

• fearing plunging the U.S. into another Asian war so soon after Korea

– After the Vietnamese won at Dienbienphu• Vietnam was split at the 17th parallel,

supposedly temporarily.


• Ho Chi Minh was supposed to allow free elections, BUT…– Vietnam became clearly split

• communist north• pro-Western south.

• Dienbienphu marks the start of American interest in Vietnam.

• Southeast Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO) – Secretary Dulles created the to emulate

NATO, but this provided little help.


• Warsaw Pact (1955)– Formed by the USSR to counteract NATO– Cold War did seem to be thawing a bit

• Eisenhower pressed for reduction of arms• Soviets were surprisingly cooperative, • Khrushchev publicly denounced Stalin’s brutality.

• Hungarian Revolt agst USSR (1956) – Soviets crushed them with brutality & massive

bloodshed.– Our response?

• U.S. did change some of its immigration laws to let 30,000 Hungarians into U.S. as immigrants.

Cold War Crisis in Europe and the Middle

East


East

• In 1953, to protect oil supplies in the Middle East– CIA engineered a coup in Iran that

installed the youthful shah Mohammed Reza Pahlevi, as ruler

– protecting the oil for the time being– earned the wrath of Arabs that would

be repaid in the 70s.


East


East

• Abdul Nasser, Suez Crisis• pledged to lead the entire Middle East away from their

colonial relationships. • Gained economic assistance from the Soviets.

• They offered to help him build the Aswan Dam• Dulles offered to assist the Egyptians, but he refused to

distance himself from the Soviets. Declared Egypt neutral• Dulles pulled his offer of assistance. • Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal (had been controlled

by the British) 1956• Nasser said he’d use the tolls to build the dam himself

• Months of negotiations led nowhere and GB & FR allied w/ Israel re-took the canal.

• The U.S. intervened on behalf of Egypt. • Damaged Britain and France's standing as world powers

.


East


East

• Labor:– Teamster chief “Dave” Beck was sent to

prison for embezzlement– his successor, James R. Hoffa’s

appointment got the Teamsters expelled out of the AF of L-CIO.• later jailed for jury tampering • disappeared in prison, allegedly murdered by

some gangsters that he had crossed.

Round Two for “Ike”Round Two for “Ike”

• “space-race” began in 1957– On October 4, 1957, the Russians

launched Sputnik I into space– a month later, they sent Sputnik II into

orbit as well,– demoralized Americans,

• seemed to prove communist superiority in the sciences at least.

• Soviets might fire missiles at the U.S. from space.


• Critics said:– Truman had not spent enough $$ on missile

programs – America had used its science for other things, like

television.

• Four months after Sputnik I, the U.S. sent its own satellite (weighing only 2.5 lbs) into space– the apparent U.S. lack of technology sent concerns

over U.S. education– American children seemed to be learning less

advanced information than Soviet kids.

• *The 1958 National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) gave $887 million in loans to needy college students and grants for the improvement of schools.


• Humanity-minded scientists called for an end to atmospheric nuclear testing, lest future generations be deformed and mutated.– Beginning October 1958, Washington

did halt “dirty” testing, as did the U.S.S.R., but attempts to regularize such suspensions were unsuccessful.

The Continuing Cold WarThe Continuing Cold War

• 1959, Khrushchev invited by Ike to U.S. for talks– he spoke of disarmament

• gave no means of how to do it.

– Later, at Camp David, talks did show upward signs,

• Paris conference, Khrushchev came in angry– U.S. had flown a U-2 spy plane over Soviet

territory (in this U-2 incident, the plane had been shot down and Eisenhower embarrassingly took personal responsibility)

– tensions immediately tightened again.

The Continuing Cold WarThe Continuing Cold War

• Background:– Latin American nations resented the

United States’ giving billions of dollars to Europe • compared to millions to Latin America,

– Also resented U.S.’s constant intervention • (Guatemala, 1954)

– Also resented our support of cold dictators who claimed to be fighting communism.

Cuba’s Castroism Spells Communism


• In 1959, in Cuba, Fidel Castro overthrew U.S.-supported Fulgencio Batista– denounced the Yankee imperialists– began to take U.S. properties for a land-

distribution program– U.S. cut off heavy U.S. imports of

Cuban sugar– Castro confiscated more American

property.– In 1961, America broke diplomatic

relations with Cuba.



• Khrushchev threatened to launch missiles at the U.S. if it attackedCuba

• meanwhile, America induced the Organization of American States tocondemn communism in the Americas.– Finally, Eisenhower proposed a

“Marshall Plan” for Latin America, • gave $500 million to the area• many Latin Americans felt that it was too

little, too late.



• Election of 1960:– Republicans chose Richard Nixon

• Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. as running mate;

– Democrats choose John F. Kennedy • & Lyndon B. Johnson as his running mate

• Kennedy = attacked because he was a Catholic presidentialcandidate– defended himself & encouraged Catholics to vote

for him.– if he lost votes from the South due to his religion

• he got them back from the North due to the staunch Catholics there.

Kennedy Challenges Nixon for the Presidency


• 1960 Presidential Debates:– In four nationally televised debates,

JFK held his own – looked more charismatic, perhaps

helping him to win the election by acomfortable margin, becoming the youngest president elected (TR wasyounger after McKinley was assassinated).



• Eisenhower had his critics, but – he was appreciated more and more

• ending one war and keeping the U.S. out of others.

• Even though the 1951-passed 22nd Amendment – limited him to 2 terms as president,

Ike displayed more vigor & controlled Congress during his second term than his first.

An Old General Fades AwayAn Old General Fades Away

• 1959, Alaska and Hawaii became the 49th and 50th states to join the Union.

• Perhaps Eisenhower’s greatest weakness? – his ignorance of social problems of the

time, preferring to smile them away rather than deal with them, even though he was no bigot.

An Old General Fades AwayAn Old General Fades Away

• Ernest Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea and John Steinbeck’s East of Eden and Travels with Charlie showed that prewar writers could still be successful

• New writers, who, except for Norman Mailer’s The Naked and the Dead and James Jones’s From Here to Eternity, spurned realism, were successful as well.

Life and Mind in Postwar America



Life and Mind in Postwar America• Joseph Heller’s Catch-22 and Kurt

Vonnegut, Jr.’s Slaughter-House Five – fantastic and psychedelic prose, satirizing the

suffering of the war.

• Authors and books that explored problems created by the new mobility and affluence of American life: John Updike’s Rabbit, Run and Couples; John Cheever’s The Wapshot Chronicle and The Wapshot Scandal; Louis Auchincloss’s books, and GoreVidal’s Myra Breckinridge.

• Tennessee Williams’s A Streetcar Named Desire and Cat on aHot Tin Roof – two plays that searched for American values– as were Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman

and The Crucible.

• Lorraine Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun – Portrayed African-American life

• Edward Albee’s Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? – revealed the underside of middle class life



• Books by black authors such as:– Richard Wright (Black Boy)– Ralph Ellison (Invisible Man) – James Baldwin made best-seller’s lists– Black playwrights like LeRoi Jones made

powerful plays (The Dutchman).

• The South had literary artists like William Faulkner (The Sound and the Fury, Light in August), Walker Percy, and Eudora Welty.

• Jewish authors also had famous books, such as J.D. Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye.



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The American Pageant Chapter 37, The Eisenhower Era Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved