TheContributionofBuddhism

toWorldCulture

by

SomaThera

BuddhistPublicationSocietyKandy•SriLanka

TheWheelPublicationNo.44Copyright©Kandy;BuddhistPublicationSociety,(1962,1974)ReproducedfromtheCeylonDailyNews,WesakNumber1946,withthekindpermissionofthepublishers.

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However,anysuchrepublicationandredistributionistobemadeavailabletothepubliconafreeandunrestrictedbasisandtranslationsandotherderivativeworksaretobeclearlymarkedassuch.

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TheContributionofBuddhism

toWorldCulture

Fortwenty-fivecenturieshastheMessageoftheDeerParkatBenaresinfluencedthedestiniesofhumanity.ThereisampleevidencetoshowthattheteachingoftheBuddhahasbeensomethinglikealeaventothementallifeofmankindfromtheSiberiansnowlandstotheverdantsunnyislesoftheIndiansea,andfromtheLandoftheRisingSuntofog-boundBritain.ItisnotimprobablethatBuddhismpenetratedeventotheoldSouthAmericancivilizationsintheearlycenturiesofourera.[1]Further,itshouldberememberedthatthetwomostancientlivingcivilizations,theIndianandtheChinese,andthreeofthegreatestofthereligionsoftoday,Christianity,IslamandHinduism,havebeenalteredandimprovedbytheinfiltrationofBuddhistideas.InthelightofthesefactsonecanwellimaginehowcolossalmustbetheBuddhistcontributiontothefundofhumanculture.

“Itismydeliberateopinion,”saysMahatmaGandhi,“thattheessentialpartoftheteachingsoftheBuddhanowformsanintegralpartofHinduism.ItisimpossibleforHinduIndiatodaytoretraceherstepsandgobehindthegreatreformationthatGautamaeffectedinHinduism.Byhis

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immensesacrifice,byhisgreatrenunciation,andbytheimmaculatepurityofhislife,heleftanindelibleimpressuponHinduism,andHinduismowesaneternaldebtofgratitudetothatgreatteacher.”[2]

TheBuddha’sdoctrine,asManmathaNathShastriputsit,is“thegloryofIndiaandIndians.”[3]Withoutit,Indianculturewouldbeamaimedthing.AndtheLandofthePurpleFruit,Jambudvipa,wouldfortheworldlosemostofitssanctityandinterest,iftheBlessedOne,theBuddha,hadnotwalkedintheMiddleCountry,Madhyadesa,ashedidforforty-fiveyearsenfoldingallwithintheauraofhiscompassion,andblazingthepathoftruerenunciation.RealizingthesignificanceofthatministryoftheMaster,C.V.Ramansaid,“InthevicinityofBenares,thereexistsapathwhichisformethemostsacredplaceinIndia.ThispathwasonedaytravelledoverbythePrinceSiddhartha,afterhehadgottenridofallhisworldlypossessionsinordertogothroughtheworldandproclaimTheAnnunciationofLove.”[4]

Again,itistheMasterofMercifulWisdom,andhislove-giftofliberationforallthatbreathes,thatgriptheimaginationofEdwinArnoldatBenares,thecitadelofmodernHinduism,steepedthoughheisintheknowledgeoftheGitaandinVediclore:“...itisnotHinduismwhich-tomymindatleast-chieflyconsecratesBenares.ThedivinememoryofthefounderofBuddhismbroodsoverallthecountryhereabouts;andjustasthewallsandbuildingsof‘Kasi’arefullofoldBuddhiststonescarvedwithsymbols

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andlegendsofhisgentlefaith,soisthelandnorthandsouthfamouswiththepassageofhisfeet,andsoarethereligiousandsocialthoughtsandwaysofallthisHindupeoplestampedwiththeimpressofhisdoctrines.ModernBrahmanismisreallyBuddhisminaShastri’srobeandsacredthread.ShunkuracharyaandhispriestsexpelledthebrethrenoftheyellowrobefromIndia,butthespiritofSakya-Muni’steachingremainedunbanished,justas‘Greece,overcome,conqueredherconqueror.’“[5]

ItisimpossibletooverratetheimportanceoftheworkdonebyBuddhismforIndia,or,forthatmatter,fortheworld.TheysaythatBuddhismhasceasedtoexistjustinthecountrywhereitsprangup.Nothing,however,ismoreuntrue,[6]accordingtoD.R.Bhandarkar.

Manyrevealingstatementsoftheabove-mentionedsortcouldbecitedfromthewritingsbothofIndiansandnon-IndiansofnotetosupportthecontentionthatIndiaisinwardlyBuddhist,whateveritsouterreligiouslabelsbe.AndlabelsareunimportantwhereateachinglikeBuddhismisconcerned.TotheBuddhaandhisfollowersnamesdonotmattermuch:“What’sinaname?...”

ThemainthinginBuddhismisitsgerminalpowerwhich,penetratingsilently,unhurriedly,imperceptiblyintothewombofthespirit,producestheembryoofthecompassionateview,thevisionoflifeassomethinginurgentneedofsalvationfromtheperilsthatbesetit.Andwiththedevelopmentofthatwisdom-viewanditsbirthas

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acompleteidea,isbroughthometotherealthinkertheurgencytooofarational,practicalandsanemethodofdeliverancefromalldissatisfactions,firstthroughameliorativeactiongradually,and,intheend,throughtheirrevocablerenunciationoftheselfandallthatitimplies.

