MIF - STICERDsticerd.lse.ac.uk/inequality/the-framework/media/mif-framework.pdf · The Multidimensional Inequality Framework (MIF) provides a systematic approach to measuring and

MULTIDIMENSIONAL INEQUALITY FRAMEWORKMIF

RESEARCH PARTNERS ATLANTIC FELLOWS BASED AT

The Atlantic Fellows for Social and Economic Equity (AFSEE) programme, based at the International Inequalities Institute (III) at the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), is building a catalytic, values-led global community of Fellows who are committed to using collective leadership to work towards social and economic justice for all. Drawing on the insights of academic research, innovative social-change strategies and the Fellows’ own experience and expertise, the Atlantic Fellows for Social and Economic Equity programme is empowering a new generation of change-makers, including practitioners, activists, researchers, policy-makers and campaigners, to work together across disciplines, backgrounds and borders. AFSEE was established in 2017 with a landmark gift from Atlantic Philanthropies, and over the next 20 years will support over 400 Fellows drawn from both the global South and global North. It is one of seven interconnected Atlantic Fellows programmes, which together create a global community to advance fairer, healthier and more inclusive societies.

For further information about the Atlantic Fellows for Social and Economic Equity programme, please contact [email protected] or visit our website afsee.atlanticfellows.org.

AUTHORS

Academics: Abigail McKnight, Pedro Mendes Loureiro, Polly Vizard

Oxfam: Alex Prats, Ana Claver, Claire Kumar

Research assistants: Patricio Espinoza-Lucero, Cara Leavey, Laurie Mompelat

Advisors:Ben Fine, Ricardo Fuentes-Nieva, Naila Kabeer, Chiara Mariotti

mailto:[email protected]

www.afsee.atlanticfellows.org

Introduction

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Background

ThisresearchwasmadepossiblebysupportfromtheAtlanticFellowsinSocialandEconomicEquityProgramme,administeredbytheInternationalInequalitiesInstituteattheLondonSchoolofEconomicsandPoliticalScience.Itseekstobridgeacademic,activistandpractitionerperspectiveswiththeaimtoprovideasystematicapproachtoanalysingmultidimensionalinequalityandsupportOxfamintheirambitiontodesignandimplementrelevant,solidandeffectiveprogrammesforthereductionofinequalitiesatnationalandlocallevels.TheMultidimensionalInequalityFrameworkisbeingmadewidelyavailablesothatallseekingtounderstandandtackleinequalitiescanbenefit.

Themainobjectiveoftheprojectwastodeveloparobustandpragmaticinequalityframeworkandtoolkitstoaidanalysts,activistsandpractitioners.Theybuildonthelatestacademicresearchoninequality,itsmeasurementandexistingframeworks,combinedwithpractitioner,activistandpolicyexpertiseheldwithinOxfam,toproduceatheoreticallygroundedyetpracticalframeworkwhichallowsresearchersandpractitionerstotakeasystematicapproachtomeasuringandunderstandinginequalities,anddevisingeffectiveinequalityreductionprogrammesandstrategies.

ThisdocumentoutlinestheMultidimensionalInequalityFrameworkwhichistheoreticallyunderpinnedbySen’scapabilityapproachtoevaluatingthequalityoflife.

Acknowledgements:WeareverygratefultothemanyindividualswhoparticipatedinseminarsattheLSEandinBarcelona,toallwhorespondedtotheinitialconsultationonthefirstdraft,colleaguesinOxfam(particularlyLaraContrerasatOxfamIntermón),CASE(especiallyTaniaBurchardt)andtheIIIattheLSE(principallyRanaZincir-Celal)whogenerouslygavetheirtimeandexpertisetoaidthedevelopmentoftheFramework.

Projectteam:Academics:AbigailMcKnight,Projectlead,AssociateDirectorCASE,LSE([email protected])PedroMendesLoureiro,ResearchOfficer,PhDcandidateSOAS;nowLecturerinLatinAmericanStudiesattheUniversityofCambridge

PollyVizard,AssociateDirectorCASE,LSEPractitioners:ÀlexPrats,Oxfamlead,InequalityLead,OxfamIntermónAnaClaver,Policyadvisor,OxfamIntermónClaireKumar,SeniorConsultantResearchassistants:PatricioEspinoza-Lucero,ResearchAssistant,CASE,LSE;nowanAtlanticFellowCaraLeavey,ResearchAssistant,CASE,LSE;nowatRethinkMentalIllnessLaurieMompelat,ResearchAssistant,CASE,LSE;nowatRunnymedeTrustAdvisors:BenFine,ProfessorofEconomics,SOASRicardoFuentes-Nieva,ExecutiveDirectorOxfamMexicoNailaKabeer,ProfessorofGenderandDevelopment,LSEChiaraMariotti,PolicyAdvisor,OxfamGB


Introduction

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TableofContents

Non-technicalintroduction......................................................................................................................................3

Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................4

Understandinginequality.....................................................................................................................................4

Whyaframeworkformeasuringmultidimensionalinequality?........................................................5

Existingmultidimensionalframeworks.........................................................................................................6

Thechoiceoftheoreticalandconceptualfoundation:thecapabilityapproach...........................6

Whatdowemeanbyacapability-basedapproach?.................................................................................7

TheBuildingBlocksoftheCapabilityApproach........................................................................................9

OperationalisingtheCapabilityApproach.................................................................................................10

ApplyingtheCapabilityApproachtomeasuringcapability-inequality........................................11

KeyfeaturesoftheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework..........................................................12

Driversandpolicysolutions.............................................................................................................................14

References.....................................................................................................................................................................15

Domain1.Lifeandhealth:Inequalityinthecapabilitytobealiveandtoliveahealthylife..18

Domain1:Sub-domains,indicatorsandmeasures................................................................................21

Domain2.Physicalandlegalsecurity:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoliveinphysicalsafetyandlegalsecurity......................................................................................................................................................24


Domain3.Educationandlearning:Inequalityinthecapabilitytobeknowledgeable,tounderstandandreason,andtohavetheskillstoparticipateinsociety............................................32


Domain4.Financialsecurityanddignifiedwork:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoachievefinancialindependenceandsecurity,enjoydignifiedandfairwork,andrecognitionofunpaidworkandcare.............................................................................................................................................37


Domain5.Comfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoycomfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions..................................44


Domain6.Participation,influenceandvoice:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoparticipateindecision-making,haveavoiceandinfluence..........................................................................................50


Domain7.Individual,familyandsociallife:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoyindividual,familyandsociallife,toexpressyourselfandtohaveself-respect.............................55


Introduction

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Non-technicalintroductionTheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework(MIF)providesasystematicapproachtomeasuringandanalysinginequalities,andforidentifyingcausesandpotentialsolutions.IthasbeendevelopedthroughacollaborationbetweenacademicsintheCentreforAnalysisofSocialExclusion(CASE)attheLondonSchoolofEconomicsandtheSchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies(SOAS),andpractitionersinOxfam.

TheMIFisdesignedtomeasureinequalityinindividualwell-being,reflectingthefactthatourliveshavemanyimportantdimensions:ourhealth,ourrelationships,ourabilitytohaveinfluence,ourknowledge,andmanyother.TheMIFoffersasystematicmultidimensionalapproachtoassessinginequalityinthequalityofindividuals’lives.

TheFrameworkdrawsonSen’scapabilityapproachtoprovideaclearmethodologyfortheassessmentofwell-beingthroughexaminingdifferencesinpeople’scapabilitiestolivethekindoflifetheyhavereasontovalue.Thecapabilityapproachrejectsanexclusivefocusonincomeorsubjectivewell-being,definingthequalityofpeople’slivesintermsofasetofvaluablethingsthattheycanbeordo;likebeingphysicallysecureorhavinginfluenceoverdecisionsaffectingtheirlives.

Ourapproachisinnovative,markingadeparturefromthemajorityofpreviousinstantiationsofSen’scapabilityapproachwhichhavetendedtofocusoncapability-deprivation(differencesinratesofdeprivationbetweengroups)ratherthancapability-inequalitywhichencompassesadvantageaswellasdisadvantage.Thedevelopmentofacapability-basedinequalitymeasurementframeworkisanaturalextensiontoworkalreadyundertakeninthisfield,offeringaninnovativeapproachtounderstandingandaddressingmultidimensionalinequality.

Table1:DomainsoftheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework

Domain Shorttitle Sub-titleDomain1 Lifeandhealth Inequalityinthecapabilitytobealiveandtolivea

healthylifeDomain2 Physicalandlegalsecurity Inequalityinthecapabilitytoliveinphysicalsafety

andlegalsecurityDomain3 Educationandlearning Inequalityinthecapabilitytobeknowledgeable,to

understandandreason,andtohavetheskillstoparticipateinsociety

Domain4 Financialsecurityanddignifiedwork Inequalityinthecapabilitytoachievefinancialindependenceandsecurity,enjoydignifiedandfairwork,andrecognitionofunpaidworkandcare

Domain5 Comfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions

Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoycomfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions

Domain6 Participation,influenceandvoice Inequalityinthecapabilitytoparticipateindecision-making,haveavoiceandinfluence

Domain7 Individual,familyandsociallife Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoyindividual,familyandsociallife,toexpressyourselfandtohaveself-respect

Introduction

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Introduction

TheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework(MIF)providesasystematic,theoretically-underpinnedinstrumentformeasuringandanalysinginequalities,andforidentifyingcausesandpotentialsolutions.Thisbriefintroductionsetsoutthemotivation,thecontextinwhichtheMIFwasdevelopedandprovidesdetailsofitstheoreticalandconceptualfoundations.

TheMIFhasbeendevelopedaspartofacollaborationbetweenacademicsintheCentreforAnalysisofSocialExclusionattheLondonSchoolofEconomicsandtheSchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies(SOAS)(AbigailMcKnightastheacademiclead),andpractitionersinOxfam(ledbyAlexPrats).Itisalsobeingmadeavailableonlinewithtailoredtoolkits,additionalresourcesondriversandcandidatepolicies,andtakingaction.

Understandinginequality

Thestudyofinequalityhaslargelytakenplacewithinsingledimensionssuchasincome,healthandeducation,reflectingthefactthatexpertspredominatelyconcentrateonaparticulardisciplineandfieldofstudy.Themajorityofdiscourseoninequalityhasfocusedoneconomicinequality,particularlyincomeinequality,andourknowledgeofincomeinequalityhasadvancedconsiderablyoverthelastfewdecades.Thishasbeenaidedbyfairlylongtimeseriesofincomedatawhicharenowreadilyavailableforalargenumberofcountries.However,evenwithinthisnarrowfieldithastakensometimetoestablishaclearpictureofthescaleofinequalityandwhetherinequalityhasbeenincreasingornot,withincountries,betweencountriesandacrosstheworld.Thisisbecausethestudyofinequalityisnotanexactsciencecombiningbothpositive(establishingthefacts)andnormative(involvingvaluejudgementsaboutfairness)aspects.Normativeaspectsareinfluencedbypositiveaspectsthroughthechoiceofinequalitymeasures,judgementonthetypesofinequalityweshouldbeconcernedaboutandwhatconstituteshigh,lowand‘acceptable’levelsofinequality.

Recentanalysisoftheglobalpictureofincomeinequalitytrendsunderlinestheimportanceofbeingclearabouthowweunderstandandmeasureinequality,asdifferentmeasuresshowcontrastingtrendsbothintermsofglobalinequality,andbetweenandwithincountries(Niño-Zarazña,RoopeandTarp,2017).Thisdetailedanalysisshowsthatrelativeglobalincomeinequality(measuredby,forexample,therelativeGiniordecileratios)declinedsubstantially1975-2010,mainlydrivenbyincomegrowthinChinaandIndia,butabsoluteincomeinequality(measuredby,forexample,thestandarddeviationandtheabsoluteGini)increasedconsiderablyoverthesameperiod.Insomeregionsoftheworld,inequalitytrendsassessedagainstthesetwoconceptsofinequalitymovedinthesamedirection(forexample,increasinginNorthAmericaanddecreasingintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica)butdivergedinotherregionsoverthesameperiod(forexample,inLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,EastAsiaandPacificrelativeinequalitydeclinedbutabsoluteinequalityincreased).Withinregionsthereisalsoconsiderableheterogeneitybetweencountriesinincomeinequalitytrends,evenwhenassessedusingthesamemeasure.Recentresearchhasshownthatalthoughrelativeincomeinequalityhasbeenontheriseinmanyrichandmiddle-incomecountriesoverthelastthreetofourdecades,thetimingandtheextentofanyincreasevariedsignificantlybetweencountries(Salverdaetal.,2014;Nolanetal.,2014;OECD,2008).

Thisexampleshowsthatevenwhenmeasuringinequalitywithinasingledimensionthereareimportantdifferencesbetweenmeasuresparticularlyintermsofhowchangesinincomesaffectinequalityestimates.Itisthereforeworthwhilespendingalittletimeclarifyingwhatformsof

Introduction

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incomeinequalitydifferentmeasurescapture.Measurescanbebroadlydividedintothreeclasses:relativeinequalitymeasures,absoluteinequalitymeasuresand‘centrist’measures.Relativeinequalitymeasuresshownoincreaseininequalityifeveryone’sincomeincreasesproportionatelybythesameamount,forexampleeveryone’sincomedoubles.However,theabsolutedifferencebetweenpeople’sincomeswillhaveincreasedandabsoluteinequalitymeasureswillcomputeanincreaseininequality.Incontrast,absolutemeasuresofinequalitywillshownoincreaseininequalityifeveryone’sincomeincreasesbyafixedamount,sayby$100.However,relativeinequalitydeclinesas$100increaseisagreaterproportionateincreaseforthoseonalowincomethanforthoseonahighincome.Wemightbeinterestedinbothformsofinequalityandacompromisecanbefoundinso-called‘centristmeasures’whicharesensitivetobothtypesofchangesinincome(forexample,theintermediateGiniortheKrtscha).

Althoughwearefacedwithamixedpictureofincomeinequalitytrends,evidencesuggeststhatwhiletheuseofdifferentmeasuresofinequalitycanbeusedselectivelytopaintaparticularpicturewithinsomecountries,overdifferenttimeperiodsoracrosstheworld,peopleexpressconcernanddistasteforinequalityinallitsforms.Thereisnowenoughevidenceofincreasinginequality(beitabsoluteorrelative)toleadtoagrowingconcernabouttheharmfuleffectsofinequalityonsocieties.Aconsensusisemergingacrossanumberofhighprofileinternationalorganisationsandhighlyregardedexpertsthatmoreneedstobedonetohaltthistrend,toensurethatthebenefitsoffuturegrowtharesharedmoreequallyandthatsolutionsarefoundtolimitanyharmfulimpact(see,forexample,Stiglitz,2012;Oxfam,2014;Piketty2014;Atkinson,2015;OECD,2015;WorldBank,2016;IMF,2017).

Whyaframeworkformeasuringmultidimensionalinequality?

Thereisagrowingrecognitionthatinequalityandpovertyarebetterunderstoodasmultidimensionalconcepts.Althoughanincomepovertylineremainsauseful,short-hand,wayofidentifyingindividualsatriskofpoverty,anincomemeasureisinsufficienttopickuphowindividuals’deprivationvariesacrosskeyaspectsoftheirlives.Thishasledtothedevelopmentofmultidimensionalpovertymeasures,suchastheGlobalMultidimensionalPovertyIndex(AlkireandFoster,2011,seemorebelow),andmaterialdeprivationmeasures(forexample,theEU’smeasurewhichpicksuptheinabilitytoaffordsomeitemsconsideredbymostpeopletobedesirableorevennecessarytoleadanadequatelife),tocomplementincome-onlymeasures.

