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Andes (n`dz), mountain system, more than 5,000 mi (8,000 km) long, W South America. The ranges rungenerally parallel to the Pacific coast and extend from Tierra del Fuego northward, across the equator, as thebackbone of the entire continent. TheFalkland Islands are a continuation of the Andes, and evidence shows thatthe system is continued in Antarctica. The Andes go throughseven South American countriesArgentina, Chile,Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela.

Geology and Geography

A geologically young system, the Andes were originally uplifted in the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. They arestill rising; volcanoes and earthquakes are common. The folded ranges are discontinuousmerging and bifurcatingwithin the systembut as a whole they form one of the world's most important mountain masses. They are loftierthan any other mountains except the Himalayas, with many snowcapped peaks more than 22,000 ft (6,700 m)high. Andean waters reach the Orinoco, the Amazon, and the Ro de la Plata.

Far south in Tierra del Fuego, the mountains run east and west, then turn north between Argentina and Chile. Thewesternmost of the mountains run into the sea, lining the coast of S Chile with islands. In the Patagonian Andesare high, glacier-fed lakes in both Argentina and Chile.

The highest range of the Andes is on the central and northern Argentine-Chilean border;Aconcagua (22,835 ft/6,960m; highest mountain of the Western Hemisphere) and Tupuncato are there. Between the peaks is Uspallata Pass,the route of the formerTransandine Railway, with the Christ of the Andes. Other major peaks such asLlullaillaco flank the main range, and in N Chile sub-Andean ranges enclose the high, coldAtacama Desert.

The central Andes broaden out in Bolivia and Peru in multiple ranges (c.400 mi/640 km wide) with high plateaucountry (the altiplano) and many high intermontane valleys, where the great civilization of theInca had its home.High in the mountains on the Peru-Bolivia border is LakeTiticaca. In Bolivia are the notable volcanoes, Illimani andIllamp, and in S Peru is El Misti. The western or coastal range in Peru has lofty peaks (notably Huascarn) and iscrossed by the highest railroad of the Andes (from La Oroya to Lima).

The ranges approach each other again in Ecuador, where the N Andes begin. Between two volcanic cordilleras(including the cloud-capped Chimborazo and Cotopaxi) are rich intermontane basins. In Colombia the Andes divideagain, the western range running between the coast and the Cauca River, the central between the Cauca and theMagdalena rivers, and the eastern running north parallel to the Magdalena River, then stretching out on the coastinto Venezuela. The Andes continue in some of the islands of the West Indies, and in Panama N Andean spursconnect with the mountains of Central America and thus with theSierra Madre and the Rocky Mts.

People and Economy

The plateaus and valleys of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia have been peopled since remote times and sawthe rise of not only the Inca and theChibcha but some of the earliest native civilizations in the WesternHemisphere. Today the Quechua andAymara tribes are the main indigenous inhabitants of the Andes. Agriculturewas the basis of these cultures (the native llama and alpaca were domesticated later), and the lands there are stilltilled mainly for subsistence crops. Because of a scarcity of water, however, agriculture is difficult. Tobacco, cotton,

and coffee are grown and exported. Copper, silver, tin, iron, and gold are mined, and petroleum has been found.Pack trails are the most efficient means of communication in the Andes. Although there is some rail passagethrough the mountains, the inhabitants of the Andes do not depend on trains for the maintenance of their economy.Certain Andean areas have developed a tourist trade.

Bibliography

See A. G. Ogilvie, Geography of the Central Andes (1922); C. Arthaud and F. Hbert-Stevens, The Andes: Roof ofAmerica (tr. 1956); P. E. James, Latin America (1969, repr. 1988); T. Kazami, The Andes (1972); W. S. Pitcher,Magmatism at a Plate Edge: The Peruvian Andes(1985); D. Murphy, Eight Feet in the Andes (1986); S. Lamb,Devil in the Mountain: A Search for the Origin of the Andes(2004).

The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Copyright 2007, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. All rightsreserved. www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup/

Warning! The following article is from The Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1979). It might be outdated or

ideologically biased.

Andes

the Cordillera de los Andes, the longest (9,000 km) and one of the highest (Mount Aconcagua, 6,960 m) mountainsystems, bordering the north and west of all of South America. The Andes are the most important climatic barrieron the continent, isolating the entire east from the influence of the Pacific Ocean and the west from the influence ofthe Atlantic. The continental divide runs along the Andes, and from the Andes flow the beginnings of the sourcesand tributaries of the Amazon as well as the tributaries of the Orinoco, the Paraguay, the Paran, and the rivers ofPatagonia. The extent of the Andes and their altitude are the causes of major landscape differences in individual

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areas. The Andes are a serious obstacle to communication between population points on the Pacific coast andeastern South America; at the same time, a significant portion of the population in the Andean nations isconcentrated on their high plateaus.