Thatistheviewandthatthemethodofdeliverance,whichtheearlymessengersofBuddhismstoodforandpreachedwherevertheywent.Inthis,theymerelyimitatedtheBuddhahimself,whoneversoughttoswellhisranksbuttochangemen’shearts.WeseethemethodofpropagationasconceivedbytheBuddhacarriedoutonastupendousscalebyAsoka,thepatternforallgoodrulersofmankind.His“conquestsofrighteousnessinallquarters,”Dharmavijaya,wereconceivedinthespiritofthebroadesttolerationworthyofarealfolloweroftheMasterofCompassionandcarriedoutwithfullconsiderationforotherbeliefsandconvictions.Thepeoplewhocameundertheinfluenceofthenon-violentarmiesofAsoka’smissionsappeartohaveretainedagoodpartoftheiroldbeliefsandwaysofthoughtwhileabsorbingthenewteaching.Thenewteachinghadbeenpresentedtothemlargelyassomethingcomplementarytotheirearlierreligiousideas,assomethingwhichwastomaketheirlivesfullerandtheirspiritualtreasurymoreabundantwithgoodsoflastingvalue.

Thistradition,comingdownfromtheBuddhaandstrengthenedbytheworkofAsokanteachers,becamesettledinallBuddhistmissionaryactivity.Nodecryingofothersectsandnokindofcoercionorcompulsionhasever

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existedinBuddhismastheyhaveinthemissionaryactivitiesofotherreligions.ThatishowBuddhismwasabletosinkdeepintoagreatvarietyofculturesthecivilizedworldover,gently,withoutsettingupuselessresistances.Thus,itissaid,weretheconquestsbytheLawofPietymade“byHisSacredMajesty(Dharmasoka)bothinhisowndominionsandalltheneighbouringrealmsasfarasSyriahundredsofleaguesawaywheretheGreek(Yona)KingnamedAntiochosdwells,andnorthofthatAntiochos,too,wheredwellthefourkingsseverallynamedPtolemy,Antiogonos,Magas,andAlexander;andinthesouththe(realmsofthe)CholasandPandyas,asfarasTamraparni,likewise,andhere,too,intheKing’sdominions,amongtheGreeks,andKambojas,theNabhapantisofNabhaka;amongtheBhojas,andPitinikas,amongtheAndhrasandPulindas...“[7]

Buddhismwasthefirstmissionaryreligionoftheworld,bothinpointoftimeandintheexcellenceofitsmethodsandresults.Anditisonlynow,morethantwothousandyearssincetheexamplewasset,thatChristianityandIslamhaveunderstoodtheimportanceofBuddhistprinciplesofpropagationofthetruth,andthattoo,notfully,forstillthefullestspiritoftoleranceisnotinthesereligions.

Bythereasonablenessofitsethic,itssimpleanddirectteachingofkindliness,sympathyandstrenuousexertiontomakethelivesofallhappyandfreefromsuffering,Buddhismisateachingthatiseasyofgrasp,bothbypeasantandbypundit.Thus,ithasbecomeapartofthe

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world’sheritageofgood.“Thetypeofconsciousness,”S.M.Melamedsays,“thatissummedupinthetermBuddhismisasaliveandeffectivetodayasever.TherearestillmillionsofpeopleintheEastandintheWest,who,thoughformallynotadherentsofBuddhism,stillhaveaBuddhistoutlookuponlife.Whilethistypeofconsciousnessmayexpressitselftodayinadifferentformthanitdidinthepast,ityetremainsasteadyforceinthespirituallifeofman...EvenifBuddhism,asanorganizedreligion,withallitsvotaries,monksandtemplesshoulddisappear,theBuddhistconsciousnesswouldstillremainasteadyforceinman’sspiritualhistory.Itwillliveaslongasmanwillbeoverwhelmedbythephenomenaofpainandsuffering.”[8]

ThewaysinwhichthisspiritualforcehasexpresseditselfinthemanifoldactivityofsocietyconstitutetheBuddhistcontributiontoworld-culture.

JustasBuddhismisthefirstgreatmissionaryreligioninrecordedhistory,so,too,isitthefirstgreatmonasticreligionoftheworld.Allmonasticism,IndianandWestern,getsitsinspirationfromtheBuddhists.W.M.FlindersPetriesupposedthat“fromsomesource-perhapstheBuddhistMissionofAsoka-theasceticlifeofrecluseswasestablishedinthePtolemaictimes,andmonksoftheSerapeumillustratedanidealtomanwhichhadbeenasyetunknownintheWest.ThissystemofmonasticismcontinueduntilPachomios,monkofSerapisinUpperEgypt,becamethefirstChristianmonkinthereignofConstantine.QuicklyinitiatedinSyria,AsiaMinor,Gaulandotherprovinces,as

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wellasinItalyitself,thesystempassedintoafundamentalpositioninmediaevalChristianity,andthereverenceofmankindforfifteenhundred(sic)bestowedanEgyptianinstitution.”[9]ThereisnodoubtthattheEssenesandtheTherapeutaeweretheforerunnersofCatholicmonasticism,andthesewereclearlyfollowersofBuddhistmonasticpractices.“ThemostsubtlethinkerofthemodernEnglishChurch,thelateDeanMansel,boldlymaintainedthatthephilosophyandritesoftheTherapeutaeofAlexandriawereduetoBuddhistmissionarieswhovisitedEgyptwithintwogenerationsofthetimeofAlexandertheGreat.Inthis,hehasbeensupportedbyphilosophersofthecalibreofSchellingandSchopenhauer,andthegreatSanskritauthority,Lassen.Renan,inhisworkLesLanguesSemitiques,alsoseestracesofthispropagandisminPalestinebeforetheChristianera.Hilgenfeld,Mutter,Bohlen,King,alladmittheBuddhistinfluence,”[10]writesArthurLillie.