Whenusingmultidimensionalmeasures,oneapproachistosimplycomputehowmanypeopleorhouseholdsareclassifiedasdeprivedaccordingtothresholdssetineachdimension.Thisapproachwouldleadtoanumberofpovertyestimatesunlessthesamenumberofindividualswereclassifiedasdeprivedinalldimensions.Alternatively,individualsorhouseholdscouldbeclassifiedassufferingfrommultipledeprivationormaterialdeprivationiftheyaredeprivedinanumberofdimensions.Forexample,theEUmeasurestherateofseverematerialdeprivationastheproportionofpeoplelivinginhouseholdsthatcannotaffordatleastfouritemsfromalistofnineitems(includingnotbeingabletoaffordtopayhousingcosts,buyacar,ownatelephone,aweek’sholidayawayfromhome).Anotherapproachistoproduceasingleindexfromsummingdeprivationindicatorsacrossanumberofdomainsormeasures.TheglobalMultidimensionalPovertyIndex(MPI),developedbyAlkireandFosterattheOxfordPovertyandHumanDevelopmentInitiative(OPHI),isanexampleofthisapproach(AlkireandFoster,2011).TheMPIisdesignedtocapturethedeprivationsthateachpersonfacesatthesametimewithrespecttoeducation,healthandlivingstandards(muchliketheHumanDevelopmentIndex–seebelow).

Introduction

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Therearetwoindicatorsforeducationandforhealthandsixforlivingstandards.Eachindicatorisassignedaweightsothateachdimensionsisworthone-thirdintheoverallweighting.

Theseapproachesaredataintensiveastheyrequireaccesstodatasourceswhichcollectinformationacrossthedifferentdimensionsforarepresentativesampleofindividualsorhouseholds.Indicesalsorequireassignmentofweightsforthedifferentmeasuresincludedinanyindex.

Theconceptthatweareinterestedinisindividualwell-beingwhichisinherentlymultidimensional.Ifwepausemomentarilytoevaluatethequalityofourownlivesitisimmediatelyapparentthatmanydimensionsofourlivesareimportanttous:ourhealth,ourrelationships,oursafety,ourabilitytomakedecisionsonmattersthatareimportanttous,ourreputationaswellasmanyotherdimensionsincludingfinancialsecurity.TheMIFoffersasystematicmultidimensionalapproachtoassessinginequalityinthequalityofindividuals’lives.Fortheoverallassessmentofinequalitywearesuggestingadashboardapproachratherthanacompositeindex.Withanextensiveandvariedselectionofmeasures,carefulanalysisisrequiredtomakeaninformedassessmentofinequality.

Existingmultidimensionalframeworks

Anumberofmultidimensionalsocialindicatorframeworkshavebeendevelopedinrecentyears.Theseinclude:

• theUNHumanDevelopmentIndexwhichsummarisesaverageachievementinkeydimensionsofhumandevelopment:alongandhealthylife,beingknowledgeableandhavingadecentstandardofliving;

• theUNSustainableDevelopmentGoalsaresupplementedbyanindicatorframeworkformeasuringandmonitoringprogresstowardsreachingthe2030goals;

• theUK’sOfficeforNationalStatisticshasdevelopedamultidimensionalsetofindicatorsformeasuringandmonitoringNationalWell-being,;

• tomonitortheimplementationoftheEuropeanPillarofSocialRightsprogressismeasuredin12areaswithinthreedomainsthroughaseriesofindicators;

• theOECD’sBetterLifeIndexcovers11topicsintheareasofmateriallivingconditionsandqualityoflife;and,

• theWorldEconomicForumhasdevelopedanInclusiveDevelopmentIndexwhichcontainsthreepillarsand12keyperformanceindicatorstoassessinclusiveeconomicperformance.

Onthewholetheseframeworksarenottheoreticallygroundedandhavebeendevelopedwithaspecificpurposeinmind,whichincludeaspectsofpovertyandinequalitybutarenotgeneralmultidimensionalinequalityframeworks.Withoutastrongtheoreticallyfoundationanyframeworkcanappeartosimplycompriseanarbitrarylistofinequalityindicatorsandmeasures.

Thechoiceoftheoreticalandconceptualfoundation:thecapabilityapproach

TheMultidimensionalInequalityFrameworkdrawsonSen’scapabilityapproach(Sen,1993)toprovideaclearmethodologyforassessinginequalitiesinindividualwell-being.Thisprovidesafocustoexaminingdifferencesinpeople’scapabilitiestolivethekindoflifetheyhavereasontovalue.Itisdefinedintermsofasetofvaluablethingsthatpeoplecanbeordo;likebeingphysicallysecureorhavinginfluenceoverdecisionsaffectingtheirlives.Itoffersasystematicapproachtoassessingthequalityoflifeweleadandwhatwecanorcannotdo,andcanorcannotbe.

http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-index-hdi

https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/Global%20Indicator%20Framework_A.RES.71.313%20Annex.pdf

https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/wellbeing/articles/measuringnationalwellbeing/2015-09-29

https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/european-pillar-of-social-rights/indicators

http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/#/11111111111

https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-inclusive-development-index-2018

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Acleartheoreticalunderpinningfacilitatesthesystematiccaptureofthecomplexnatureofinequality,whichcantakemanydifferentforms.Ourapproachisinnovative,markingadeparturefromthemajorityofpreviousinstantiationsofSen’scapabilityapproachwhichhavetendedtofocusoncapability-deprivation(measuringdifferencesinratesofdeprivationbetweengroups)ratherthancapability-inequalitywhichencompassesadvantageaswellasdisadvantage.Italsorepresentsanimportantdeparturefromotherinequalityframeworkswhichtendtosimplyassessoutcomeswithoutanyconsiderationoffactorsthatconstrainchoice.Thedevelopmentofacapability-basedinequalitymeasurementframeworkisanaturalextensiontoworkalreadyundertakeninthisfield,offeringanewandinnovativeapproachtounderstandingandaddressingmultidimensionalinequality.

Whatdowemeanbyacapability-basedapproach?

WebelievethatastrongtheoreticalfoundationisimportantforthecredibilityoftheFramework.However,thisdoesnotmeanthatadeepunderstandingofthetheorybehindtheapproachisnecessaryforitspracticalapplication.TheMIF,alongwiththeonlinestep-by-stepuserguides,havebeendesignedsothattheFrameworkcanbeusedwitheasebyspecialistsandnon-specialists.Forthoseinterestedinlearningabitmoreaboutthetheorybehindtheconceptualbasishereweprovideabriefintroductiontotheapproach.

AmartyaSenisaworldrenownedeconomistandphilosopher.In1998hewasawardedtheNobelPrizeinEconomicsforhiscontributiontowelfareeconomics.Inabodyofwork,Senoutlinesthecapabilityapproach;anevaluativeframeworkwhichcanbeusedtoassessindividualwell-being(keyreferencesinclude:Sen,1979;1985;1987;1992;1993;1999).Senfoundexistingframeworkswantingeitherduetonarrowfocusorbecauseofthelackofrecognitionforwhatreallymattersintermsofhowindividualsevaluateandvaluethequalityoftheirlives.Insteadoffocusingexclusivelyoneconomicmeansorsubjectivewell-being,thecapabilityapproachfocusesonthequalityoflifethatindividualsmanagetoliveandthefreedomtheyhavetochoosethekindoflifetheyhavereasontovalue,intermsofthevaluablethingstheycandoorbe.Forexample,beingadequatelynourished,beingfreefromavoidablediseases,beingabletotakepartinthelifeofthecommunityandhavingself-respect(Sen,1999,p.199).

Twokeyconceptsinthecapabilityapproachare‘capabilities’and‘functionings’.Sendescribescapabilitiesas“notionsoffreedom,inthepositivesense:whatrealopportunitiesyouhaveregardingthelifeyoumaylead”anddefinesafunctioningasanachievement,whereasacapabilityistheabilitytoachieve(Sen,1987:p.36).‘Functionings’arewhataperson‘managestodoorbe’(Sen,1985).Whilethelanguageofthecapabilityapproachcanbeabitmystifyingfortheuninitiated,insimpletermscapabilitiescanbelikenedtosubstantiveopportunitiesandfunctioningstoobservedoutcomes.Thereismoretoeachconcept,butthisoffersausefulstartingpoint.

Thecapabilityapproachcallsforamultidimensionalapproachtounderstandingindividualwell-being.Itrejectstheexclusivefocusonsubjectivemeasuresofwell-being(utility)oroneconomicresources(opulence).Althoughtheseapproachesarewidelyused,theyareseentohaveanumberoffundamentalweaknesses.

Oneoftheproblemsassociatedwithexclusivelyusingsubjectivemeasuresofwell-being(happinessorlifesatisfaction)toassessindividualwelfare,isthatsubjectiveassessmentscanbeaffectedbyexpectationsandpreferencesbeingadaptedbyexperience,andshapedbysocialand

https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/economic-sciences/1998/sen/biographical/

https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/economic-sciences/1998/sen/biographical/

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culturalnorms.Forexample,overtimepeoplecanbecomeaccustomedtolivingonalowincome,orbeinginpoorhealthand,asaresult,expectations,andaspirationsfor,lifecanbeparedback.Similarly,aprivilegedupbringingcanleavepeopledisappointedwithwhattheymanagetoachieveintheirownlives.Senillustratestheinfluenceofnormsusingtheexampleofhowperceptionsofrelativeneedsofdifferentmembersofthefamilyrelatetosocialinfluence(forexample,amagnificationoftheneedsofamaleheadofhouseholdorunderplayingtheneedsoffemalehouseholdmembers),andhowtheseperceptionsleadtodifferentsubjectiveassessmentsof,forexample,theirownhealth,assessmentswhichconflictwithmedicalevidence(Sen,1999).ItisnotthatSenrejectshappinessasavaluableaspectofwell-being,hesimplysuggeststhatifitisconsideredimportantitshouldbeincludedasoneofanumberofaspectsinanyassessmentofwell-being(Sen,1985).

Therearealsoshortcomingsassociatedwithfocusingsolelyoneconomicresources(opulence)duetothefailuretocapturehowindividuals’needsandnon-economicresourcesdiffer,affectingindividuals’abilitytoconvertresourcesintovaluableoutcomes.Economicresourceslargelyprovidea‘meanstoanend’anditisthe‘end’whichweareinterestedin.“Thevalueofthelivingstandardliesintheliving,andnotinthepossessingofcommodities,whichhasderivateandvaryingrelevance”(Sen,1987,p.25),and“oursuccessinthematerialworldisoftenjudgedbyouropulence;butdespitethat,commoditiesarenotmorethanmeanstoanend”(Sen,1987,p.16).

Theabilitytoconvertresourcesandcommoditiesintovaluableoutcomescanbeaffectedbyarangeoffactors.Conversioncanoccuratdifferentratesdependingonvarious“conversionfactors”.Sensuggestsanumberofconversionfactorswhicharetypicallygroupedintothreemaincategories.Dang(2014)andRobeyns(2017)provideillustrativeexamplesofconversionfactorsineachcategory.Theseare:(a)personalconversionfactors(suchaspersonalcharacteristics:physicalandmentalaspects(forexample,disabilities),ageandgender);(b)socialconversionfactors(suchassocialinstitutions,socialnorms(gender,religious,cultural,moral),traditionsandthebehaviourofothers(sexism,homophobia,racism,etc.),and;(c)environmentalconversionfactors(includingclimate,pollution,deforestation,etc.).Thesefactorsinfluencetheconversionratefromindividualresourcesintofunctionings(outcomeorachievement)andcapabilities(realopportunitiesorpositivefreedoms)(Dang,2014,p.462).Conversionfactorsandconversionrateshavenotalwaysbeentreatedsystematicallyinthecapabilityliteraturebutthereareinterestingandinformativeattemptstodefineandmeasurethem(see,forexample,Chiappero-MartinettiandSalardi,2008;Comim,QizilbashandAlkire,2001;BrandoliniandD'Alessio,1998).ForthepurposesoftheMIF,conversionfactorsplayanimportantroleintheidentificationofinequalitydriversandcandidatepolicies,whichareavailableintheonlinetoolkits.

Anotherimportantaspectischoice.Whilespecialimportanceisgiventotheactuallifestylechosen,theavailabilityofotheroptionshasvaluetoo(Sen,1992).Senstressesthatitisimportanttobeabletodistinguishbetweenoutcomesthatariseduetolackofchoice(limitingcapabilities)fromthosewhicharechosen(theneedtobeabletodistinguishbetweenchoosingnottoworkfrominvoluntaryunemployment);recognisingthatbeingan‘author’ofyourownlifehasintrinsicvalue.ThemostcitedexamplethatSendescribesisthedifferencebetweenapersonchoosingtofastonreligiousgroundsandapersonwhoisstarvingasaresultoffamine.Ineachcase,measuredsimplyintermsofobservedoutcomesatapointintime,neitherpersonisreceivingnourishmentbutintheformercase,thisisaresultofchoicewhileinthelattercasenochoiceisavailable.Ideallywewouldwanttobeabletodistinguishbetweenthesetwocasesinevaluatingindividualwelfare.Choiceis

Introduction

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assumedtohaveintrinsicvaluewherethechoiceisbetweenvalued(andachievable)alternatives.SenillustratesthisthroughanexamplewherepersonXenjoyshigherwelfarewhentheyaregivenachoicebetweenAandBandchooseA,thanthecasewheretheyhadnochoiceandonlyAwasavailable;eventhoughinbothcasespersonXendsupwithA(Sen,1992).

TheBuildingBlocksoftheCapabilityApproach

InCommoditiesandCapabilities(Sen,1985,pp.7-9),Senusesaseriesofsimpleequationstoformallysetouttherelationshipbetweenacommodityset,acapabilitysetandachievedfunctionings.Oneissuewiththestaticequationapproachisthatthedynamicnatureofcapabilitiesisnotrecognised.Analternativeapproachistouseaseriesofequationsoradiagram.Figure1presentsonewayofrepresentingthecapabilityapproachasaflowdiagram.Thetypicalstartingpointistoconsideranindividual’s‘commodityset’whichismadeupofresourcesintheformofgoodsandservices(someofwhichcannotbetradedintheconventionalsense).Thecommoditysetisnotrandomlygeneratedasitisaffectedbyendowments(suchasinnateability)andentitlements(whichcanbesetthroughlegislationandshapedbysocialandculturalnormswhichmay,forexample,setentitlementswithinfamiliesandcommunities).Agivencommoditysetcanbeconvertedintoacapabilitysetwitharangeoffactorsinfluencingtheconversionrate(personal,socialandenvironmental).

Fromthesubstantiveopportunitiesrepresentedbyagivencapabilityset,individualschoose/achieveanobservedsetoffunctions(functionings)–whatindividualsactuallydoandare(physicallysecure,well-nourished,ingoodhealth,enjoyingasociallife,etc.).Choiceandagencycanbecurtailed,narrowingthepossiblesetof“beings”and“doings”thatanindividualcanachievefromanygivencapabilityset.Themodelisdynamicsothatinthenexttimeperiod(t=2)achievedfunctioningsintheinitialperiodcandirectlyaffecttheavailablecommodityset(forexample,beingfinanciallysecure,achievinghighesteem,beingingoodhealth).

Notethatthisisastylizedrepresentationanditispossibleforsomecapabilitiestobeinthesetwithouttheneedforcommodities–forexample,behaviourofotherscanaffectthecapabilitytoachievehighesteem;illnessmyspreadfromonepersontoanother.

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Figure1:StylizedDynamicModeloftheCapabilityApproachBuildingBlocks

Althoughthecapabilityapproachisinherentlyanassessmentofindividualwell-being,anexpandingbodyofliteratureaddressestherolethatcollectiveactioncanplayinprocessesofcapabilityexpansion.Socialmovements,humanrightscampaigns,socialactiontopromotegroupidentity,recognitionandequality,includinggenderequalityandindigenouspeople’sstruggles,civilsocietyandNGOcampaigns,grass-rootsactionandself-helpinitiativescanbecriticalinfluencesonthecapabilitiesthataresecuredforindividualsandgroups.Aswehaveshown,thecapabilityapproachputsemphasisontheconceptofagencyaswellasthatofwell-being,andprocessesofcapabilityexpansionoftenoccurwhendisadvantagedpeoplecometogetherandactasagroup.Indeed,insomecontexts,collectivegroupactionofthistypemaybenecessaryinordertosecureandexpandcapabilities(Ibrahim2006,2017,Robeyns2017a,pp.99-103).