The geological structure of the Andes is quite diverse. Along the eastern edge of the Andes, between 10 and 30 Slat., stretches the Hercynian folded system, the puna, composed of Paleozoic rock (from the Cambrian to thePermian) and breached by granodiorites. The Andean system itself is one of the major systems of alpine folding. Itwas formed on a Paleozoic and partially Baikalian (Upper Precambrian) folded basement. The geosynclinal troughsof the Andes were formed in the Triassic period and were filled with thick sedimentary and volcanic beds until theend of the Cretaceous period. At the end of the Cretaceous period, uplifting and folding occurred. Granitoidintrusions were formed, including the enormously long massifs of the coast, of the Maritime Cordillera of Peru, andof the Cordillera Principal of Chile. During the Paleocene and Neocene periods the intermontane troughs andforedeeps were formed, and these were filled with sedimentary beds of great thickness (the Altiplano andMaracaibo). Petroleum deposits have been discovered in some of these. Recent active volcanism and earthquakes,confined chiefly to the western zone, show that orogenesis is continuing.

The various geological structures contain the useful minerals usually associated with them. The major oil depositsthe depressions of Maracaibo, Magdalena, the Andean foothills of Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, and Argentinaareconfined to the foredeeps and intermontane troughs. Tin, silver, lead, zinc, tungsten, vanadium, antimony, bismuth,arsenic, and other ores are located in the eastern Paleozoic structures and in the vents of ancient volcanoes inPeru and Bolivia. The copper ore deposits (Chile) are associated with the intrusions of the Andes. There are alsodeposits of gold, platinum, and emeralds in Colombia, sodium nitrate in northern Chile, and other minerals.

M. V. MURATOV

Orographically, the Andes consist of parallel, predominantly meridional ranges between which lie the interiorhighlands or depressions. Geomorphological structural features differ in individual sections of the Andes. The majorones (from north to south) are the Caribbean, northwestern, Ecuadorian, Peruvian, Central, Chilean-Argentinian, andPatagonian Andes.

The Caribbean Andes, located in the northeastern part of the continent along the coast of the Caribbean Sea,consist of two folded-eroded medium-elevation (up to 2,765 m) ranges complicated by faults.

The northwestern Andes, in Colombia and western Venezuela, consist of three basic high and steep folded-blockCordilleras (Oriental, Central, and Occidental). These ranges fan out north of 1 N lat. and are divided by deep andbroad depressions that are the valleys of the Magdalena and Cauca-Patia rivers. The northern spurs of theCordillera Orientalthe Cordillera Mrida and the Sierra de Perijenclose the broad depression with LakeMaracaibo. In the extreme north rises the horst massif of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (5,800 m). This section ofthe Andes is characterized by recent faults with uplifts and subsidences, volcanism in the south of the CordilleraOccidental and in the Central Cordillera (the Ruiz volcano, 5,400 m, and others), a glacial alpine relief, and broadpeneplains in the Cordillera Occidental. In the north and west the northwestern Andes are bordered by alluviallowlands, the Caribbean, and the Pacific. The Pacific lowlands become the lowlands of the Atrato River, whichdivide the coastal chain of the Serrana de Baud.

In the Ecuadorian Andes (to 4 S lat.) the most striking feature is volcanism. Volcanic cones are located along theinterior slopes of the Occidental and Oriental (or Real) cordilleras (Chimborazo, 6,262 m; Cotopaxi; and others).The depression separating the cordilleras has been filled with volcanic products.

In the Peruvian Andes (to 1430 S lat.) there are the following major elements: the Cordillera Occidental (CerroHuascarn, 6,768 m), which has significant contemporary glaciation, an intrusive western wing, and a foldedeastern wing represented by plateaus 4,1004,400 m high; the folded-block Central and southeastern cordilleras(the ranges of Carabaya, Vilcanota, and Vilcabamba), with alpine landforms; and the Cordillera Oriental, made up oflower folded-erosion ranges. Recent volcanism is absent. Deep fragmentation by the upper reaches of the Maran,Huallaga, and Ucayali rivers is characteristic.

The Central Andes (to 28 S lat.) are the widest (700800 km) and most complex segment of the Andes. The entirecentral portion is formed by the broad internal uplands, called the Puna de Atacama (with an elevation of around4,000 m), with a lower western edge (Altiplano), tectonic and residual lakes (Titicaca, Poop, Coipasa), andenormous salars. The Puna is enclosed between the ridges of intrusive peaks and volcanoes 5,5006,700 m highon the west and by high folded-block ranges (the heavily glaciated Cordillera Real and others) and medium-altitudefolded subandean chains in the east. From 1830 S lat., along the Pacific coast, stretches the intrusive MaritimeCordillera (up to 3,200 m in elevation), to the east of which lies a tectonic longitudinal valley. Arid geomorphologicalprocesses predominate in the Central Andes. By 28 S lat. all the eastern structures of the Andes have tapered out,and the Chilean-Argentine Andes show an inherent trimembral structure consist ing of the Maritime Cordillera, the

longitudinal valley and a dual Cordillera Principal (from 310 S lat.) and Cordillera Frontal (to 35 S lat.) includingMount Aconcagua, with an elevation of 6,960 m. Major intrusions and volcanism are characteristic, as well as therole of glacial and water erosion processes that increase to the south. The Patagonian Andes are the extremesouthern section, to the south of 39 S lat., and have an elevation up to 4,035 m. They are marked by activevolcanism, great ruggedness, and thick modern glaciation and glacial land forms. The Maritime Cordillera becomesa chain of islands in the Chilean Archipelago, while the longitudinal valley becomes a system of straits.