Thevalueofgenuinemonasticismandofalltrueasceticismforthewelfareoftheworldisgreatindeed.Thefundamentalattributesofagoodmonk:self-restraint,chastity,humility,self-effacementandrenunciationarethingsthatsocietycannotdowithout,andthesequalitiesarebestdevelopedinthecalmatmosphereofthemonastery.TheBuddhistmonasticlifeisasceticismwithoutself-tortureandiseverywheredefinitelyseenastheproductofaprogressivestateofsocietyalone.Inthemonasticlifeamanceasestobeanirritationtohisfellowmenthroughanykindofstruggleandcompetitionwiththemforprivilege,

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preferment,profitorfame,andbendshisenergiestotheaccomplishmentofwealforall.

BuddhismhasinfluencedChristianityandotherWesternteachingsinmanyways,notonlythroughthespreadingabroadoftheideaofmonasticism.ThePythagoreans,theNeo-PlatonistsandtheGnosticswereallindebtedbothtoJainismandtoBuddhism.Buddhistideasflowedfreelyintotheseteachings,andonlythosewhowantdeliberatelytoshuttheireyestothefactscandoubtorhesitateconcerningtheEasterninfluenceontheWesternmindwhichhadfalsifiedtheideathatEastisEastandWestisWest,morethantwentycenturiesbeforeKiplingwasborn.

Buddhismpenetratedwestwardsearly.JustacenturyaftertheBuddha,hisnameoccursinaPersianScripture,theFravadinYasht(16).

ClementofAlexandriaknewabouttheJainsandtheBuddhists,thesama?as,recluses,andthebrahma?as,brahmins,andactuallymentionsthenameoftheBuddha:“TherearetwosectsoftheseIndianphilosophers-onecalledtheSramanaiandtheothertheBrachmanai.ConnectedwiththeSramanaiarethephilosopherscalledtheHylobioiwhoneitherliveincitiesnoreveninhouses.Theyclothethemselveswiththebarkoftrees,andsubsistuponacorns,anddrinkwaterbyliftingittotheirmouthwiththeirhands.Theyneithermarrynorbegetchildren,likethoseasceticsofourowndaycalledtheEnkratetai.AmongtheIndiansarethosephilosophersalsowhofollowthepreceptsofBoutta

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whomtheyhonourasagodonaccountofhisextraordinarysanctity.”[11]

BuddhismaffectedPlotinianteachingprofoundly,thoughDr.Ingeisnotwillingtoacceptit.“Itiswell-known,”saysDeanInge,“thatAlexandriawasatthistime(theperiodofPlotinus204-270A.D.)notonlyagreatintellectualcentre,buttheplacewhereaboveallothers,EastandWestrubbedshoulders.ThewisdomofAsiawasundoubtedlyinhighreputeaboutthistime.PhilostratusexpressesthehighestvenerationforthelearningoftheIndians.PlotinushimselfaccompaniedtheRomanarmytoPersiainthehopeofgatheringwisdom...”Itis,therefore,naturalthatmanyscholarshavelookedfororientalinfluenceinNeo-Platonism,andhaverepresenteditasafusionofEuropeanandAsiaticphilosophy.But,thoughtheinfluenceoftheEastupontheWestwasundoubtedlygreatduringthedeclineoftheWesternEmpire,itisnotnecessarytoderiveanyNeo-Platonicdoctrinesfromanon-Europeansource.Neo-PlatonismisalegitimatedevelopmentofGreekthought,andofPlato’sownspeculations.

“InsomewaysitmightevenbesaidthatPlatoismoreOrientalthanPlotinus.ItisanotherquestionwhetherNeo-PlatonismwasinfluencedinanywaybytheJewishAlexandrianschool,whichisknowntousthroughthewritingsofPhilo.TheresemblancesbetweentheEssenesandtheNeo-Pythagoreans,andbetweenPhiloandPlotinus,aresostrikingthatmanyhavethoughtitimpossibletodenyadirectdependence.ButitismoreprobablethattheGreek

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andtheJewishAlexandrianschoolsdevelopedsidebysideunderparallelinfluences.Philodoesnotseemtohavebeenmuchreadbytheeducatedpagans,whohadstrongprejudicesagainsttheJews.”[12]AgainstthisviewtherearespecialistsonthingsIndianofthepastwhobelieveintheGreeks’andotherWesterners’debttoBuddhist,JainandotherIndianthought.

OfthefifthandsixthcenturiesB.C.,Rapsonstatesthat“atnoperiodinearlyhistory,probably,werethemeansofcommunicationbylandmoreopenortheconditionsmorefavourablefortheinterchangeofideasbetweenIndiaandtheWest.”[13]

“Thismayaccount,”accordingtoRawlinson,“fortheinfluenceofIndianideasuponthedevelopmentofGreekphilosophy.”[14]

“Itisnottoomuch,”saysR.Garbe,“toassumethatthecuriousGreek(Pythagoras)whowasacontemporaryoftheBuddha,and,itmaybe,ofZoroaster,too,wouldhaveacquiredamoreorlessexactknowledgeoftheEast,inthatintellectualageoffermentation,throughthemediumofPersia.ItmustberememberedinthisconnectionthattheAsiaticGreeks,atthetimewhenPythagorasstilldweltinhisIonianhome,wereunderthesingleswayofCyrus,thefounderofthePersianEmpire.”[15]

“Herodotus,likePlatoandothers,attributesallwisdomtoEgyptiansources...TheGreeksweredeeplyimpressedbythegreatantiquityofEgyptiancivilization,itsloftytemples,