OperationalisingtheCapabilityApproach

OneofthemainchallengesinrelationtooperationalisingthecapabilityapproachisthatthereisnodefinitivelistofcapabilitiesandSengoestosomelengthexplainingwhyafixedlistisnotdesirable(Sen,2004).However,hedoesgivesomeguidanceonhowcapabilitylistsshouldbederivedandinhismanywritingshemakesreferencetoanumberofkeycapabilitieswhichheclearlyconsidersarevitalforwell-being(beingwell-nourished,physicallysecure,mobile,etc.).Othershaveattemptedtoconstructafixedlistofcapabilities.OneofthebestknownisNussbaum’swhoproposesaphilosophically-derivedcapabilitylistthatiscomprehensiveinthesensethatitaimstocaptureallcentralandvaluablecapabilities(Nussbaum,2003).

Thereisalsoawidedebateonwhethercapabilitiescanbemeasured(see,forexample,Sugden,1993),withmoreagreementonthefeasibilitytomeasure‘functionings’(seeBurchardtandVizard(2011)foradiscussionofthisliterature).Althoughthesechallengeswereinitiallyseenasbarriers

FUNCTIONINGSachieved functions (what you actually do or are)

AGENCY AND CHOICE

CAPABILITY SETreal opportunities in terms of what you can do or be

Entitlements Endowments

CONVERSION FACTORS

(t=2)COMMODITY SETresources (t=1)

Introduction

11

tooperationalisation,considerableprogresshasbeenmadeandtherearenowexamplesofsuccessfulpracticalapplications(seeDang(2014)forarecentreviewofquantitativeapplications,orComimetal.,2010).

ExamplesoflargescaleoperationalisationofthecapabilityapproachincludetheUnitedNations’HumanDevelopmentIndex(HDI)whichwasdesignedtocapturecapabilitiesinthreedomains(alongandhealthylife,beingknowledgeableandhavingadecentstandardofliving).Theindexwascreatedtoemphasizethatpeopleandtheircapabilitiesshouldbetheultimatecriteriaforassessingthedevelopmentofacountry,noteconomicgrowthalone(UNDP,1990).TheHDIhasbeenusedasabasisforanalysisintheUN’sannualHumanDevelopmentReportssincethe1990sandfrom2010aninequality-adjustedHumanDevelopmentIndex(IHDI)hasbeenpublished.

AnotherexampleistheEqualityMeasurementFramework(EMF).TheEMFisaframeworkforequalitymonitoring(seeBurchardtandVizard,2011)whichhasbeenextendedtocoverchildren(Cleryetal.,2014)andinthecontextofhumanrights(Vizard,2012).TheframeworkshavebeenusedbytheBritishEqualityandHumanRightsCommissionasabasisforequalityandhumanrightsmonitoring(Alkireetal(2009),Candleretal(2011),EHRC(2011,2015),VizardandSpeed(2015))andhavenowbeenreplacedbyasingleframework(EHRC,2017).TheEMFwasdevelopedthroughfirstidentifyinga‘minimumcore’capabilitylistderivedfromtheinternationalhumanrightsframework.Thiswasfollowedbyadeliberativeexercisetorefine,expandandorientatethelist.

Inadditiontothelargescaleexamples,researchershavesuccessfullyoperationalisedthecapabilityapproachtoassesswell-being.InterestedreaderscouldusefullystartbyexploringarticlespublishedintheJournalofHumanDevelopmentandCapabilities.

ApplyingtheCapabilityApproachtomeasuringcapability-inequality

Afurtherchallengewefaceisthatwewanttodesignacapability-inequalityframeworkwhileSen’scapabilityapproachhasbeenmainlyusedtomeasurecapability-deprivation;whetherornotindividualsachievebasiccapabilitiesorminimumfunctioningandhowratesdifferbetweenpopulationgroups,suchasdifferencesbetweenmenandwomen.Thesearesometimesreferredtoas‘horizontalinequality’andStewart(2016)providesausefuldiscussionontheimportanceofanalysingandaddressinghorizontalinequalities,andKabeer(2016)discussesthechallengesofanalysingintersectinginequalities.Weareconcernedwiththeseformsofinequalitybutwearealsointerestedinthevarianceincapabilities,suchasdistinguishingbetweenpeoplewhohavegreaterandlessercapabilitytoinfluenceotherpeople,concentrationofproductiveresources,orsocialgradientsinlifeexpectancy,orunequalaccesstothetopjobs,whichcanbethoughtofasformsof‘verticalinequality’.

Thisisnotthefirsttimethatexpertshaveconsideredhowthecapabilityapproachcanbeusedtoassessinequality.Robeyns(2017b)makesthecasethatthecapabilityapproachcanbeusedtoidentify“toomuch”aswellas“toolittle”.Whereindividualshavemoreresourcesthanareneeded,Robeynsoutlinesthemoralpositionthattheseindividualshave“toomuch”.Concentrationofincomeandwealthcanhaveanegativebearingonotherindividuals’capabilities;forexample,wheremoney‘buys’power,orlimitstheopportunitiesofothers.Robeyns(2017a)suggeststhatitispossibletoconceptualisea“richesline”toidentify“therich”,tocomplementthewell-establishedconceptofapovertyline.BurchardtandHickarguethatthecapabilityapproachcouldbeemployedtoprovidearicherunderstandingofinequality,andof‘advantage’inparticular,noting

https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/publication-download/measurement-framework-equality-and-human-rights

Introduction

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that“Sen’searlyessay[Sen,1979]onthecapabilityapproachwasentitled‘Equalityofwhat?’,not‘Povertyofwhat?’,yetmuchofwhatfollowed,includingcontributionsbySenhimself,focusedontheextenttowhichpeopleareabletoenjoybasiccapabilities”(BurchardtandHick,2017,p.4).

Thereisnoreasonwhyattentionshouldberestrictedtoexaminingdisadvantageasthesameassessmentofwell-beingcanbeappliedacrossanydistribution.BurchardtandHick(2017)explainhowtheconceptofcapability-inequalitycanberenderedconsistentwiththenatureofinequalityaswetendtounderstandit,extendingbeyondunequaldistributionsofincomeandwealthtoinequalitiesinthecapabilitiesenjoyedacrossarangeofcriticalareasoflife.Othershavealsomadethecasethatthecapabilityapproachcanbeusedtoexploreinequalities.Forexample,Therborn(2013)drawsinspirationfromthecapabilityapproachtomakethecasethatweshouldbeconcernedwithmorethaneconomicinequalitiesandthatinequalitiesbetweenandwithingroupscan(andhave)variouslymovedinoppositedirectionsacrosstimeandplace,andbyhorizontalandverticaldimensions.

Afocusoncapability-inequalityallowsustoanalyseandcovercertaindimensionsthatafocusoncapability-povertydoesnot.Forexample,lackofpoweramongtheleastwell-offcansignalaformofcapability-povertybutconcentrationofpoweramongasmallelitewouldbemissedwithsuchafocus.Inaddition,wideningtheconceptofcapabilitytoincludeinequalityandadvantageintroducesthepossibilitythatthesetofcapabilitiescouldincludethosethatharmotherpeople,particularlytheabilitytoexercisecontroloverothers.Forexample,advantagecanbesecuredthroughexploitingotherpeople’slabour,manipulationofpoliticalandlegalsystemsandthroughthreatsofviolence.SomehavearguedthatcapabilitiesthatharmothersdonotbelonginthesetbutSenrejectsthenotionthatcapabilitiesarebydefinitiongoodcapabilities,oronlythosethatarenotharmfultoothers(Sen,2009).

Fromapracticalpointofview,empiricalmeasurementofcapability-inequalityratherthancapability-povertythrowsupadditionalchallenges.Measuresofeconomicinequality(forexample,earnings,income,wealth,andconsumption)arenowwell-established,withrecogniseddifferencesinthestrengthsandweaknessesofeachinequalitymeasure,andthetypesofinequalitythattheycapture.Themeasurementofinequalityofnon-economicdimensionsofwell-beingislessdevelopedalthoughadvancesarebeingmade(see,forexample,CowellandFlachaire,2017)andmeasuresarenowfairlywelldevelopedforeducationandhealth.Thisisanactiveareaofresearchandweexpectsignificantadvancestobemadeinthenearfuture.

KeyfeaturesoftheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework

TheMultidimensionalInequalityFrameworkisstructuredaroundsevenlifedomains,reflectingcorecapabilitiescriticaltowell-being.Eachdomainisdescribedbyashort-titleandasub-titlewhichprovidesabitmoreinformationonthecapabilitiescoveredineachdomain(Table1).FulldetailsoftheMIFcanbefoundinthefinalpartofthispaper.Inthissectionwedescribethemainfeaturesandhowtheyrelatetothetheoreticalfoundation.

Introduction

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Table1:DomainsoftheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework

Domain Shorttitle Sub-titleDomain1 Lifeandhealth Inequalityinthecapabilitytobealiveandtolivea

healthylifeDomain2 Physicalandlegalsecurity Inequalityinthecapabilitytoliveinphysicalsafety

andlegalsecurityDomain3 Educationandlearning Inequalityinthecapabilitytobeknowledgeable,to

understandandreason,andtohavetheskillstoparticipateinsociety

Domain4 Financialsecurityanddignifiedwork

Inequalityinthecapabilitytoachievefinancialindependenceandsecurity,enjoydignifiedandfairwork,andrecognitionofunpaidworkandcare

Domain5 Comfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions

Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoycomfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions

Domain6 Participation,influenceandvoice

Inequalityinthecapabilitytoparticipateindecision-making,haveavoiceandinfluence

Domain7 Individual,familyandsociallife

Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoyindividual,familyandsociallife,toexpressyourselfandtohaveself-respect

TheselectionofdomainswasinformeddirectlybydedicatedresearchduringthecourseofthisprojectwhichbuiltonworkundertakeninthedevelopmentoftheEMF(whichhasitsrootsintheinternationalhumanrightsframework),andtookintoaccountthepracticalneedsofOxfam.Withineachofthedomainsaseriesofsub-domainshavebeenidentifiedandwithineachsub-domain,thereareanumberofinequalityindicatorsandinequalitymeasureswhichcanbeusedtomeasureandmonitormultidimensionalinequality.TheMIFisflexibleandeasilyadaptedtodifferentcontext,inkeepingwithSen’sviewthatanycapabilitylistshouldnotbedefinitivebutadaptedtodifferentcontextanduses.Itisnotenvisagedthatallofthemeasureswillbeapplicableineverycountrysetting.Thetoolkits,whichareavailableintheonlineversion,provideadviceandtipsonhowtheMIFcanbemodifiedfordifferentsettings(aprocesswerefertoas“Countrification”).

Theselectionofsub-domains,inequalityindicatorsandinequalitymeasuresreflectkeyaspectsofcapability-inequalitythattheMIFisdesignedtocapture.Themeasuresarepredominatelyindividuals’achievedoutcomes(functionings)ratherthanthefullsetofsubstantiveopportunities(capabilities)thatindividualswereabletochoosebetween;althoughsomemeasuresareincludedtotrytoilluminatecriticalaspectsofcapability-inequalities.Theselectionincludesinequalitymeasuresthathelptoidentify:

(a)wherechoicehasbeenconstrained;

(b)evidenceofharmfulcapabilitiesthatcanconstrainthechoiceofothers;

(c)autonomy;

(d)treatmentbyothers;

(e)thenotionthatitispossibletohavetoomuchaswellastoolittle.

Introduction

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AnumberofdifferenttypesofinequalityarecapturedintheMIF.Measuresofinequalitywithineachdomainincludeacombinationof:differencesinprevalenceofadvantageanddisadvantagebetweengroups(forexample,victimsofviolencebygenderorpercentageofprivatelyeducatedinthetopprofessions);socio-economicgradients(forexample,healthylifeexpectancybysocialclassoreducationalattainmentbyfamilyincome);ordinalinequalitymeasureswhereoutcomesareratedonanordinalscale(forexample,lifesatisfactionorsubjectivegeneralhealthstatus);dispersionmeasures(relativeandabsoluteincomeinequalityorinequalityinlifeexpectancy);measuresofconcentration(top1%shareofprivatewealthholdings).Theindividualoutcomemeasuresincludesubjectiveaswellasobjectivemeasuresofinequality,includingmeasuresofeconomicresourcesandsubjectivewell-being.Asshownearlier,comparisonbetweensubjectiveandobjectivemeasurescanhelptohighlightwherecapabilitieshavebeenconstrained.

Intheonlineversion,themeasuresareaccompaniedbytailoredadviceonwhichbreakdownsshouldbeconsideredtomeasuredifferencesbetweengroups.Ingeneralterms,wesuggestthat,whereinformationisavailable,measuresshouldbebrokendownbygender,agegroup,socialclass/caste,ethnicgroupanddisabilitystatus.

Driversandpolicysolutions

Inthissectionwebrieflydescribetheworkwehavebeendoingonidentifyingmaindrivercategoriesandcandidatepolicies.Thedetailisnotpresentedherebutisavailableonourwebsites.AnotheroriginalfeatureoftheMIFisthatwehaveoperationalisedwhatarereferredtoas‘conversionfactors’inthecapabilityapproach,toguidetheidentificationofinequalitydriversineachdomain.Thesearefactorswhichcanincreaseinequalitiesbyconstrainingcapabilitiesforsomeindividualsorgroupsandenhancingandexpandingcapabilitiesforothers.Forexample,socialandculturalnormswhichfavourboy’seducationovergirl’scandriveinequalitiesineducationattainmentbetweenmenandwomen,andcontributetogenderinequalitiesinotherdomainssuchashealth,financialindependenceandlegalsecurity.Corruptionmaydriveinequalitiesinlegalsecurity,politicalinfluenceandfinancialsecurity.Inadequateinvestmentsinsecurityinpoorneighbourhoodscandriveinequalitiesinphysicalsecurityandpersonalsafety.Weakdesignandimplementationofinstitutionalandpolicyframeworkscanleadtodiscriminationanddriveinequalitiesinemployment,self-confidenceandself-esteem,physicalsecurity,educationandhealth.Weaklabourmarketinstitutionscandrivewageinequalityleadingtohighratesofpayformanagersandexecutivesandextremelowpayforlowskilledworkers.

Theidentificationofmaindrivercategoriesisprovidedasaguideandsupportedbyasetofguidingquestionsforanalysisandotherresourcesforeachcategory.ThefirststepshouldalwaysbetoapplytheMIF,measureandanalyseinequalitieswithinyourcountryorregion.Theidentificationofinequalitydriverscanbeapproachedthroughavarietyofmethodsusingthemaindrivercategoriesandguidingquestionsasameansto:1)conductevidencereview;2)conductorcommissionnewresearch;3)organisebrainstormingsessionsandroundtableswithexperts.Policymakersandpoliticalactorscanbeincludedinthisprocesstobuildconsensusandpromotebuy-in.Toaidthisprocess,guidingquestionsareaccompaniedbyaselectionofdriverindicatorswhichcanalsobeusedtoassistwiththeidentificationofdrivers.

Followingtheidentificationofdrivers,thenextstepisthecriticalstageoffindingpolicysolutions.Foreachofthemaindrivercategoriesaselectionofcandidatepolicieshavebeensuggested.ThisinformationisavailableintheonlineversionoftheMIF.

Introduction

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References

Alkire,S.,andFoster,J.E.(2011).‘Understandingsandmisunderstandingsofmultidimensionalpovertymeasurement’,JournalofEconomicInequality,9,289-314.