The particular features of the topography and river network of the Andes are explained not only by structuraldifferences but also by climatic ones and chiefly by the distribution of precipitation. In the subequatorial CaribbeanAndes, precipitation falls only in the summer (5001,000 mm per year). The rivers are short, with abrupt summerflooding. In the northwestern Andes precipitation is heavy and rather even during the year, both on the western

slopes (up to 10,000 mm per year) and on the eastern ones. Moisture-laden easterly winds bring abundantprecipitation to the eastern slopes of the Andes (to 28 S lat.), causing deep cutting of the Andes by full rivers aswell as determining the position of the continental divide on the Cordillera Occidental. On the other hand, the entirewest between 5 and 28 S lat. has a tropical desert climate, with very sparse surface drainage and a broad area ofinterior drainage in the Central Andes. South of 30 S lat., in the subtropics, the amount of precipitation brought bythe western cyclones increases quickly toward the south, but in the temperate latitudes (with constant westerlywinds) 5,0007,000 mm of precipitation falls annually on the western slopes of the Patagonian Andes. The easternslopes between 28 and 38 S lat. are very arid, and only further south do moisture-laden winds penetrate to theeast. In the southern Andes there are many large terminal glacial lakes.

Corresponding to the geographic position and the climate, the snow line in the Andes in the wet north and east liesat an elevation of 4,7004,900 m (in the Ecuadorian Andes it declines to 4,250 m). In the Central Andes it rises to5,6006,100 m (in the Puna to 6,500 m, which is the highest in the world). From there to 35 S lat. it falls to 3,100m and in the Patagonian Andes to 1,0001,200 m (in the south of Tierra del Fuego 500700 m). At 4630 S lat.,the glaciers reach ocean level.

Location in several climatic zones, contrasts in moisture on the western and eastern slopes, and significantelevations of the Andes cause a great diversity in the soil and vegetation cover as well as a clearly expressedaltitude zonality. The windward wet slopes from the northwestern Andes to the southern Central Andes are coveredby mountain humid equatorial and tropical forests (the mountain rainforest) on laterite soils in which three altitudezones can be dist inguished: tierra caliente, tierra templada, and tierra fria. In the Caribbean Andes there aredeciduous (during the winter drought) forests and brush on red mountain soils. In the subtropical Andes of Chile dryevergreen forests and brush are found on brown soils; south of 38 S lat. on both slopes are moist evergreen andmixed forests on brown forest soils and in the south on podzolized soils. The high uplands that are part of thetierrafria and the tierra helada have distinctive alpine types of vegetation. In the north there are the equatorial meadows,orparamos, and in the Peruvian Andes and in the wetter northeastern Puna there are dry tropical steppes, orjalcas. In the southwestern Puna and along the entire Pacific west between 5 and 28 S lat. there are desert typesof soil and vegetation. The Andes are the homeland of coca, the cinchona, the potato, and other valuable plants.

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The animal world of the Andes belongs to the Brazilian zoogeographic subregion and is similar to the rich fauna ofthe adjacent plains. South of 5 S. lat. the fauna is related to the Chilean-Patagonian subregion, which in the Andesis characterized by the llama, the relict spectacled bear, the endemic deer called the pudu and guemal, the Azarasfox, the bush dog, the South American bush rat, the chinchillawhich has almost become extinct because of itsvaluable furand other animals. There are many endemic birds, including the condor.

REFERENCES

Gerth, H. Geologiia And. Moscow, 1959. (Translated from German.)King, Lester. Morfologiia Zemli. Moscow, 1967. (Translated from English.)Kordilery Ameriki. Moscow, 1967. (Translated from English.)Lukashova, E. N. luzhnaia Amerika. Moscow, 1958.Machatschek, F. Relef Zemli, vol. 2. Moscow, 1961. (Translated from German.)Relef Zemli. Moscow, 1967.

E. N. LUKASHOVA

The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd Edition (1970-1979). 2010 The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.

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It was a part of the great system of granite

mountains which forms one of the mostimportant and striking features of NorthAmerica, stretching parallel to the coast ofthe Pacific from the Isthmus of Panamaalmost to the Arctic Ocean; and presenting acorresponding chain to that of the Andes inthe southern hemisphere.

Astoria or Anecdotes of an enterprisebeyond the Rocky Mountains byIrving,

Washington View in context

On the west, however, rise the RockyMountains, that immense range which,commencing at the Straights of Magellan,follows the western coast of SouthernAmerica under the name of theAndes or theCordilleras, until it crosses the Isthmus ofPanama, and runs up the whole of NorthAmerica to the very borders of the Polar Sea.

From The Earth To The MoonbyVerne,Jules View in context

So this bright coin came from a countryplanted in the middle of the world, andbeneath the great equator, and named after it;and it had been cast midway up theAndes,in the unwaning clime that knows no autumn.

Moby Dick LXVIII-CXXXIVbyMelville,Herman View in context

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