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anditscloselyguardedreligiousmysteries...Unfortunately,itisextremelydoubtfulwhethertheEgyptiansdidactuallybelieveintransmigration...ItismorelikelythatPythagoraswasinfluencedbyIndia(retransmigration)thanbyEgypt.Almostallthetheories-religious,philosophicalandmathematical-taughtbythePythagoreanswereknowninIndiainthesixthcenturyB.C.,andPythagoreans,liketheJainsandtheBuddhists,refrainedfromthedestructionoflife...”[16]

“AlexandriainthefirstcenturyA.D.wasthesecondcityintheEmpire.Intheheightofherglory,shemusthaveresembledVeniceinthefulltideofherprosperity.Themercantileshippingofhalftheancientworldtiedupatherquaysides,andscholarsfromthefourquartersoftheearthmetanddisputedintheMuseumandmadeuseofthevaststoresofliteratureinhergreatlibraries.TheAlexandrianswereessentiallycosmopolitan.Theyhadnoneofthecontemptforthe‘barbarians’oftheoldGreekstates,andalargeproportionofthepopulation,liketheAthenians,‘spenttheirlifeinnothingelse,buteithertotellorhearsomenewthing.’ABuddhistmonkfromBarygazawouldreceivethesameattentivehearingasdidSt.PaulatthehandsoftheAreopagus,andthemediumwasHellenisticGreek,linguafrancafromtheLevanttotheIndus.TheMilindapañhamentionsAlexandriaasoneoftheplacestowhichIndianmerchantsregularlyresorted,andDioChrysostom,lecturingtoanAlexandrianaudienceinthereignofTrajan,says:‘Iseeamongyou,notonlyGreeksand

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Italians,Syrians,Libyans,andCilicians,andmenwhodwellmoreremotely,EthiopiansandArabs,butalsoBactrians,Scythians,Persians,andsomeoftheIndians,whoareamongthespectators,andarealwaysresidingthere.”[17]

“IndianphilosophywasacquiringagrowingreputationintheHellenisticschoolsofAsiaMinorandEgypt.”[18]

ApolloniusofTyanahadvisitedIndiaandconversedwithBuddhistsandBrahmansonagreatmanythingsandhad,withthoseideasgotfromIndia,changedtheoutlookoftheNeo-Pythagoreans.BardesanesissaidtohavelearnedmanythingsfromtheIndians.HewasaGnosticteacher.HeknewmuchaboutmonasticlifeinBuddhism.

Plotinuswasafellow-studentofOrigen,thesaintlyscholarintheschoolofAmmoniusSaccas.OfOrigen,itissaidthathepossessed“amindcharacteristicofsupremegenius,themindwhichanticipatestherichestthoughtoftoday.Hewasblamelessinlife,unrivalledinknowledge,apioneerineverydepartmentofstudy,theteacherofallthatwasbestintheEasternChurch.”ItwasthisOrigenwhoseteachingonthe“pre-existenceofsouls”wasanathematizedattheSecondCouncilatConstantinople,in533A.D.Origenbelievedthatrebirthwas“determinedbyits(thesoul’s)previousmeritsanddemerits”(DePrincipili).HemusthaveknownwhatBuddhisttenetswereonthissubject,andPlotinus,hisfriend,couldnothavebeenignorantofthosetenetseither.Infact,itwashisgreatdesiretoknowwhatBrahmanismandBuddhismwere,stimulatedperhapsby

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whathehadalreadylearnedoftheminAlexandria,thatmadehimgowithGordian’sexpeditiontoPersiain242A.D.

AccordingtoMaxMuller,theschoolofPlotinuspaidagreatdealofattentiontoEasternreligions.Plotinus’ideawastorevivetheoldreligionoftheRomanEmpirewiththeadditionofwhatappealedtohimintheinspiredteachingsoftheworld.Thatiswhy,perhaps,theBuddhist-UpanishadicthoughtinNeo-Platonismissometimesexpressedinastrangeway,thoughtheirsignificanceiseasyenoughtograspfortheBuddhist.Neo-PlatonismisamosaicofEasternandWesternideas.ItisnotsomethingmonolithiclikeBuddhism.

TheclosenessofPlotinianthoughttotheidealismoftheMahayanaisseeninthefollowingextractfromaletterofPlotinus:

“Externalobjectspresentusonlywithappearances.Concerningthem,therefore,wemaybesaidtopossessopinionratherthanknowledge.Thedistinctionsintheactualworldofappearanceareofimportonlytoordinaryandpracticalmen.Ourquestionlieswiththeidealrealitythatexistsbehindappearance.Howdoesthemindperceivetheseideas?Aretheywithoutus,andisreason,likesensation,occupiedwithobjectsexternaltoitself?Whatcertaintycouldwethenhave,whatassurance,thatourperceptionwasinfallible?Theobject

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perceivedwouldbesomethingdifferentfromthemindperceivingit.Weshouldthenhaveanimageinsteadofreality.Itwouldbemonstroustobelieveforamomentthatthemindwasunabletoperceiveidealtruthexactlyasitis,andthatwehadnocertaintyandrealknowledgeconcerningtheworldofintelligence.Itfollows,therefore,thatthisregionoftruthisnottobeinvestigatedasathingoutwardtousandsoonlyimperfectlyknown.Itiswithinus.Heretheobjectswecontemplateandthatwhichcontemplatesareidentical-botharethought.Thesubjectcannotsurelyknowanobjectdifferentfromitself.Theworldofideaslieswithinourintelligence.Truth,therefore,isnottheagreementofourapprehensionofanexternalobjectwiththeobjectitself.Itistheagreementofmindwithitself.Consciousnessisthesolebasisofcertainty.Themindisitsownwitness.Reasonseesinitselfthatwhichisaboveitselfasitssource;andthatwhichisbelowitselfasstillitselfoncemore.”[19]

ThedivisionsofknowledgewhichPlotinusmakesareinterestingtotheBuddhist.Thefirstisopinion,thesecondscience,andthethirdillumination:Thefirstisexplainedasthatwhichisgainedbymeansofthesenses.Itisperception(pratyaksa);thesecondreferstoinference(anumana);andthethird,insight(avabodha).Reasonhastobesubordinatedtothelastknowledgementionedhere.Itistheabsoluteorfinal

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knowledgefoundedontheidentityofmind-that-knowsandtheobjectperceived.Healsospeaksofevolution(sa?va??ana)andinvolution(viva??ana).HowcanweknowtheInfinite?Notbythereasoningprocess.Reason’sbusinessistodistinguishanddefine.OnlybyafacultysuperiortoreasoncanoneapprehendtheInfinite.