Alkire,S.,Bastagli,F.,Burchardt,T.,Clark,D.,Holder,H.,Ibrahim,S.,Munoz,M.,Terrazas,P.,Tsang,T.,andVizard,P.(2009)DevelopingtheEqualityMeasurementFramework:selectingtheindicators,EqualityandHumanRightsCommission,https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/equality-measurement-framework

Atkinson,A.B.(2015).Inequality:Whatcanbedone?Cambridge,Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress.

Brandolini,A.,andD'Alessio,G.(1998).‘Measuringwell-beinginthefunctioningspace’,Bancad'ItaliaRome.

Burchardt,T.andHick,R.(2017).‘InequalityandtheCapabilityApproach’,CASEpaper201,CentreforAnalysisofSocialExclusion,LondonSchoolofEconomics.

Burchardt,T.andVizard,P.(2011).‘‘Operationalizing’theCapabilityApproachasaBasisforEqualityandHumanRightsMonitoringinTwenty-first-centuryBritain’,JournalofHumanDevelopmentandCapabilities,12(1):91-119.

Candler,J.,Holder,H.,HosaliS.,Payne,A.M.,Tsang,T.,andVizard,P.(2011).TheHumanRightsMeasurementFramework:PrototypePanels,IndicatorSetandEvidenceBase,EHRCResearchreport81.

Chiappero-Martinetti,E.andSalardi,P.(2008).‘Well-beingprocessandconversionfactors:anestimation’HDCP-IRCWorkingPaperSeries03/2008HumanDevelopment,CapabilityandPovertyInternationalResearchCentre.

ClearyC.,TsangT.,andVizardP.(2014).‘TheChildren’sMeasurementFramework:anewindicator-basedtoolformonitoringchildren’sequalityandhumanrights’,ChildIndicatorsResearch,7(2):321–349.

Comim,F.,Qizilbash,M.,andAlkire,S.(2010).TheCapabilityApproach:Concepts,MeasuresandApplications,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Cowell,F.A.,andFlachaire,E.(2017).‘InequalitywithOrdinalData’,Economica,84,290-321.

Dang,A.(2014).‘AmartyaSen'sCapabilityApproach:AFrameworkforWell-BeingEvaluationandPolicyAnalysis?’,ReviewofSocialEconomy,72(4):460-484,DOI:10.1080/00346764.2014.958903

EHRC[EqualityandHumanRightsCommission](2011).HowfairisBritain?Equality,humanrightsandgoodrelationsin2010:TheFirstTriennialReview.London:EqualityandHumanRightsCommission.

EHRC[EqualityandHumanRightsCommission](2015).IsBritainfairer?Thestateofequalityandhumanrights2015.London:TheStationeryOffice.

EHRC[EqualityandHumanRightsCommission](2017).MeasurementFrameworkforEqualityandHumanRights,https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/publication-download/measurement-framework-equality-and-human-rights


https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/equality-measurement-15


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Ibrahim,S.(2006).‘FromIndividualtoCollectiveCapabilities:TheCapabilityApproachasaConceptualFrameworkforSelf-help’,JournalofHumanDevelopment,7(3):397-416,DOI:10.1080/14649880600815982.

IbrahimS.(2017).‘HowtoBuildCollectiveCapabilities:The3C-ModelforGrassroots-LedDevelopment’,JournalofHumanDevelopmentandCapabilities,18(2):197-222,DOI:10.1080/19452829.2016.1270918.

IMF[InternationalMonetaryFund](2017).IMFFiscalMonitor:TacklingInequality,InternationalMonetaryFund,http://www.imf.org/en/Publications/FM/Issues/2017/10/05/fiscal-monitor-october-2017

Kabeer,N.(2016).‘Leavingnoonebehind:thechallengeofintersectinginequalities’,inISSC,IDSandUNESCO,WorldSocialScienceReport2016,ChallengingInequalities:PathwaystoaJustWorld,UNESCOPublishing,Paris.

Niño-Zarazña,M.,Roope,L.,andTarp,F.(2016).‘Globalinequality:relativelylower,absolutelyhigher’,ReviewofIncomeandWealth,63(4):661-684.

Nolan,B.,Salverda,W.,Checchi,D.,Marx,I.,McKnight,A.,Tóth,I.G.,andvandeWerfhorst,H.G.(eds)(2014).ChangingInequalitiesandSocietalImpactsinRichCountries:ThirtyCountries’Experiences.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Nussbaum,M.C.(2003).‘Capabilitiesasfundamentalentitlements:Senandglobaljustice’,FeministEconomics,9(2-3):33-59.

OECD[OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment](2015).InItTogether:WhyLessInequalityBenefitsAll,Paris:OECDPublishing.

OECD[OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment](2008).Growingunequal?IncomedistributionandpovertyinOECDcountries.Paris:OECDPublishing.

Oxfam(2016).AnEconomyforthe1%:Howprivilegeandpowerintheeconomydriveextremeinequalityandhowthiscanbestopped.OxfamBriefingPaper210.Availableat:https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/file_attachments/bp210-economy-one-percent-tax-havens-180116-en_0.pdf

Oxfam(2014).Evenitup:Timetoendextremeinequality.Availableat:https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/file_attachments/cr-even-it-up-extreme-inequality-291014-en.pdf

Piketty,T.(2014).Capitalinthetwenty-firstcentury.Cambridge,MA:TheBelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress.

Robeyns,I.(2017a).Wellbeing,FreedomandSocialJustice:TheCapabilityApproachRe-Examined.https://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/682/

Robeyns,I.(2017b).‘HavingTooMuch’,inJ.KnightandM.Schwartzberg(eds.)NOMOSLVI:Wealth.YearbookoftheAmericanSocietyforPoliticalandLegalPhilosophy,NewYorkUniversityPress.

http://www.imf.org/en/Publications/FM/Issues/2017/10/05/fiscal-monitor-october-16

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Salverda,W.,Nolan,B.,Checchi,D.,Marx,I.,McKnight,A.,Tóth,I.G.,andH.G.vandeWerfhorst(eds)(2014).ChangingInequalitiesandSocietalImpactsinRichCountries:AnalyticalandComparativePerspectives.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Sen,A.K.(1979).‘EqualityofWhat?’TheTannerLectureonHumanValues,deliveredatStanfordUniversity.

Sen,A.K.(1985).CommoditiesandCapabilities,North-Holland,Amsterdam.

Sen,A.K.(1987).‘TheStandardofLiving’inG.Hawthorn(ed),TheStandardofLiving,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Sen,A.K.(1992).InequalityReexamined,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Sen,A.K.(1993).‘CapabilityandWell-being’,inNussbaum,M.andSen,A.(ed)TheQualityofLife,Oxford:ClarendonPress.

Sen,A.K.(1999).DevelopmentAsFreedom,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Sen,A.K.(2004).‘Capabilities,Lists,andPublicReason:ContinuingtheConversation’,FeministEconomics,10(3):77–80.

Sen,A.K.(2009).TheIdeaofJustice,London:AllenLane.

Stewart,F.(2016).‘Horizontalinequalities’,inISSC,IDSandUNESCO,WorldSocialScienceReport2016,ChallengingInequalities:PathwaystoaJustWorld,UNESCOPublishing,Paris.

Stiglitz,J.(2012).Thepriceofinequality:howtoday’sdividedsocietyendangersourfuture,NewYork:W.W.NortonandCo.

Sugden,R.(1993).‘Welfare,Resources,andCapabilities:AReviewofInequalityReexaminedbyAmartyaSen’,JournalofEconomicLiterature,31,194762.

Therborn,G.(2013).TheKillingFieldsofInequality,Cambridge:PolityPress.

UNDP[UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme](1990).HumanDevelopmentReport1990:ConceptandMeasurementofHumanDevelopment,UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme,http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1990

Vizard,P.(2012).'EvaluatingComplianceusingQuantitativeMethodsandIndicators:LessonsfromtheHumanRightsMeasurementFramework',NordicJournalofHumanRightsSpecialIssue-QuantifyingHumanRights,3(12):30.

Vizard,P.andSpeed,L.(2015).‘ExaminingmultidimensionalinequalityanddeprivationinBritainusingthecapabilityapproach’,SpecialissueonCapabilityApproachandMultidimensionalWell-beinginHigh-incomeCountries,ForumforSocialEconomics,45(2-3):139-169.

WorldBank(2016).PovertyandSharedProsperity2016:TakingonInequality,Washington:WorldBankPublications.https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0958-3_ch1

http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1990

https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0958-3_ch1

Domain1:Lifeandhealth

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Domain1.Lifeandhealth:Inequalityinthecapabilitytobealiveandtoliveahealthylife

Thelifeandhealthdomaincoversthecapabilitytobealive,toenjoylongevityandavoidprematuredeath.Inequalitymeasurescapturedifferencesinmortalityriskwhichmaybeduetodifferencesinexposuretodangeroussituations,lifestylefactorsanddifferencesinmedicaltreatment.Italsocaptureskeyhealthinequalitiesacrossphysicalandmentalhealthoutcomes.

Inrelationtoinequalityinprematuredeath,thisdomaincoversinstancesofdeathfromviolationsandinfringementsofpeople’ssafetyandsecuritybyindividuals,organisationsandthestate.Itincludesdeathfromnon-naturalcausesininstitutions(policecustody,prisons,carehomes,etc.)andasaresultofwar,conflictandprotest.Italsoincludesmeasuresthatcaptureunequalexposuretodeathasaresultofnaturaldisasters,climatechangeandotherenvironmentalfactors.

Oneofthemaincausesofprematuredeathisdisease.Inequalitiesexistduetodifferencesinexposure,lifestylefactorsanddifferencesinmedicaltreatment.Measuresareincludedforcommunicableandnon-communicablediseasemortality,withdifferencesinmortalityratescomputedacrosspopulationsub-groups.

Sub-domains:

1.A:Avoidprematuremortalitythroughdisease,neglect,injuryorsuicide

1.B:Beprotectedfrombeingkilledormurdered

1.C:Beprotectedfromnaturaldisastersandnon-naturalcausesofmortality

1.D:Achievethehighestpossiblestandardofgeneralhealth

1.E:Enjoygoodmentalhealth

1.F:Havegoodsexualandreproductivehealth


19

Forcedmigrationputssomepeopleatmuchgreaterriskofmortalityduringperiodsofflightandtransit.Thefailureofthestateinprotectingasylumseekers,refugeesandothersfacingforcedmigration(dueto,forexample,flood,famine,conflictorotherdisasters)canputsomeindividualsatmuchgreaterriskofmortality.Theinternationalcommunityhasaroletoplayhereandmanyactorshavearesponsibilityforkeepingsuchindividualssafe.

Gang-relatedhomicides,deathsresultingfrom‘terrorist’activityandsuspecteddeathsreportedas‘disappearances’arealsoincludedinthisdomain.AllegationsdatacollectedbyNGOscanbeusedtosupplementorreplaceofficialstatisticsorestimatessurveydatawhereofficialsourcesareknowntobeunreliable.

Thereareanumberofmeasuresdesignedtopick-upkeygenderinequalities:maternalmortality,livebirths,suicide,homicideanddomestichomicide.Fromaninequalityperspectivethereareimportantfactorsaffectingdifferencesbetweenmenandwomen:“Genderbiasesinpower,resources,entitlements,normsandvalues,andthewayinwhichorganizationsarestructuredandprogrammesarerundamagethehealthofmillionsofgirlsandwomen.Thepositionofwomeninsocietyisalsoassociatedwithchildhealthandsurvival–ofboysandgirls.”(WHO,2008).

Thehealthoutcomesincludedinthisdomainmakereferencetokeycapabilitiesrelatedtolivingalongandhealthylife.Theseincludeoverallsummarymeasuresofhealthylifeexpectancy,objectiveandsubjectivemeasuresofhealthstatus.Thecapabilitytoliveahealthylifeisaffectedbybiological,physicalandmentalfactors,economicresourcesandsocialconditionsintheenvironment,andtheirinteraction(Venkatapuram,2011).Unequaldistributionsofthesefactorsplayanimportantroleinshapinghealthinequalities(Marmot,2016).Peopleneedtobenefitequallyfromaccesstoqualityhealthservices,medicaladvancesinthetreatmentofdisease,shouldtheneedarise,andbeprotectedfromcommunicablediseases.Womenneedtoreceivetherighttreatmentandprotectionduringpregnancy,childbirthandinthepost-natalperiod.Thetreatmentandprotectionofchildren,particularlyduringthefirstfiveyearsoflife,isacriticalelement.

Medicaladvanceshavemadeconsiderableprogressinimprovinghealthoutcomesthroughthepreventionandtreatmentofdiseasesandthroughadvancesintraumaandneonatalcare.Thishascontributedtoincreasesinaveragelifeexpectancyinmanycountriesbuttheseadditionalyearsoflifearenotalwayshealthyandinequalitiesinhealthoutcomesremainhigh(McKnightandCowell,2014).Inaddition,thecostofmedicaladvancesandnewtreatmentsandtechnologiesputtheseoutofthereachofmany;contributingfurthertohealthinequalities.Also,someaspectsofhealth(forexample,mentalhealth)havenotreceivedthesamelevelofattentionorinvestmentandnewtypesofepidemic,suchasobesity,areontherise.

TheWorldHealthOrganisation(WHO)viewshealthinequitiesasavoidableinequalitiesinhealthbetweengroupsofpeoplewithinandbetweencountries.“Theseinequitiesarisefrominequalitieswithinandbetweensocieties.Socialandeconomicconditionsandtheireffectsonpeople’slivesdeterminetheirriskofillnessandtheactionstakentopreventthembecomingillortreatillnesswhenitoccurs.”(WHO,2008).


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Referencesandselectedreadings

Bartley,M.(2016).HealthInequality:AnIntroductiontoConcepts,TheoriesandMethods,PolityPress.

Marmot,M.(2016).TheHealthGap:TheChallengeofanUnequalWorld,Bloomsbury.

McKnight,A.andCowell,F.(2014)‘SocialImpacts:Health,HousingandIntergenerationalMobility’inSalverda,W.,Nolan,B.,Checchi,D.,Marx,I.,McKnight,A.,Tóth,I.G.,andH.G.vandeWerfhorst(eds)(2014)ChangingInequalitiesandSocietalImpactsinRichCountries:AnalyticalandComparativePerspectives,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Spinakis,A.,Anastasiou,G.,Panousis,V.,Spiliopoulos,K.,Palaiologou,S.,andYfantopoulos,J.(2011).ExpertReviewandProposalsforMeasurementofHealthInequalitiesintheEuropeanUnion–FullReport.Luxembourg:EuropeanCommissionDirectorateGeneralforHealthandConsumers.

Venkatapuram,S.(2011).HealthJustice:AnArgumentfromtheCapabilitiesApproach,PolityPress.

WHO(2013).HandbookonHealthInequalityMonitoringwithaspecialfocusonlow-andmiddle-incomecountries.Luxembourg.

Measurementconsiderations

Manyoftheinequalitymeasuresinthisdomaincompareincidenceratesbetweenpopulationsub-groups.Forexample,livebirthsbygender,homicideratesbyagegroup,prevalenceofkeydiseases(suchasmalaria)bysexandage,ratesofobesitybysocio-economicgroup.Somemeasureordinalinequalitysuchasinequalityinself-reportedcurrenthealthstatus,andsomemeasureinequalityincontinuousvariablessuchasinequalityinmentalhealthscoreandinequalityinlifeexpectancy.

Thereisgenerallygoodqualitydataavailablefortheinequalitymeasuresincludedinthisdomain.ThisishelpedthroughanoverlapwithindicatorsthatformpartofUNSDGmonitoring.ThemappingbetweentheUNSDGindicatorsandMIFinequalitymeasurescanbefoundintheonlineversionoftheMIF.Inaddition,theworkoftheWHOhasalsohelpedtofacilitateaccesstogoodqualitydataonhealthandlifeinequalities.


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Domain1:Sub-domains,indicatorsandmeasures

Sub-domain1.A:Avoidprematuremortalitythroughdisease,neglect,injuryorsuicide

Indicator1.1:Inequalityinlifeexpectancy

Measure1.1.1:Livebirthsbygender

Measure1.1.2:Perinatal,infantandunder5mortalityrates

Measure1.1.3:Inequalityinage-mortalityrates

Measure1.1.4:Periodlifeexpectancyatbirth,andages20,65and80

Indicator1.2:Specific-causemortalityrates

Measure1.2.1:Mortalityratesduetothetop5communicablediseases(countryspecific–e.g.influenza,HIV,malaria,tuberculosis,hepatitis)

Measure1.2.2:Mortalityratesduetothetop5non-communicablediseases(countryspecific–e.g.cardiovasculardisease,cancer,diabetes,chronicrespiratorydisease,hypertension,diseaserelatedtodietandnutrition)

Measure1.2.3:Maternalmortalityratio-thenumberofmaternaldeathsduringayearper100,000livebirths

Measure1.2.4:Mortalityrateattributedtounsafewater,unsafesanitationandlackofhygiene

Measure1.2.5:Age-standardizeddeathrateattributabletoairpollution(per100,000)

Measure1.2.6:Deathratedueto:(a)roadtrafficaccidentinjuries;(b)otherunintentionalinjuries

Measure1.2.7:Suicidemortalityrate

Sub-domain1.B:Beprotectedfrombeingkilledormurdered

Indicator1.3:Homicide

Measure1.3.1:Homiciderate

Measure1.3.2:Domestichomiciderate(withseparatereportingofrelationshipofvictimtoprincipalsuspect,includingpartnerhomicide)

Measure1.3.3:Raciallymotivated,religiouslymotivatedandhomophobichomiciderate


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Sub-domain1.C:Beprotectedfromnaturaldisastersandnon-naturalcausesofmortality

Indicator1.4:Deathfromnaturaldisasters

Measure1.5.1:Deathsfromnaturaldisasters–earthquakes;volcaniceruptions;flood;fire;famine;draught;hurricane(typhoon/cyclone)

Indicator1.5:Deathratesfromnon-naturalcausesofmortality

Measure1.5.1:Deathsfromnon-naturalcausesduringorfollowingpolicecustody

Measure1.5.2:Deathsinprisons:(a)fromnon-naturalcauses;(b)self-inflicted

Measure1.5.3:Deathsfromnon-naturalcausesforpeopleresidentinhealthorsocialcareestablishments

Measure1.5.4:Deathsfromtortureandpoliticaloppression(Guidance–oktouseallegationsdatacollectedbyNGOs)

Measure1.5.5:Civiliandeathsasaresultofwar,conflict,unrestandprotest(Guidance-includesdisappearances–oktouseallegationsdatacollectedbyNGOs)

Sub-domain1.D:Achievethehighestpossiblestandardofgeneralhealth

Indicator1.6:Subjectiveevaluationofcurrenthealthstatusandtreatment

Measure1.6.1:Percentagewhoreportpoorcurrenthealthstatus

Measure1.6.2:Inequalityinself-reportedcurrenthealthstatus

Measure1.6.3:Percentagewhoaretreatedwithdignityandrespectinhealthtreatment

Indicator1.7:Prevalenceofkeydiseasesassociatedwithdeprivationandlowincome

Measure1.7.1:Prevalenceofnewinfectionsamonguninfectedpopulation,bysex,ageandkeypopulations:

(a)NumberofnewHIVinfectionsper1,000uninfectedpopulation;(b)Tuberculosisincidenceper100,000population;(c)Malariaincidenceper1,000population;(d)HepatitisBincidenceper100,000population

Measure1.7.2:Percentagerequiringinterventionsagainstneglectedtropicaldiseases

Indicator1.8:Healthylife

Measure1.8.1:Inequalityinhealthylifeexpectancy

Measure1.8.2:Prevalenceof:(a)Stuntinginyoungchildren;(b)undernourishment

Measure1.8.3:Ratesofobesity/PrevalenceofTypeIIdiabetes

Measure1.8.4:Percentagediagnosedwitheatingdisorders


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Measure1.8.5:Ratesof:(a)alcoholism;(b)drugaddiction;(c)tobaccouse

Measure1.8.6:Prevalenceofasthma

Measure1.8.7:Percentagewhoreportparticipationinsport/physicalactivityonregularbasis

Indicator1.9:Limitingillnessanddisability

Measure1.9.1:Percentagewhoreportalong-standinghealthproblemordisabilitythatsubstantiallylimitstheirabilitytocarryoutnormalday-to-dayactivities

Sub-domain1.E:Enjoygoodmentalhealth

Indicator1.10:Mentalhealth

Measure1.10.1:Percentagewhoreportpoormentalhealthandwell-being

Measure1.10.2:Inequalityinmentalhealthscore

Sub-domain1.F:Havegoodsexualandreproductivehealth

Indicator1.11:Sexualandreproductivehealth

Measure1.11.1:Ratesofsexuallytransmittedinfections

Measure1.11.2:Percentageofwomenwithunmetneedforfamilyplanning

Measure1.11.3:Percentageofwomenwhohavegivenbirthinthelastfiveyearshavingdeliveryattendedbyaqualifiedhealthprofessional

Measure1.11.4:Percentageofwomenwhohavegivenbirthinthelastfiveyearswhoweregiventhechoiceofwheretogivebirthandbirthingmethod

Measure1.11.5:Percentageofwomeninthelastfiveyearswhohaveundergoneanunofficial,unregulatedabortion(agestandardisedrateper1,000womenaged15-44)

Domain2:Physicalandlegalsecurity

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Domain2.Physicalandlegalsecurity:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoliveinphysicalsafetyandlegalsecurity

Thisdomaincoversthekeyelementsofphysicalsecuritythroughindicatorsandmeasuresthathighlightabsenceofphysicalsecurityaswellassubjectivemeasuresreportingindividuals’senseofphysicalsecurityandsafety.Toavoidinequalitiesinlegalsecurity,peopleneedtobeprotectedandtreatedequallyandfairlybythelaw.Thisdomaincoversinequalitiesintreatmentbeforethelawandwithincriminaloradministrativesystems.

Thedomaincoversbothobjectiveandsubjectivemeasuresofphysicalsecurity.Objectivemeasuresincludereportsoftheexperienceofphysicalviolencewhereincidentsaremeasuredinhouseholdsurveysaswellaspolicerecordedcrimesfromofficialstatistics.Specialattentionisgiventoviolenceagainstwomen(physical,sexualandpsychological).Inrecenttimesconsiderableprogresshasbeenmadeincollectingdataonthesetypesofviolence(WHO,2005).Subjectivemeasuresincludewhetherpeoplefeelphysicallysecureathome,intheirneighbourhoodandtheextenttowhichpeopleworryaboutphysicalattacks.Thesemeasuresareimportantforcapturingpeople’sactualexperiencesofviolenceandinsecurityandcanhelptoovercomesomeofthe

Sub-domains:

2.A:Befreefromviolenceincludingsexualandgender-basedviolence,domesticviolenceandviolencebasedonwhoyouare

2.B:Befreefromidentitybasedviolenceandhatecrimes

2.C:Befreefromcruel,inhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment

2.D:Livewithoutfearofhumiliation,harassment,orabusebasedonwhoyouare;feelabletogooutandtousepublicspacessafelyandsecurelywithoutfear

2.E:Knowyouwillbetreatedwithequality,fairnessandnon-discriminationbeforethelaw,withinthecriminaloradministrativesystems;includingtheabsenceofcorruption

2.F:Havefairandhumaneconditionsofdetention

2.G:Havethehumanrighttoidentity,name,genderandnationality


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problemsrelatingtounder-reportingofcrimestothepolice;particularlysomeformsofphysicalviolencesuchasdomesticviolence,sexualassault,rapeandviolenceperpetratedagainstchildren.

Thephysicalmistreatmentofthoselivingininstitutions(carehomes,hospitals,etc.),includingthoseindetention(prison,securehospitals,policecustody)areidentifiedseparately,highlightingthespecialcircumstancesandvulnerabilityofpeopleinthesesituations.Thebehaviourofothersplaysanimportantroleinthecapabilityapproachasitcanbothconstrainaswellasenhanceindividuals’capabilities.

Otherformsofphysicalandpsychologicalviolationinfluencingpeople’scapabilitytobeandfeelphysicallysecureinclude:theincidenceoftortureandotherformsofinhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment,femalegenitalmutilation,harassment,kidnap,‘disappearance’,humantraffickingandarbitrarydetention.EvidenceintheformofreportedincidenceofthesetypesofcrimescollectedbyNGOsmaybeusedandcangiveamoreaccuratepicturethanofficialstatisticsinsomecountries.

Thelegalsystem,whichincludesthelawitselfaswellasbroaderlegalinstitutionsandpublicadministration,shouldtreatallmembersofthepopulationequallyandwithoutdiscrimination.Legalsecurityinmanysettingsisnotonlyinfluencedbyformallegalmechanismssuchasthestatejudiciary,anddifferentbranchesoftheformallegalsystem(constitutionallaw,domesticlaw,internationallaw,customarylaw,civillaw,etc.)butalsobybroaderlegalarrangementsandinstitutions(thequasi-legalsystem,forexample,complaintsmechanisms,tribunalsandombudsmen)andinformallegalsystems(forexample,theformalandinformalenforcementofreligiouscodessuchasSharialawandotherinformallegalcodes,customsandpractices).Asaresult,thisdomainisbroadlyconceptualisedinordertoincorporatethesedifferentfactors.

Thisdomaincapturesnotjusttheextenttowhichsomeindividualsaredisadvantagedbythelegalsystembutalsohowsomeadvantagedpeoplecanreceivepreferentialtreatment.Thismaybethroughthenature,scopeandrangeofbehavioursthatarecriminalised;disproportionatepowerandinfluenceinthesettingoflawsandhowlawsareenforced;howthosefoundguiltyofcommittingacrimearepunished(beingletoffwithoutchargeorthroughmorelenientsentences).Economicresourcesoftenplayakeyroleindeterminingaccesstojusticeandinequalitiesinlegaljustice.Thereissomeevidencethatincreasinginequalityhasbeenlinkedtoincreasesinsometypesofcrime(HaganandPeterson,1995;Rufrancos,etal.,2013),canunderminetheruleoflaw(Stiglitz,2012)andleadtoincreasesforpunitivepunishmentinsomecountries(Côté-Lussier,2016).Insomecountriesandcontextsthejudicialandlegalsystemcanbeweak,underdevelopedandbiased.Inothercountries,thedomesticlegalsystemisatoddswithinternationallyrecognisedhumanrights.Highqualitylegalrepresentationiscostlyandoftenfaroutofthereachofthemajority,andinsomecountriesreformingthelegalsystem,particularlyinrelationtolegalaid,isresultinginlessratherthanmoreaccesstojustice.Anumberofinequalitymeasuresareincludedtocapturetheseformsofinequality.

Thelegaltreatmentofchildrenintermsofparentalrights,rightsofchildrenandthetreatmentofminorsbeforethelawareallimportantaspectsoflegalsecurity.TheprinciplesdevelopedinthecontextoftheUNConventionontheRightsoftheChildprovideimportanceguidanceforbalancingtherightsofparentsontheonehand,andtherightsofthechild,togetherwiththeneedforlegalspecialprotectionofthechild,ontheother.


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Thedevelopmentofinequalityindicatorsandtheirinterpretationofmeasuresofinequalityinthisdomaincanbecomplicatedbythefactthatsomeofthemeasuresrelatetoillegal,covertandconcealedactivities,forexample,torturebythestateandhumantrafficking.Thisincreasestheneedtotriangulatethroughtheuseofmultiplesources(forexample,inthecontextoftorture,usingNGOandhumanrightsallegationsdata).

Intermsofinequalityinphysicalsecurityandpersonalsafety,mostoftheindicatorsprovidemeasuresonwhetherornotindividualshaveexperiencedaformofphysicalviolence,maltreatmentorintimidation(includingbullyingandidentity-basedviolence).Inequalitymeasuresadoptedtypicallyquantifydifferencesintheincidenceofphysicalviolenceandmaltreatmentbetweenpopulationsub-groupscoveringthemainareasofviolentcrime,sexualanddomesticviolence,hatecrimes,cruelty,physicalpunishmentanddegradingtreatment.Ifpossible,andwhereappropriate,measuresofinequalityshouldincludebreakdownsforkeypopulationgroups.Ifinformationonthenumberofincidentsisavailablethiscanbeusedtocomputeaninequalitymeasuretocapturerepeatvictimisation,whichisoftenanimportantfeatureof,forexample,domesticandsexualviolence.

Whereinformationisavailableasanordinalscale(forexample,forperceptionsofsafetyavailablefromsurveyswhereindividualsindicatewhethertheyfeel:verysafe/quitesafe/notsafe/veryunsafe),anordinalinequalitymeasurecanbecomputed.

Insomecountriesitwillbeimportanttoincorporatequasi-legalsystems:villagecouncilsetc.;roleofeldersandreligious‘courts’andlaws.


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Côté-Lussier,C.(2016).“HowRisingSocialInequalityMayBeFuelingPublicDemandsforIncreasinglyHarshCriminalJusticePolicies.”LSEUSAPPBlog.

Diprose,R.(2007).‘Safetyandsecurity:Aproposalforinternationallycomparableindicatorsofviolence’.OPHIWorkingPaper1,UniversityofOxford.

Hagan,J.,andPeterson,R.D.(eds.)(1995).CrimeandInequality.Stanford,California:StanfordUniversityPress.

Lacey,N.,andSoskiceD.(2015).‘Crime,punishmentandsegregationintheUnitedStates:Theparadoxoflocaldemocracy’.PunishmentandSociety.17(4):454–481

Rufrancos,H.G.,Power,M.,Pickett,K,E.andWilkinson,R.(2013).‘IncomeInequalityandCrime:AReviewandExplanationoftheTime–seriesEvidence’,SociologyandCriminology-OpenAccess.

Stiglitz,J.(2012).‘JusticeforAll?HowInequalityisErodingtheRuleofLaw’,inThePriceofInequality,AllenLane.

Vizard,P.(2012).'EvaluatingComplianceusingQuantitativeMethodsandIndicators:LessonsfromtheHumanRightsMeasurementFramework',NordicJournalofHumanRightsSpecialIssue-QuantifyingHumanRights,3(12):30,239–278.