Thatcanbedonebyenteringintoastateinwhichoneisnomoreinafinitestate.Thatstateisthestateofecstasy(jhana)orfullabsorption.Byenteringthatstateonebecomesfreeoffiniteanxieties.EcstasyisnotafrequentoccurrenceeveninPlotinus’case.Therearedifferentwaystoecstasy.Theyare:theloveofbeautywhichexaltsthepoet;devotiontojustonething;theassentofsciencetothephilosophicalthinker;and,lastly,loveandcontemplationorprayerbywhichadevoutsoulinitsmoralpuritytendstowardsperfection.Thesoulneithercomesintobeingnorperishes;“nothingthatpossessesrealbeingcaneverperish.”Butsoulsthathavelivedwronglywillbereincarnatedinthebodiesofloweranimals.Themysticalascentappearsas“aprogressivestrippingoffofeverythingalientothepurestnatureofthesoul”whichcannotenterintotheholyofholieswhileanytraceofworldlinessclingstoit.Itiscalled“aflightofthealonetothealone.”

Plotinusgivesmanydescriptionsofthemysticaltrance,buthethinksthatthetranceisreallyineffable.ThevisionoftheOneisanexceedinglyrarehappening.Itistobeearnedonlybyintensecontemplationandunceasingself-discipline.

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Theethicalschemeisthreefold:purification,enlightenmentandunification.Goodcitizenshipisthepreludetothecourse.Inthissystem,asinBuddhismandafewotherIndiansystems,thereisneithermediatornorredeemer.

ThereisnothingtoprovethattheteachingofPlatowasfoundedonasystemofmeditationpracticeoryogaforthepenetrationofactuality.ButPlotinuswasoutandoutayogiandisnearertoBuddhismthantoPlatonisminthehigherstagesofhisdoctrine.ToascribetheyogicportionofPlotinus’system,asDr.Ingedoes,totheinnatedualitiesofPlatonismwouldrequireagooddealoftext-torture.Neoplatonismisclearlyaneclecticism;manynon-Platonicelementsareinit,and,amongthoseelements,Buddhismisnotnegligible.[20]

TheresemblancesbetweenthelifeoftheBuddhaandthatofChristhavebeenpointedouttobetooclosetobecasualandappear,ontheotherhand,toberemarkablystriking,thinksH.S.Gour.Amongtheitemshegives,thefollowingareofimportance:miraculousconceptionandvirginbirth;AsitaandSimeon;thetemptationofMaraandthetemptationofthedevil;thewidow’smiteandthestoryofthepoormaid,toldinA?vaghosa’sSutrala?kara;theSamaritanwomanandAnandaatthewell;themanbornblindandtheblindmanintheLotusoftheGoodLaw;thetransfigurationandtheeffulgencethatemanatedfromtheMaster’sbodytwiceduringhislifetime;andthemiracleoftheloavesandfishesandthestoryinJatakaNo.79.[21]

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ThereisnodearthofpassagesintheNewTestamentwhichresemblepartsofthePaliCanon.OnecannotreadtheSermonontheMountwithoutfeelingthatitisanabridgedversionofpartsoftheDhammapada.Thatis,asregardsorthodoxCatholicandProtestantChristianscriptures.ButthepositionofGnosticChristianwritingsisoneofstillcloseraffinitytothescripturesandtraditionsofBuddhism.

Whenweleavethedomainofreligionproperandpassontotheterritoriesofartandarchitecture,history,drama,ethics,philosophyandsocialorganizationtraceabletoBuddhistinfluences,wefindthattheOrderofMonkswhichtheBuddhaestablishedwassomethingnewtoIndiaandtheworld.“TheBuddhacreatedanewraceofmen,araceofmoralheroes,araceofsalvation-workers,araceofBuddhas,”[22]writesManmathaNathShastri.Bythis,theBuddhagavetotheworldanewconceptionofbuildingupsocietyonthebasisofrenunciation.“Itappears,”saysOldenberg,“fromtheverybeginningtohavebeenasocietygovernedbylaw.”[23]There,however,wasnothingcoerciveatthebackofthelawwhichgovernedtheOrder.Itwasasocietythatkeptitslawsvoluntarilyandwhichheldtogetherinfriendlinessfortheonepurposeofequippingitselffortherealizationofthehighestgoodofall.ThatOrderindeedwasapowerwhenitfunctionedpeacefully.Thepowerwasnotthepropertyofanysinglepersonbutofthebodytakentogether.Itwasagreatrepublic.ThevoiceoftheOrderwasavoicethatgotobeyedwithoutcompulsion.Asacivilizingforce,Buddhismhastamedthewildraces

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andrefinedthetamed.ThegreatepochsofBuddhisthistory,fromthedaysofRajagahatothatofLhasa,havebeenfruitfulinalastingway.

ThegreatarchitecturalmonumentsintheformofDagobasandmonasteriesandshrines,thoughnowmostlyinruins,havestillamessagetotheworldofwhatcanbedonebymenwithverylimitedresourcesifonlytheybecomesteadyofpurpose.