Vizard,P.,andSpeed,L.(2015)‘ExaminingmultidimensionalinequalityanddeprivationinBritainusingthecapabilityapproach’,SpecialissueonCapabilityApproachandMultidimensionalWell-beinginHigh-incomeCountries’,ForumforSocialEconomics,45(2-3):139-169,DOI:10.1080/07360932.2014.997267

WHO[WorldHealthOrganisation](2005).WHOmulti-countrystudyonwomen'shealthanddomesticviolenceagainstwomen,http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/9241593512/en/

http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/9241593512/en/

http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/usappblog/2016/01/28/how-rising-social-inequality-may-be-fueling-public-demands-for-increasingly-harsh-criminal-justice-policies/

http://www.ophi.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/OPHI_wp01.pdf


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Sub-domain2.A:Befreefromviolenceincludingsexualandgender-basedviolence,domesticviolenceandviolencebasedonwhoyouare

Indicator2.1:Violentcrime

Measure2.1.1:Percentageofpopulationsubjectedtophysical,psychologicalorsexualviolenceintheprevious12months,withseparatereportingofphysicalassault,rapeandassaultbypenetration(includingattempts)andothersexualviolence,andbygenderandage

Measure2.1.2:Percentageofever-partneredwomenandgirlsaged15yearsandoldersubjectedtophysical,sexualorpsychologicalviolencebyacurrentorformerintimatepartnerintheprevious12months,byformofviolence,andbyage

Measure2.1.3:Percentageofwomenandgirlsaged15yearsandoldersubjectedtosexualviolencebypersonsotherthananintimatepartnerintheprevious12months,byageandplaceofoccurrence

Measure2.1.4:Percentageofchildrenaged0-17yearswhoexperiencedanyphysicalpunishmentand/orpsychologicalaggressionbycaregiversinthepastmonth

Measure2.1.5:Percentageofchildrenaged0-15yearswhoexperiencedanysexualviolenceintheprevious12months

Sub-domain2.B:Befreefromidentifybasedviolenceandhatecrimes

Indicator2.2:Hatecrime

Measure2.2.1:Percentagethatarevictimsofhatecrimeby:(a)race;(b)religion;(c)genderidentity;(d)overall

Sub-domain2.C:Befreefromcruel,inhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment

Indicator2.3:Bodilyandpsychologicalintegrity,andphysicalsecurity

Measure2.3.1:Percentageofgirlsandwomenaged15-49yearswhohaveundergonefemalegenitalmutilation/cutting,byage

Measure2.3.2:Percentageofpopulationvictimofphysical,psychologicalorsexualharassment,bysex,age,disabilitystatusandplaceofoccurrence,intheprevious12months

Measure2.3.3:Numberofvictimsofhumantraffickingper100,000population,bysex,ageandformofexploitation(Guidance-cansupplementthroughuseofdatacollectedbyNGOsandhumanrightsbodies)


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Measure2.3.4:Numberofverifiedcasesofkidnapping,enforceddisappearance,arbitrarydetentionandtortureofjournalists,associatedmediapersonnel,tradeunionistsandhumanrightsadvocatesintheprevious12months(Guidance-cansupplementthroughuseofallegationsdatacollectedbyNGOsandhumanrightsbodies)

Indicator2.4:Physicalsecurityforpeopleresidentordetainedinpublicandprivateinstitutions

Measure2.4.1:Ratesofphysicalassaultsin:policedetention;prison;refugeecamps;immigrationdetentioncentres;childreninresidentialcare;youngoffenderinstitutions;mentalhealthinstitutions

Measure2.4.2:Ratesofelderabuseandotherabuseofthenon-privatehouseholdpopulation

Sub-domain2.D:Livewithoutfearofhumiliation,harassment,orabusebasedonwhoyouare;feelabletogooutandtousepublicspacessafelyandsecurelywithoutfear

Indicator2.5:Fearforpersonalsafety

Measure2.5.1:Percentagethatfeelveryunsafeorunsafebeingaloneathomeand/orinlocalarea(duringthedayandafterdark)

Measure2.5.2:Percentagethatfeelveryworried/worriedaboutphysicalattack,sexualassault,intimidationandacquisitivecrime

Measure2.5.3:Percentageconcernedabouttheirpersonalsafetyusingpublictransport(duringthedayandafterdark)

Measure2.5.4:Percentagepayingforsecurity:(a)forpersonalprotection;(b)securityguardsprotectingprivateproperty;(c)toliveingatedcommunities

Sub-domain2.E:Knowyouwillbetreatedwithequality,fairnessandnon-discriminationbeforethelaw,withinthecriminaloradministrativesystems;includingtheabsenceofcorruption

Indicator2.6:Equaltreatmentbythepoliceandthelegalsystem

Measure2.6.1:Percentageofpopulationaged16+byage,sexandkeypopulations,whothepolicehave:(a)stoppedonfootorinvehicles;(b)stoppedandsearched;(c)conductedunannouncedproperty/dwellingsearch

Measure2.6.2:Percentagewhoareconfidentthatthecriminaljusticesystem(police,courts,prisonandprobationservice):(a)meetstheneedsofvictims;(b)respectstherightsofthoseaccusedofanoffenceandtreatsthemfairly

Measure2.6.3:Shareofthepopulationwhobelievethatthepublicadministrationmakefairandimpartialdecisions


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Indicator2.7:Offencesreportedandbroughttojustice:Rape,domesticviolenceandhatecrime

Measure2.7.1:Numberofcasesofrapeestimatedfrompopulationsurveysources,comparedwiththenumberofcasesreportedtoandrecordedbythepolice,andthenumberoflegalcasessuccessfullyprosecuted

Measure2.7.2:Numberofcasesofdomesticviolenceestimatedfrompopulationsurveysources,comparedwiththenumberofcasesreportedtoandrecordedbythepolice,andthenumberoflegalcasessuccessfullyprosecuted

Measure2.7.3:Numberofcasesofhatecrimeestimatedfrompopulationsurveysources,comparedwiththenumberofcasesreportedtoandrecordedbythepolice,andthenumberoflegalcasessuccessfullyprosecutedby:(a)race;(b)religion;(c)genderidentity;(d)overall

Indicator2.8:Fairandequaltreatmentwithinthelegalsystem

Measure2.8.1:Percentageofthepopulationwhobelievethatpoorpeoplearetreatedworsebythepolice

Measure2.8.2:Percentageofthepopulationwhobelievethatthepolicemakefairandimpartialdecisions

Measure2.8.3:Perceptionofhowfairthecourtsaretomajorityversusminorityrace/ethnicgroup

Measure2.8.4:Trustinthecriminaljusticesystem:(a)trustincourts’proceduralfairnessandtrustintheircompetence;(b)trustinthepolice

Measure2.8.5:Perceptionsofjudicialandpolicecorruptions:(a)howoftenthepolicetakebribes;(b)howoftenjudgestakebribes

Measure2.8.6:Sentencingdisparities:evidencebygender,race/ethnicgroup,economicorsocialstatus


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Sub-domain2.F:Havefairandhumaneconditionsofdetention

Indicator2.9:Detention:Numbers,physicalconditionsandrightsofdetainees

Measure2.9.1:Detentionnumbersandconditionsinprisons(includesprisonpopulationnumbers,lifesentences,numbersfacingadeathpenaltyandprisonconditionssuchasovercrowding,sanitationandvisitingrights)

Measure2.9.2:Detentionandconditionsinotherestablishments:(a)Youngoffenderinstitutions;(b)Securehospitals;(c)Immigrationcentres;(d)Militaryprisons;(e)Housearrest

Measure2.9.3:Percentageofthepopulationheldwithoutcharge

Sub-domain2.G:Havethehumanrighttoidentity,name,genderandnationality

Indicator2.10:Enjoyrighttoidentity,name,genderandnationality

Measure2.10.1:Percentageofchildrenunder5yearsofagewhosebirthshavebeenregisteredwithacivilauthority,byage

Domain3:Educationandlearning

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Domain3.Educationandlearning:Inequalityinthecapabilitytobeknowledgeable,tounderstandandreason,andtohavetheskillstoparticipateinsociety

Thecapabilitytobeknowledgeable,tounderstandandreason,andtohavetheskillstoparticipateinsocietyisacriticallifedomain.Thecapabilitytofunctionasaknowledgeablelearnerisbothimportantinitsownrightbutalsocontributestotheexpansionandequalityofcapabilitiesinotherspheresoflife.

Thecapabilityapproachmotivatesustolookbeyondsimplehumancapitalstylemeasuresofeducationoutcomesasitrecognisesthatknowledgebestowsarangeofnon-pecuniarybenefits.Forexample,ayearofschoolingisaproblematicunitformeasuringeducation,asitdoesnotreflectthequalityorcontentofwhatwaslearntinthatyear(FerreiraandGignoux,2013).Thisdomainalsocapturesoutcomeswhichreflecttheextenttowhichindividualsarefulfilledandstimulatedintellectually,includingbeingcreative.Expandingeducationalcapabilitycanenhancethequalityoflifeforindividualsbyenablingthemtoparticipateinactivitiessuchasreadingabookorenjoyinganartexhibition,whichbrings‘intrinsicpleasure’(OECD,2011).

Thisdomaincoversinequalitiesineducationcapabilitiesoverthelife-course,fromearlydevelopmentthroughtoadulthood,throughproxymeasuresofparticipation,accessand

Sub-domains:

3.A:Attainthehighestpossiblestandardofknowledge,understandingandreasoningthroughaccesstoeducation,trainingandlifelonglearningthatmeetsindividualneeds

3.B:Evidenceoffinancialconstraintslimitingattainmentandunequalaccesstoeliteeducationopportunities

3.C:Accessinformationandtechnologynecessarytoparticipateinsociety

3.D:Developcriticalthinking,activeandglobalcitizenship,knowledgeandunderstandingofhumanrights

3.E:Betreatedwithdignityandrespectineducationandlearningestablishments


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attainment(achievedfunctionings)andknowledge.Thedomainincludesmeasuresofbasicskillsandlowlevelsofeducationalattainment(includinglackofeducationalqualifications)butalsomeasuresofhighattainment,unequalaccesstoeliteeducationopportunities,andinformationandcommunicationtechnologyskills.

Thedomaincoversthepreparednessofyoungchildrensettoentertheformaleducationsystemtomeasuredifferencesbetweenchildrenintermsoftheirpositiontobenefitfullyandequallyfromformalschooling.Researchhasaffirmedthesignificanceofearlychildhooddevelopmentforfuturehealth,behaviourandlearning(ShonkoffandRicther,2013).Theearlyyearsarecriticalasthebraindevelopsmostrapidlyinthefirstfewyearsofachild’slife.Nurturingcare,aswellasadequatenutritionandasafeenvironment,areallnecessaryelementsthatallowforhealthycognitivedevelopment,andcontributetotheschoolreadinessofyoungchildren.

Theunequaltreatmentofpupilswithinschools,includingbullyingfromotherchildrenandilltreatmentbyteacherscanbeimportantdeterminantsofeducationoutcomesandsuchexperiencescanhavealongtermnegativeimpactonattitudestolearningandoutcomesinadulthood(WolkeandLereya,2015).Thedomainalsolooksbeyondschoolingtoincludelifelonglearningandknowledgerequiredtoparticipateinsociety;includingtechnologicalskills;skillsrelatedtoaccessinginformationheldontheinternetandtheskillstodistinguishbetweeninformationofdifferingquality.

Thecapabilityapproachrecogniseshumandiversitybothintermsofresources(thismaybeinnateability)andintermsofdiversityintastesandpreferences,andindividualchoice(Sen,1992).Wearealsointerestedinunderstandingeducationandlearninginequalitieswhicharedrivenbydifferencesintheabilityofindividualstoconvertresourcesintooutcomesratherthansimplylookingatinequalitiesinoutcomes.

Autonomytochoose(agency)ismorecomplexinthisthaninmanyotherdomainsasparentstypicallymakechoicesonbehalfoftheirchildren.AsWalker(2006)notes,educationplaysacriticalroleinthedevelopmentofadultcapabilitiesacrossanumberofspheres.Thisthereforeprovidessomeconflictbetweenvaluingchildren’sfreedomtochoosewhetherornottoattendschoolandthefreedomstheywillhaveintheiradultlives;achildmay,giventhechoice,decidenottoattendschoolwithoutfullycomprehendingthatthiswillreducetheiropportunitiesinadultlifeandleadtorestrictedfutureindividualfreedomsandagency.Furthermore,improvingeducationwithinsocietyalsofacilitatesgreaterdemocracyandenablesdisadvantagedgroupsto'increasetheirabilitytoresistinequalitiesandgetafairerdealinandthrougheducation'(VaughanandWalker,2012).


Inequalitiesinthisdomainincludedifferencesinattainmentbetweengroups-age,gender,ethnicity,religion,indigenouspeople,childreninvulnerablesituations–aswellasfamilybackground.Inequalityisalsoassessedthroughmeasuresofoverallinequalityineducationalattainment,ordinalinequalitymeasuresbasedonhighestlevelofeducationalattainmentandevidenceofelitism.


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Antoninis,M.,Delprato,M.andBenavot,A.(2016).‘Inequalityineducation:Thechallengeofmeasurement’,inISSC,IDSandUNESCO,WorldSocialScienceReport2016,ChallengingInequalities:PathwaystoaJustWorld,UNESCOPublishing,Paris.

Ferreira,F.H.G.,andGignoux,J.(2013).‘TheMeasurementofEducationalInequality:AchievementandOpportunity’,TheWorldBankEconomicReview,28(2):210-246.DOI:10.1093/wber/lht004

OECD(2011).EducationataGlance2011,Paris:OECD.https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/education-at-a-glance-2011_eag-2011-en

Shonkoff,J.P.,andRicther,L.(2013).‘Thepowerfulreachofearlychildhooddevelopment:ascience-basedfoundationforsoundinvestment’,inBritto,P.R.,Engle,P.L.,Super,C.S.(eds.)HandbookofEarlyChildhoodDevelopmentResearchanditsImpactonGlobalPolicy.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1-23

Vaughan,R.,andWalker,M.(2012).‘Capabilities,valuesandeducationpolicy’,JournalofHumanDevelopmentandCapabilities,13(3):495-512

Walker,M.(2006).‘Towardsacapability-basedtheoryofsocialjusticeforeducationpolicy-making’,JournalofEducationPolicy,21(2):163-185.

Wolff,J.,andDe-Shalit,A.(2007).Disadvantage,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

Wolke,D.,andLereya,S.T.(2015).‘Long-termeffectsofbullying’,ArchivesofDiseaseinChildhood,100(9):879–885.http://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2014-306667

https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/education-at-a-glance-2011_eag-2011-en

https://adc.bmj.com/content/100/9/879


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Sub-domain3.A:Attainthehighestpossiblestandardofknowledge,understandingandreasoningthroughaccesstoeducation,trainingandlifelonglearningthatmeetsindividualneeds

Indicator3.1:Basicskills

Measure3.1.1:Percentageofpeopleofworkingageachievingfunctionalliteracyandnumeracyskills

Measure3.1.2:Inequalityinmathsandreadingskills(measuredbyage15)

Measure3.1.3:Percentageofchildrenunder5yearsofagewhoaredevelopmentallyontrackinlearning

Indicator3.2:Educationalattainmentandschooling

Measure3.2.1:Percentageofeachagegroupcompleting:(a)primaryeducation;(b)secondaryeducation;(c)furthereducationoryouthtraining;(d)highereducation

Measure3.2.2:Inequalityineducationalattainment(ISCED20110-8levels)forpopulationaged25+years(yearsofschoolingifattainmentismissing)

Measure3.2.3:Educationalattainmentbyfamilybackground

Measure3.2.4:Percentageof16-18yearoldsnotineducation,employmentortraining

Indicator3.3:Participationinlifelonglearning

Measure3.3.1:Percentageofpopulationaged25+yearswhohaveparticipatedinformalorinformallearninginlast12months

Sub-domain3.B:Evidenceoffinancialconstraintslimitingattainmentandunequalaccesstoeliteeducationopportunities

Indicator3.4:Evidenceofeducationelitism

Measure3.4.1:Percentageofyoungpeopleunabletopursuefurtherorhighereducationduetofinancialconstraints

Measure3.4.2:Percentageofsecondaryschoolpopulationattendingprivatefee-payingschools

Measure3.4.3:Evidenceofunequalaccesstoprestigiouseducationinstitutionsduetodiscriminatoryadmissionsproceduresbygender,race/ethnicity,socio-economicstatus


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Sub-domain3.C:Accessinformationandtechnologynecessarytoparticipateinsociety

Indicator3.5:Useoftheinternetandtechnology

Measure3.5.1:Percentageofpopulationwhohaveusedtheinternetforanypurposewithinthelast3months,byage

Measure3.5.2:Percentageofyouthandadultswithinformationandcommunicationstechnology(ICT)skills,bytypeofskill

Sub-domain3.D:Developcriticalthinking,activeandglobalcitizenship,knowledgeandunderstandingofhumanrights

Indicator3.6:Criticalthinkingandawarenessofrights

Measure3.6.1:Percentagewhohaveknowledgeandunderstandingofhumanrightsandconsumerrights,etc.,through:(a)inclusiononschoolcurriculum;(b)campaigns,literatureandpublicevents

Sub-domain3.E:Betreatedwithdignityandrespectineducationandlearningestablishments

Indicator3.7:Treatmentineducationandlearningestablishments

Measure3.7.1:Percentageofthoseattendingwhosaytheyare:(a)treatedwithrespectatschoolorcollege;(b)haveexperiencedbullyingorviolenceataneducationalestablishment

Domain4:Financialsecurityanddignifiedwork

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Domain4.Financialsecurityanddignifiedwork:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoachievefinancialindependenceandsecurity,enjoydignifiedandfairwork,andrecognitionofunpaidworkandcare

Thecapabilitytobefinanciallysecureandenjoyfinancialindependenceisanimportantelementofwell-being.Inaddition,economicinequalitiesplayakeyroleinshapinginequalitiesinotherlifedomains.Measuresincludeincomeandwealthinequality,ratesofpovertyandmaterialdeprivation,incomeinsecurityandfinancialresilience,includingmeasuresdesignedtocaptureadvantageaswellasdisadvantage.Thisdomainalsocoversaspectsofwork;animportantelementofwell-beingnotjustbecauseitprovidesanincomebutbecauseworkerscanenjoyarangeofnon-pecuniarybenefits.Inequalitiesincludedifferencesinworkingconditionsandunequalaccesstothetopjobs.

Manyhavearguedforexaminingeconomicinequalitiesalongsidearangeofotherformsofinequalityincapabilities(e.g.Therborn,2013).Thefactthateconomicresources(incomeandwealth)providethemeanstootherendsbothnowandinthefuture,highlightstheirimportance.Inaddition,personalwealthholdings(i.e.examininginequalitiesinfinancialstocksinadditionto

Sub-domains:

4.A:Achievefinancialsecurityandresilienceagainstshocks

4.B:Enjoyfinancialindependenceandcontroloverpersonalspending

4.C:Evidenceofexcessfinancialaccumulationandfinancialadvantageinthecontrolandownershipofresources

4.D:Haveequalaccesstopaidwork,jobopportunities,productiveassetsandmarkets

4.E:Evidenceofunequalpayandaccesstothehighestpaidworkopportunities

4.F:Enjoygoodworkingrelationsanddignifiedandfairworkconditions

4.G:Protectionfromforcedlabourandexploitativeconditions

4.H:Enjoyequaldivisionofcareandun-paiddomesticwork


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financialflows)canprovideimportantinformationonpeople’sfuturecapabilitysetsandfinancialsecurityoverthelifecycle.

Theideathatitispossibletohave‘toomuch’aswellas‘toolittle’incomeorothereconomicresourcehasbeenexploredbyanumberofscholars(see,forexample,Robeyns,2017).Whereindividualshavemoreresourcesthanareneeded,Robeynsoutlinesthemoralpositionthattheseindividualshave“toomuch”andsuggeststhatdevelopmentofa‘richessline’tocomplementthe‘povertyline’.Robeyns(andothers)describehowconcentrationofincomeandwealthcanhaveanegativebearingonotherpeople’scapabilities;wheremoney‘buys’power,orlimitstheopportunitiesofothers.

BurchardtandHick(2017)highlighthowhighincomeandwealthcanbeassociatedwithfreedomsenjoyedinotherdomains(politicalinfluence,geographicalmobility,securityandroomforlegalmanoeuvre)andthattheverywell-off(elites)donotneedtoactualisethesefreedomsinordertosecureadvantage–thecapabilityisoftensufficient.Inthecontextofadvantage,BurchardtandHickargue,thenon-observablenatureofpeople’scapabilitiesbecomesmoresignificantathighlevelsofincome.Analysing‘functionings’inrelationto‘basic’capabilitiesismorestraightforwardasabsenceismorelikelytoreflectalackofcapability.Inthecontextofadvantage,“aswemoveawayfrom‘basic’achievements,therelationshipbetweencapabilitiesandfunctioningsislikelytobegovernedtoagreaterextentbythepreferencesoftheindividual”(BurchardtandHick,2017,p.10).Thereisastrongcaseforusingmeasuresofincomeandwealthwheretheyrepresentbetterproxiesoftheunderlyingcapabilitiesthantheavailablemeasuresof‘functionings’(BurchardtandHick,2017).

Economicallyrewardingactivitiesintheformofpaidworkandentrepreneurialactivitiesareimportantbecausetheincomegeneratedcanassistindividualstopursuethelifethattheywishtolead,tosupportthosedependentonthem,suchaschildren,andtoavoidpovertyanddestitution.Inadditiontotheincomethatworkgenerates,workcanberewardinginitsownright,particularlyforthoseabletopursueaninterest.Weobserveinequalitiesnotjustintherewardsfromworkbutalsointhequalityofjobs.Theseinequalitiesincludesafetyatwork,autonomy,treatmentatworkanddiscrimination.Researchshowsthatdifferencesintheserelationsandconditionsofworkalsoimpactoncapabilitiesinotherspheresoflife(physicalsecurity,health,etc)(see,forexample,Bartley,2005).Someformsofworkareprecariousandtemporaryinnatureandtherecanbelargedifferencesbetweenconditionsforthoseworkingintheformalandinformallabourmarkets.Conditionscanbeparticularlybadforindividualsworkingunderexploitativeconditionsandinforcedlabour(completelackofautonomy).Measuresfortheseaspectsofdignifiedworkareincludedinthisdomain.

Unequalaccesstothebestopportunitiesandhowthisrelatestofamilybackgroundandformsofdiscriminationarekeyaspectsoflabourmarketinequalitycapturedinthisdomain.Theseareformsofsocialmobilityandanumberofdifferentmeasuresareincludedinthisdomain.Theseincludestandardmeasuresofsocialmobilitymeasuringthecorrelationbetweenoutcomesforparentsandchildren(inincome,earningsandsocialclass)andperceptionsofequalopportunityandsocialmobility.

Theimportanceofpaidworkasanactivityclearlyvariesbetweendifferentagegroups,withlessimportanceforthoseoldenoughtoretirefromworkandthoseabletoretireonanadequate


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income.Notallindividualshaveaccesstopensionincome(andthereforeneedtoworktosecureanincome)andsomeindividualschoosetocontinueworkingpast‘retirementage’forthenon-pecuniarybenefitsthatworkhastooffer.

Thisdomainalsocoversforcedlabour,exploitativelabourandchildlabour.Althoughchildrenmay‘choose’toworkandincomefromtheiremploymentmaymakeacrucialcontributiontothefamilybudget,childlabourisconsideredanegativeoutcome.Childlabourdoesnotreferto‘pocket-money’jobs,itreferstoworkthatdepriveschildrenoftheirchildhood,theirpotentialandtheirdignitywhichisharmfultophysicalandmentaldevelopment(moreinformationcanbefoundintheILOpublication–Whatischildlabour?).Similarly,childrenshoulderingtheburdenofcaringforotherfamilymemberslimitstheircapacitytoengageinactivitieswhichwouldexpandtheiradultcapabilitiesorsimplythefreedomforchildrento‘play’andsocialisewithpeers.


Keymeasuresofeconomicinequalityinearnings,incomeandwealth,whichincludemeasuresofadvantage(concentrationofincomeandwealthamongafew)anddisadvantage(incomepoverty,incidenceoflowpay,over-indebtedness)areincludedinthisdomain.Measuresincludeoveralldispersionofincome,earningsandwealth,financialresilience,incomesecurityandvolatility,andsocialmobility.

Obtainingaccuratemeasureofchildlabourischallengingasthereisnointernationallyagreedmeasure.Oneoftheissuesthatrequiresconsiderationistimechildrenspendonnon-economicfamilyproductiveactivities,includinghouseholdchoresandcareroles,whichtendtobeshouldereddisproportionatelybygirlsinmanycultures,andthereforeexcludingthemmayunderstategirls’involvementinchildlabour.UNICEF,ILOandtheWorldBank(UnderstandingChildren’sWorkcollaboration)havemadesomeprogressinestablishingastandardquantitativemeasure(Ritualoetal.,2003)andotherworkhassuggestedtheuseofchildren’ssubjectiveresponsesratherthanadult’swhichcanbebiased(Dillon,2010).

Measuringforcedlabourisalsochallengingbutsomeprogresshasbeenmade(RuwanpuraandRai,2004).TheILOdefineforcedlabouras"allworkorservicewhichisexactedfromanypersonunderthethreatofapenaltyandforwhichthepersonhasnotofferedhimselforherselfvoluntarily."http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/definition/lang--en/index.htm

http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/definition/lang--en/index.htm


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ReferencesandselectedreadingsBartley,M.(2005).‘Jobinsecurityanditseffectonhealth’,JournalofEpidemiologyandCommunityHealth,59:718-719.

Burchardt,T.andHick,R.(2017).‘InequalityandtheCapabilityApproach’,CASEpaper201,CentreforAnalysisofSocialExclusion,London:LondonSchoolofEconomics.

Dillon,A.(2010).‘Measuringchildlabor:Comparisonsbetweenhoursdataandsubjectivemeasures’,ResearchinLaborEconomics,31,135-159.

Ritualo,A.R.,Castro,C.L.,andGormly,S.(2003).‘MeasuringChildLabor:ImplicationsforPolicyandProgramDesign’,ComparativeLaborLaw&PolicyJournal,24(2):401-434.

Robeyns,I.(2017).‘HavingTooMuch’,inJ.KnightandM.Schwartzberg(eds.)NOMOSLVI:Wealth.YearbookoftheAmericanSocietyforPoliticalandLegalPhilosophy,NewYorkUniversityPress.

Ruwanpura,K.N.,andRai,P.(2004).ForcedLabour:Definitions,IndicatorsandMeasurement,ILOworkingpaperDECLARATION/WP/18/2004http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---declaration/documents/publication/wcms_081991.pdf

http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---declaration/documents/publication/wcms_081991.pdf


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Sub-domain4.A:Achievefinancialsecurityandresilienceagainstshocks

Indicator4.1:Incomeinequality,incomesecurityandfinancialresilience

Measure4.1.1:Relativeincomeinequality-Gini(orameasureofdispersionsuchas90/10orPalmaratio)–householdequivaliseddisposableincome

Measure4.1.2:Concentrationofincomeatthetop-topincomeshares(top10%/5%/1%)

Measure4.1.3:Relativeincomepoverty–income<60%medianequivaliseddisposableincome

Measure4.1.4:Rateofabsoluteincomepoverty:(a)againstafixedpovertyline;(b)materialdeprivation

Measure4.1.5:Precariousnessofhouseholdincome:(a)incomevolatility;(b)perceptionsofincomeinsecurity

Measure4.1.6:Rateofover-indebtedhouseholds(debt/incomeratio)

Measure4.1.7:Percentageofhouseholdswithhigh-cost,short-termloans(e.g.pay-dayloans)

Sub-domain4.B:Enjoyfinancialindependenceandcontroloverpersonalspending

Indicator4.2:Financialindependence,controloverresourcesandfinancialinclusion

Measure4.2.1:Intra-householddivisionofincome

Measure4.2.2:Percentageofpartneredwomenwithequalcontroloverhouseholdbudget

Measure4.2.3:Percentagewithabankaccount

Sub-domain4.C:Evidenceofexcessfinancialaccumulationandfinancialadvantageinthecontrolandownershipofresources

Indicator4.3:Inequalityinprivateownershipoffinancialassetsandresources

Measure4.3.1:Wealthinequality:(a)concentration–topwealthshares(top10%/5%/1%);(b)overallinequality(suchasGiniordecileratios);(c)homeownershipandhousingwealth

Measure4.3.2:Concentrationoflandownership-%oflandareabynumberoflandowners(forexample,howmanyown50%oflandarea)


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Sub-domain4.D:Haveequalaccesstopaidwork,jobopportunities,productiveassetsandmarkets

Indicator4.4:Accesstowork

Measure4.4.1:Percentageofworkingageinpaidwork(employmentorself-employment)

Measure4.4.2:Unemploymentrate:(a)ILOrate;(b)unemploymentbenefitclaimantrate

Measure4.4.3:Percentageofyoungpeople(15-24years)notineducation,employmentortraining

Sub-domain4.E:Evidenceofunequalpayandaccesstothehighestpaidworkopportunities

Indicator4.5:Earningsinequality(incomefromwork)

Measure4.5.1:Earningsinequality-Giniorpercentileratio-Annual/monthly/weekly/hourly(dependingonavailability)

Measure4.5.2:Earningsvolatility-%ofworkerswhosegrossannuallabourearningsincreasedby20%ordecreasedby20%inrealtermsfromoneyeartothenext

Measure4.5.3:Lowpayrate–Lessthan2/3rdmedianhourlywage

Measure4.5.4:Highpayrate–greaterthan2/3rdmedianhourlywage

Indicator4.6:Socialmobility,unequalpayandunequalaccesstothetopjobs

Measure4.6.1:Socialmobility(socialclass,earnings,income)–correlationbetweenparents’andtheiradultchildren’ssocio-economicoutcomes

Measure4.6.2:Perceptionsofequalopportunityandsocialmobility

Measure4.6.3:Percentageofwomenworkingintopprofessions

Measure4.6.4:Gender,disabilityandracialpaygaps

Measure4.6.5:Percentageofprivatelyeducatedintopprofessions(managerialandprofessional,politicians,topcivilservicejobs,CEOsonboards,non-executivedirectors,high-rankingofficersinthemilitary)

Measure4.6.6:Genderandracialoccupationalsegregation

Sub-domain4.F:Enjoygoodworkingrelationsanddignifiedandfairworkconditions

Indicator4.7:Employmentrelationsandconditions

Measure4.7.1:Percentageworkingintheinformalsector

Measure4.7.2:Percentageemployedon:(a)part-timecontracts;(b)temporarycontracts;(c)Zerohourscontract;(d)withoutacontract


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Measure4.7.3:Workplaceinjuryrate

Measure4.7.4:Percentageofworkersexperiencingjobstrain

Measure4.7.5:Percentageofworkerswhoenjoyautonomyatwork(tasks,startandleavetime,breaks)

Measure4.7.6:Percentageofworkerswithopportunitiesforpromotionincurrentjob

Measure4.7.7:Inequalityinjobsatisfaction

Sub-domain4.G:Protectionfromforcedlabourandexploitativeconditions

Indicator4.8:Forcedlabourandchildlabour

Measure4.8.1:Extentofforcedlabour–ILOdefinition:allworkorservicewhichisexactedfromanypersonunderthethreatofapenaltyandforwhichthepersonhasnotofferedhimselforherselfvoluntarily

Measure4.8.2:Extentofchildlabour:(a)childrenundertheminimumageinunpermittedformsofwork;(b)childrenintheworstformsofchildlabour;(c)childreninhazardouswork

Sub-domain4.H:Enjoyequaldivisionofcareandun-paiddomesticwork

Indicator4.9:Distributionofcare,domesticdutiesandhomeproduction

Measure4.9.1:Averagetimespenton:(a)domesticduties;(b)caringforothers;(c)homeproduction

Measure4.9.2:Time-relatedunder-employment

Domain5:Comfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions

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Domain5.Comfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoycomfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions

Thecapabilitytoenjoycomfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditionsisassessedacrossarangeofindicatorsandmeasures.Thisdomainconsidersinequalitiesinmeetingbasicneeds,accesstogoodqualityandsecurehousing,accesstotransportinfrastructure,theabilitytoliveinenvironmentsthatpromotedignityandrespect,thequalityofthelocalenvironmentandtheabilitytoenjoyleisuretimealongsideemploymentorcaringresponsibilities.Thesemeasuresareusedtoassessdifferencesacrossindividualsandgroupsintermsofmeetingminimumacceptableconditions,receivingadequatecare,accesstobasicamenities,andtheindependenceandfreedomsrequiredforpeopletoleadthelifetheyhavereasontovalue.