Thebeautifulstatuesandsculptures,thepaintingsanddecorationsthathavecometousfromthepast,whethertheybeIndian,Indonesian,Chinese,Japanese,Korean,TibetanorMongolian,arelargelywitnessesoftheachievementsofafortunatecycleofBuddhisthistory.OneofthosefavouredperiodswhenculturegotanupwardurgesofarastheBuddhistswereconcerned,wasin“theearlyMiddleAges,aboutthe7thcenturyofourera,”writesGrousset.DarknessbroodedoverourWesterncivilizationwhichasyetguessednothingoftheapproachingRomancedawn,andevenextendedtoByzantiumwherethegreat‘Macedonian’basileushadnotyetarisen.ButawayintheFarEast,IndiaandChinawerelivingwithanintensepolitical,intellectual,religiousandartisticlife.Buddhism,inbringingthemintocontactwithoneanother,hadcreatedavastcurrentofhumanism,fromCeylontothefurthestislesoftheJapanesearchipelago.ThewitheringofIslam,thedeclineofNeo-Confucianism,andtheretrogressionofHinduism,whichwere,unfortunately,closeathand,hadnotyetmadethemselvesfelt.Afterathousandyearsof

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meditation,Buddhistmysticismhadattainedtoundreamedofpsychicstates,andIndianaestheticshadreceivedafreshimpressionfromthem.InChinawhichwashospitabletonewideasandreadyforinnovations,Chineseforcealloweditselftobesoftenedbythisgentleinfluence.Thehumanspiritlivedthereaprivilegedhour,worthyofAthensorAlexandria.ItwasthetimeoftheChineseepicinCentralAsia,andofthegreatpilgrimagestotheHolyLandoftheGanges,thetimeofMahayanistidealismandtheplasticartoftheGuptadynasty.”[24]

TheachievementsinthefieldoflearningbelongtotheBuddhists,throughtheestablishmentoffirst-classuniversities-atTaxila(TakkasilainPali),anoldeducationalcentre;atNalanda,whereatonetimetherewere10,000studentsofphilosophyandmedicine;atVikramasila;atOdantapuriandatBuddhaGaya.

TothecreditoftheBuddhists,too,standgiganticworksofirrigation,tanksliketheKalaveva,andMinneriyaofCeylon,thebuildingofarterialroads,theerectionofrest-houses,andtheputtingundercultivationoflargeareasbelowthetanks-noteworthyactsofmeritdoneonthe“wealandhappinessofallprinciple”ofBuddhism.

ThepartwhichBuddhistsplayedinthedevelopmentofartintheIndiaofhistoricaltimeswasofbasicimportanceforthegrowthofIndianandEasternspirituality.Grunwedelwrites,“TheartofancientIndiahasalwaysbeenapurelyreligiousone;itsarchitecture,aswellasthesculpturewhich

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hasalwaysbeenintimatelyconnectedtherewith,wasneveremployedforsecularpurposes.Itoweditsorigintothegrowthofareligionwhichhasbeencalled,inEurope,Buddhismfromthehonorarytitleofitsfounder,theBuddha,theEnlightenedOne.”[25]

TheBuddhistswerethefirsthistoriansofIndia.Thehistoryofone’sreligion,ifrightlystudied,canbeagreathelpinsteadyingone’sconfidenceintheTeachingandinoneself.Itcanalsostimulateendeavouronvigorouslinesforone’sownandothers’welfare.Further,historyisnothingbuttheactualoccurrenceofchangeinatangibleform,inthelivesofindividuals,racesandnations.TheArahatleadersoftheearlyBuddhistSangharealizedthesefactsandledthewayinrecordingtheincidentsconnectedwiththeriseandspreadoftheBuddha’sdoctrine.ThisearlyleadgivenintheTripitakawaszealouslytakenupbythelatercommentatorsandscholarsinalmosteveryBuddhistcountry,andtherearemanybooksnowofthehistoryofthereligion.ThewritingofsecularhistorytooreceivedanimpulsethroughthisBuddhistcustomofrecordingthings,andpeoplebecamehistory-minded.

TheoldestwritingofthehistoricalperiodinIndianowextantistheinscriptiononthePipravavasecontainingrelicsoftheMaster,whichwereenshrinedbytheMaster’srelativesinarelicmound.Theinscriptionrunsthus:

SukitibhatinaṃsabhagiṇikanaṃsaputadalanaṃiyaṃsalilanidhaneBudhasebhagavatesakiyanaṃ.

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“ThiscontainerofrelicsoftheBlessedOne,theBuddhaoftheSakyas,(isthegift)ofthebrothers,Sukiti,jointlywiththeirsisters,childrenandwives.”

ThefirstroyalrenunciationofwarintheannalsofmankindisthatoftheEmperorAsoka,thefolloweroftheBuddha.ThefirstgreatcapitalcitiesofIndiainhistoricaltimeswereRājagaha,Pātaliputta,Purusāpura,allconnectedcloselywithBuddhism.

Anuradhapura,Polonnaruwa,Loyang,Chang’an,Nara,LhasaandothercentresofBuddhistcultureinthepastareenoughevidencetoshowthevitalityoftheBuddhistspiritatitsbest.ThereiseveryreasontobelievethattheideaofimpermanencewhichhasbecomethecornerstoneofthefabricofmodernscientificthoughtgotitsgreatestaffirmationandbecamewidelycurrentasaphilosophicprinciplethroughtheemphasislaidonitbytheBuddhists.AndinIndia,atleast,theBuddhistswerethefirsttoreadhistoryastheconfirmationoftheLawofTransienceandtovaluehistoryasameansofpassingontothefuturethegainsofthepast,afactorsoverynecessarytokeepupahighandnobletraditionliketheBuddhas.History,inthefirstsense,isjustthearisingandpassingawayofphenomenainactualpractice;inthesecondsense,arecordofthechanges.

Howthingsariseandhowtheypassawayconstitutesthekernelofallhistory.ThoughtheideaofimpermanencewasalreadythereinIndiaandtheWest,itwastheBuddhawho

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broughtoutitsfullmeaningthroughtheformulationofthehiddentruthofAnattā,connectedwiththeLawofTransience.Bythatdiscoveryofhis,hemadetheveryfactofthefleetingnessoflifethebasisforbecomingbetter.

TheBuddhalaidholdofthefactofthefluxionalnatureofallthings—theessenceofhistory—andonthecrestofthatactiveconceptionoflifeasmovement,passedonthewavesofchangingphenomenatothechangelessNibbāna.Hewentacrossthewavesofsufferingtothesorrowless.

Here,theBuddhaistrulylikeagreatphysician,forhe,likeadoctorwhomakespeopleproofagainstadiseasebytheinoculationofaserumoftheverykindofgermsthatcausethatdisease,introducesintothemindsofthosewhowishtobesuffering-free,theveryconceptofsuffering,preparedintheformofthekammaṭṭthāna,thesubjectofmeditation,andletsitworktheretilltheybecomeimmunetosufferingonceandforall.

LiketheHimālayas,sayourbooks,istheBuddha;likethemedicinalplantsgrowingonthemountainslopesistheDharma;andlikethepeopletreatedwiththosemedicinalplantsandcuredistheAriyaSangha,theOrderoftheSaints.

BeforetheriseofBuddhism,IndianmedicalknowledgeconsistedlargelyintreatmentwiththecharmsandspellsoftheAtharvaveda.ThatwasthefirstperiodofIndianmedicine.WithJīvakaKomārabhacca,thegreatestphysicianatthetimeoftheBuddha,andtheMaster’sowndoctorwho

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hadareputationasaspecialistforchildren’sdiseasestoo,wasusheredinthehistoricalperiodofIndianmedicine.HehadstudiedatTaxilāforsevenyears.

“’VerygreatimprovementinmedicineandsurgerytookplaceintheBuddhistperiodinIndia,becausethereligionoftheBuddhainsistsonthealleviationofsufferingasanimportantitemofBuddhisticfaith,and,hence,hospitalsforthetreatmentofmenandbeastsalikewerebuiltinalmostallthemonasteries(universities)ofBuddhisticIndia.Inscriptionsengravedonrocks,pillars,etc.describeprescriptionsforthetreatmentofdiseases.”[26]

TheoldestandbestmedicaltreatiseofIndia,theCarakaSaṃhitā,wastheworkoftheBuddhistphysicianofKingKaniṣka.TheSuśrutawhichwehavetodayisnottheworkoftheHinduphysician,buthisworkrecastbythefamousBuddhistpatriarch,Nāgārjuna,founderoftheMadhyamikaPhilosophy.OftheCarakaSaṃhitāP.C.Raysays,“OnreadingtheCaraka,oneoftenfeelsasifitembodiedthedeliberationsofaninternationalcongressofmedicalexpertsheldintheHimālayanregions.”[27]OfthethreeṚsisofIndianmedicine,twoareBuddhist—CarakaandVāgbhata.ThehighstateofdevelopmentreachedbyIndianmedicalscienceoftodayseemstodate,inthemain,fromtheBuddhisttimes,accordingtoJ.Jolly.

Onthephilosophicalside,BuddhistshaveproducedgreatnameslikeNāgārjuna,Asaṅga,Dinnāga,andDharmakirti.IntheFarEast,too,thereweremanysoundscholarslike

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TientaiandKukai,whoaroseunderthecareofBuddhistinstitutions.

TotheBuddhists,moderndemocracyowesitsparliamentaryprocedure.SaystheMarquessofZetlund,“ItmaycomeasasurprisetomanytolearnthatintheAssembliesoftheBuddhistsinIndiatwothousandyearsandmoreagoaretobefoundtherudimentsofourownparliamentarypracticeofthepresentday.”[28]

Thereweremanyadvancesmadeintheformsoflocalgovernment.Thesecanbeseenbyastudyoftheancientinscriptions,especially,ofCeylon.

Withoutexceedingthespaceallottedtothewriter,hecannotevenlightlymentiontheachievementsoftheBuddhistsinthefieldofliterature,dramaandphilosophy,onwhichtheBuddhistsclearlylefttheirseal.Buddhismhasinfluencedinthesemattersnotonlytheancientbutthemodernworldtoo.ThenumberofworksinthewestintowhichtheBuddhistspirithasenteredisverylarge.

AndthenthereistherecordofthemonksandnunsoftheBuddhistSanghawhotravelledtodistantlandsbravingalldangers,forthepurposeofspreadingthesweetpeace-givingmessageoftheBuddhaanddiedfarfromtheirhomelands,happyintheconsciousnessthattheyhaddonetheirbit.Theirlivesandendeavourswerepureandperfect.Theirswasoneofthebestcontributionstotheworld’sculture.Eventhethoughtofthosewonderfulservantsoftheworldcanrouseinustheresolvetodoastheydid;tolive,

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thinkandwork“forthegainofthemany,forthewelfareofthemany,incompassionfortheworld.”

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AbouttheAuthor

Ven.SomaThera(1898–1960),lay-nameVictorE.P.Pulle,wasborninColomboandwasraisedasaSinhaleseCatholic.HavingconvertedtoBuddhisminhisteenageyears,hebecameanactiveBuddhistmissionaryandauthor.In1934heandhisclosefriendG.S.Prelis,laterKhemindaThera,wenttoJapanand,withthehelpofaJapanesescholarcalledN.R.MEhara,translatedtheChinesetranslationoftheVimuttimaggaintoEnglish,whichwaspublishedasthePathofFreedom.In1936thefriendsleftJapanandwenttoBurmawheretheybecameBuddhistmonksinMoulmeinunderthemeditationteacherJetavanaSayādaw.ThenextyeartheyreturnedtoSriLanka.DuringWWIIheandKhemindastayedattheIslandHermitage.DespitesufferingfromfrequentasthmaattacksparticipatedinmissionstoIndiaandGermanyandcontinuedwithwritingandtranslating.OneofthefruitsofhisworkwastheEnglishtranslationofthecommentaryoftheSatipaṭṭhānaSuttapublishedbytheBPSunderthetitleTheWayofMindfulness.

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Notes

1. Lillie,Arthur,BuddhaandBuddhism,T.&T.Clark,Edinburgh,1900,pp.205–208.

2. Desai,MahadevandS.Ganesan,eds,withGandhijiinCeylon,Madras,1928,p.56.

3. Shastri,ManmathaNath,Buddha:HisLife,HisTeachings,HisOrder:TogetherwithTheHistoryOfTheBuddhism,SocietyfortheResuscitationofIndianLiterature,Calcutta,1910,p.ii

4. TheBosat,Vol.5,No.1,1942,Vajirarama,Colombo,p.8

5. Arnold,Edwin,IndiaRevisited,SecondEdition,London,1891,p.223

6. TheBosat,Wesak,1940,Vajirarama,Colombo,p.95

7. MacPhail,JamesM.,Asoka,TheAssociationPress,Calcutta,1910,p.74

8. Melamed,S.M.,SpinozaandBuddha,VisionsofaDeadGod,TheUniversityofChicagoPress,Chicago,1933,pp.1–2

9. FlindersPetrie,W.M.,PersonalReligioninEgyptbeforeChristianity,Harper&Bros.,London,1909,pp.92–3

10. Lillie,Arthur,BuddhisminChristendom,orJesus,theEssene,KeganPaul,Trench&Company,London,1887,p.7

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11. McCrindle,J.W.,transanded.,AncientIndiaAsDescribedByMegasthenesandArrian,Thacker,Spink,CalcuttaandBombay,1877,pp.104–5

12. Inge,WilliamR.,“Neo-Platonism,”inEncyclopediaofReligionandEthics,ed.JamesHastings,Clark,Edinburgh,1908–1926.

13. Rapson,E.J.ed.,AncientIndia,TheCambridgeHistoryofIndia,Volume1,Cambridge,1922,pp.87–88

14. Rawlinson,H.G.,“IndiainEuropeanLiteratureandThought,”inTheLegacyofIndia,byG.T.Garratt,TheClarendonPress,Oxford,1937,p.4

15. Ibid,note(ProbablyfromThePhilosophyofAncientIndia,byRichardGarbe,TheOpenCourtPublishingCompany,Chicago1897)

16. Rawlinson,op.cit.,p.5

17. Ibid,p.17

18. Ibid,p.18

19. Plotinus,LetterstoFlaccus,quotedinTertiumOrganum:TheThirdCanonofThought,aKeytotheEnigmasoftheWorld,byP.D.Ouspensky,translatedfromtheRussianbyNicholasBessaraboffandClaudeBragdon,ManasPress,Rochester,NewYork,1920

20. Cf.“Neoplatonism”inEncyclopediaofReligionandEthicsandEncyclopaediaBritannicaand“Plotinus”inEncyclopaediaBritannica.

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21. Gour,SirHariSingh,TheSpiritofBuddhism,Luzac&Co.,London,1929,p.435f

22. Shastri,ManmathaNath,op.cit.,p.236

23. Ibid,quotation

24. Grousset,Rene,InTheFootstepsoftheBuddha,translatedfromtheFrenchbyMarietteLeon,GeorgeRoutledge&Sons,Ltd.,London,1932,p.ix

25. Grunwedel,Albert,BuddhistArtinIndia,TranslatedfromGermanbyA.C.Gibson;RevisedandEnlargedbyJamesBurgess,BernardQuaritch,London,1901,p.1

26. Ray,P.C.,inTheCulturalHeritageofIndia,TheRamakrishnaMission,Calcutta,1937,Vol.III,p.445

27. Ibid,p.444

28. Rawlinson,op.cit.,Introduction

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THEBUDDHISTPUBLICATIONSOCIETY

TheBPSisanapprovedcharitydedicatedtomakingknowntheTeachingoftheBuddha,whichhasavitalmessageforallpeople.

Foundedin1958,theBPShaspublishedawidevarietyofbooksandbookletscoveringagreatrangeoftopics.ItspublicationsincludeaccurateannotatedtranslationsoftheBuddha’sdiscourses,standardreferenceworks,aswellasoriginalcontemporaryexpositionsofBuddhistthoughtandpractice.TheseworkspresentBuddhismasittrulyis—adynamicforcewhichhasinfluencedreceptivemindsforthepast2500yearsandisstillasrelevanttodayasitwaswhenitfirstarose.

FormoreinformationabouttheBPSandourpublications,pleasevisitourwebsite,orwriteane-mailoralettertothe:

AdministrativeSecretaryBuddhistPublicationSociety

P.O.Box61

54SangharajaMawathaKandy•SriLankaE-mail:bps@bps.lk

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website:http://www.bps.lk

Tel:0094812237283•Fax:0094812223679

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TableofContents

Titlepage 2TheContributionofBuddhismtoWorldCulture 4AbouttheAuthor 29Notes 30

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