Secureaccesstofood,cleanwater,shelter,sanitation,warmthandutilitiesarebasicdefiningfeaturesofsecureandcomfortablelivingconditions.Whereacountryorregionfacesemergenciessuchasnaturaldisasters(flooding,drought,famine,earthquakes,volcaniceruptions,typhoons,violentstorms),warandconflict,peoplefacedisplacement,disruptingtheirlivesandchallengingtheircapabilitytoenjoycomfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditionsorevenmeettheirbasicneeds.Theserisksarenotfacedequallywithwomen,disadvantagedandmarginalisedgroupsmostvulnerable(Ferris,2010;NeumayerandPlümper,2007).MurphyandGardoni(2010)demonstratehowthecapabilityapproachcanbeusedtoassesstheimpactofnaturaldisastersonthebasisofchangesinindividuals’capabilities.Inhibitedaccesstobasicneedsdoesnotonlyoccur

Sub-domains

5.A:Enjoysecureaccesstofood,cleanwater,cleanair,shelter,sanitation,warmthandutilities

5.B:Enjoyadequatehousingqualityandsecurity

5.C:Enjoylivingconditionsthatpromoteindependence,dignityandself-respect

5.D:Movearoundfreelyandenjoyaccesstosafeandappropriatetransport

5.E:Accessandenjoygreenspacesandpublicspaces

5.F:Beabletoachieveagoodwork-life/care-lifebalance


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duringtimesofdisaster;forexample,foodpovertyandhomelessnessarecommoninmanyhigh,middleandlowincomecountries.

Thereareanumberofdifferenttypesofhousingtenure:short-termandemergencyaccommodation(e.g.sheltersandrefugeecamps),long-terminformalsettlementsandslums,mobileaccommodationandcaravans(e.g.Roma,GypsyandTravellercommunities),andtemporaryandshort-termtenancies,socialhousingandowneroccupation.Roma,GypsyandTravellercommunitiesoftenfacethethreatofevictionduetotheinformalnatureoftheirsettlements,andmaytypicallyliveonpoorqualityland,andhavenoaccesstopropersanitationsystems(Cromarty,2018).However,itisimportanttorecognisethatthistypeofaccommodationisasdiverseasothertypesandnotnecessarilypoorquality.

Intermsofinequality,themeasuresinthisdomaindonotjustlookatdifferencesbetweenaccommodationtypesbutalsowithinaccommodationtypes.Measuresincludeovercrowding,facilities,structuralqualityandcostburden.Thesefactorsoftenreflecttheautonomyofindividualsandtheirabilitytohavechoiceandcontroloverwheretheylive.Poorqualityhousingleadstoreducedqualityoflife,throughpoorhealth(e.g.respiratorydiseasesfromdampnessandsometypesoffuel),aswellaspoorermentalhealthfromstressandsocialisolation.Incontrast,someindividualscanaffordtoliveinluxuryaccommodationwithsurplusspace,allthemodernconveniencesandverypleasantsurroundings.Economicinequalitycanhavequiteprofoundeffectsonaccesstohousingforthosewhoarelesswell-off.Inadditiontoeconomicinequality,segregationanddiscriminationcanalsohaveastronginfluenceonresidentialinequalitywhichhasconsequencesforhealth,educationandwell-being(WilliamsandCollins,2001).

Forthosewhoexperiencereducedphysicalmobilityduetodisabilityoroldage,thereisaneedforappropriateadaptionstohomestopromoteindependentliving,dignityandself-respect.Adequatecareisalsonecessaryforsomeindividualstoremainlivingintheirownhomes.Mobilityandgeographicalconnectednessareimportantforindependentliving,tovisitfamilyandfriends,toenhanceworkopportunities,totravelforpleasureandtosocialise.Measuresincludedinthisdomainincludeaccesstopublictransport(includingwhenadaptionsarenecessaryduetodisability)andtransportinfrastructure,andgeographicalisolation.

Weobservelargevariationinthequalityofthelocalenvironmentinwhichpeoplelive.Typicalmeasuresinclude:pollutionlevels;noise;odour;unsociablebehaviour,rubbish;accesstoplaceswherechildrencanplay;accesstoleisurefacilities.Furthermore,accesstogreenspacesandthenaturalworldmakesanimportantcontributiontothequalityofpeople’slivesbutisnotavailabletoeveryone,particularlythoselivingindenselypopulatedurbanareas.

Finally,thisdomaincoversinequalitiesinwhoisabletoachieveagoodwork-lifebalance,whetherthisisabalancebetweenemploymentorcareresponsibilitiesandleisure.Someindividualsareunabletoworkasmanyhoursastheywouldlikeandsomearerequiredtoworkunreasonablylonghours.Thebalancebetweenworkandothervaluedaspectsoflife,commonlyreferredtoasthe‘work-life’balance,isvaluedinitsownright(Hobson,FahlénandTakács,2011).Whereindividualsarenotinapositiontochoosetheirhoursofwork,spendtoomuchtimeworking,orworkunsociablehours,thiscanplacelimitsonothercapabilitiesparticularlyintheindividual,familyandsociallifedomain.


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Inequalitymeasuresinthisdomainincludesecureaccesstofood,cleanwater,cleanair,shelter,sanitation,warmthandutilitiesbetweendifferentpopulationsub-groupsreflectingthefundamentalimportanceoftheseconditions.

Variationinhousingqualityandsecurityofhousingtenurearecapturedbyobjectiveinequalitymeasures.Forexample,ratesofovercrowding,typeoftenancy(short-terminsecure,etc.)andhousingqualityindex.

Independenceismeasuredbygeographicmobilitythroughaccesstotransport,theabilitytolivewithdignityandrespectforthosewithadisabilityandneedingadaptionsandcare.

Work-lifebalancemeasuresincludetimespentonleisureactivitiesandsubjectiveassessmentofworklifebalance.


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Cromarty,H.(2018).‘GypsiesandTravellers’,HouseofCommonsLibraryBriefingPaper08083http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8083/CBP-8083.pdf

Ferris,E.(2010).Naturaldisasters,conflictandhumanrights:tracingtheconnections’,TheBrookingsInstitution-OntheRecord,https://www.brookings.edu/on-the-record/natural-disasters-conflict-and-human-rights-tracing-the-connections/

Hobson,B.,Fahlén,S.,andTakács,J.(2011).‘AgencyandCapabilitiestoAchieveaWork–LifeBalance:AComparisonofSwedenandHungary’,SocialPolitics:InternationalStudiesinGender,State&Society,18,2,168-198.

Murphy,C.,andGardoni,P.(2010).'Assessingcapabilityinsteadofachievedfunctioningsinriskanalysis',JournalofRiskResearch,13:2,137-147

Neumayer,E.,andPlümper,T.(2007).‘TheGenderedNatureofNaturalDisasters:TheImpactofCatastrophicEventsontheGenderGapinLifeExpectancy,1981-2002’,AnnalsoftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers,97(3)DOI:10.1111/j.1467-8306.2007.00563.x

Shapiro,T.M.,andKenty-Drane,J.L.(2005).‘TheRacialWealthGap’,inC.A.Conrad,J.Whitehead,P.Mason,andJ.Stewart(eds.)AfricanAmericansintheU.S.Economy,pp.175–181,Lanham:RowmanandLittlefieldPublishers,Inc.

Williams,D.R.,andCollins,C.(2001).‘Racialresidentialsegregation:afundamentalcauseofracialdisparitiesinhealth’,PublicHealthReports,116(5):404–416.

http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8083/CBP-8083.pdf

https://www.brookings.edu/on-the-record/natural-disasters-conflict-and-human-rights-tracing-the-connections/


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Sub-domain5.A:Enjoysecureaccesstofood,cleanwater,cleanair,shelter,sanitation,warmthand

utilities

Indicator5.1:Secureaccesstofood,cleanwater,cleanair,shelter,sanitation,warmthandutilities

Measure5.1.1:Prevalenceofmoderateorseverefoodinsecurityinthepopulation,basedontheFoodInsecurityExperienceScale(FIES)

Measure5.1.2:Prevalenceofstunting(heightforage<-2standarddeviationfromthemedianoftheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)ChildGrowthStandards)amongchildrenunder5yearsofage

Measure5.1.3:Prevalenceofmalnutrition(weightforheight>+2or<-2standarddeviationfromthemedianoftheWHOChildGrowthStandards)amongchildrenunder5yearsofage,bytype(wastingandoverweight)

Measure5.1.4:Percentageofpopulationusingsafelymanageddrinkingwaterservices

Measure5.1.5:Percentageofpopulationusingsafelymanagedsanitationservices,includingahand-washingfacilitywithsoapandwater

Measure5.1.6:Percentageofpopulationsleepingroughwithoutshelter

Measure5.1.7:Ratesoffuelpoverty–shareofhouseholdsunabletokeeptheirhomeatacomfortableambienttemperatureforareasonablecost

Measure5.1.8:Percentageofpopulationwithaccesstoelectricity

Sub-domain5.B:Enjoyadequatehousingqualityandsecurity

Indicator5.2:Housingqualityandsecurity

Measure5.2.1:Percentageofpopulationlivinginlong-term,informalsettlementsandslums

Measure5.2.2:Numberofpeoplelivinginshelters,refuges,refugeecamps,immigrationcentres

Measure5.2.3:Numberofpeoplelivinginmobileaccommodationandcaravans

Measure5.2.4:Percentageofthepopulationlivingin:(a)temporaryaccommodation;(b)rentedaccommodationundershort-termtenancyagreement

Measure5.2.5:Shareoftotalpopulationlivinginadwellingwithaleakingroof,dampwalls,floorsorfoundation,orrotinwindowframesorfloor

Measure5.2.6:Ratesofhousingovercrowding

Measure5.2.7:Inequalityinhousingqualityindex


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Measure5.2.8:Housingcostoverburdenrate

Sub-domain5.C:Enjoylivingconditionsthatpromoteindependence,dignityandself-respect

Indicator5.3:Livingindependentlywithdignityandrespect

Measure5.3.1:Percentageofdisabledpeoplelivinginhousinglackingadaptionsnecessarytoliveindependently,withdignityandrespect

Measure5.3.2:Percentagelivingwithunmetcareneedsnecessarytoliveindependently,withdignityandrespectby:(a)agegroup;(b)disabilitystatus

Sub-domain5.D:Movearoundfreelyandenjoyaccesstosafeandappropriatetransport

Indicator5.4:Mobility,transportandaccess

Measure5.4.1Proportionoftheruralpopulationwholivewithin2kmofanall-seasonroad

Measure5.4.2:Monthlytravelcostsasapercentageofmonthlyincome

Measure5.4.3:Percentageofpopulationthathasconvenientaccesstopublictransport,bysex,ageanddisabilitystatus

Sub-domain5.E:Accessandenjoygreenspacesandpublicspaces

Indicator5.5:Qualityofyourlocalareaandaccesstoopenspaces

Measure5.5.1:Inequalityinlocalenvironmentquality(rubbish,pollution,noise,odour,unsocialbehaviour,etc.)

Measure5.5.2:Abilitytoaccessfreefacilitiesthatpromoteleisureandwellbeing

Measure5.5.3:Percentageofchildrenwithaccesstoopen,greenspacesforplay

Sub-domain5.F:Beabletoachieveagoodwork-life/care-lifebalance

Indicator5.6:Work-lifebalance

Measure5.6.1Satisfactionwithwork-life/care-lifebalance

Measure5.6.2:Averageminutesperdayspentonleisureactivities

Measure5.6.3:Traveltoworktimes

Domain6:Participation,influenceandvoice

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Domain6.Participation,influenceandvoice:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoparticipateindecision-making,haveavoiceandinfluence

Thecapabilitytoparticipateindecision-making,haveavoiceandinfluence,affectspolitical,socialandfamilyspheresoflife.Differentformsofparticipationcoveredinthisdomain,include,participationindemocraticprocessessuchasvotingingeneralandlocalelections,theabilitytojoinworkplaceassociationsandcommunityactiongroupsandinvolvementindecision-makinginthefamily.

Thisdomainincludesmeasuresdesignedtoquantifydifferencesinparticipationinvariousgroupswhichincludepublic,politicalandworkorganisationssuchas:communitygroups;residents’associations;patientgroups;parentgroups;studentgroups;passengerandconsumergroups;workerassociations,etc.Theseformsofparticipationareimportanttoensurethatindividualshaveavoicebutitisalsokeytomeasuredifferencesininfluenceaswellasvoice.Inequalityinpoliticalparticipationismarkedbysocialgradientsinvoterturnoutaswellaspoorrepresentation

Sub-domains:

6.A:Participateinandhaveinfluenceoverdemocraticandotherdecision-makingprocessesatanyterritoriallevel,andincludingindigenous,customaryorcommunitydecision-makingprocesses

6.B:Evidenceofpowerfuleliteswithexcessinfluenceandcontroloverdecision-makingprocessesinpublicandpoliticallife

6.C:Participateindecision-makingandmakedecisionsaffectingyourownlifeindependentlywithinyourhouseholdandfamily

6.D:Participateinnon-governmentalorganisationsconcernedwithpublic,politicalandworkinglife

6.E:Havefreedomtoformandjoincivilorganisations,socialmovementsandsolidaritygroups,includingtradeunions;freedomofassemblyandassociationandenjoyactivecitizenship


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ofsomegroupsinnationalandlocalgovernments.Directmeasuresofinfluencearedifficulttofindbutsurveyevidenceofperceivedinfluenceprovideusefulmeasureswhichareincludedinthisdomain.

Intermsofinequality,itisrecognisedthatitispossibletohave‘toomuch’influenceaswellas‘toolittle’.Toomuchinfluencebysomeindividualsandgroupscanhaveanegativeeffectonotherpeople’scapabilities.Therearegrowingconcernsthateconomicinequalityhasledtopoliticalcapturebyelites,erodingdemocraticgovernance,influencingpolicymakingintheirfavourandtothedetrimentofothers(Fuentes-NievaandGalasso,2014;Stiglitz,2012).Therelationshipbetweeneconomicinequalitiesandinequalitiesinthecapabilitytoparticipateindecisionmaking,haveavoiceandinfluencecanrunbothways.Thiscanbeevidencedby:membersofwealthyfamilieshavingagreaterlikelihoodofgainingpositionsofpowerandthepowerofdonationsonpoliticalpartiesintermsofshapingpolicyinparticularpoliciesrelatedtotaxationandgovernmentexpenditurewhicharefavouredbythedonors(Gilens,2012;GilensandPage,2014).

Inequalityinpoliticalparticipationismarkedbysocialgradientsinvoterturnoutaswellaspoorrepresentationofsomegroupsinnationalandlocalgovernments.Thisdomainseekstocapturetheseinequalitiesintheformofidentifyinglinksbetweenprivilege,participationandinfluence,corruptionandevidenceofpowerfuleliteswithexcessinfluenceinpublicandpoliticallife.

Unequalinfluenceandpoweralsoexistswithinfamilieswhichleadstoformsofgenderdomination,mainlybymen.Thisdomainincludesmeasuresdesignedtocaptureinequalitiesindecisionmakinginfamilies.


Itisfairlystraightforwardtomeasuretheexistenceofgroupsandassociationsdesignedtoinvolvepeopleindecisionmaking.Equallyitispossibletoquantifydifferencesinmembershipofthesegroupsoridentifyifthepoliticalsystemshaveformalwaystochanneltheelectorates’viewsandpreferencesandbeaccountableforthat.Itismuchhardertofindmeasuresoftheinfluencethedifferentmembersofthosegroupshaveondecisionmaking.People’sperceptionsofinfluencecanprovideausefulindicator,whereavailable,andreluctancetojoingroupsmaywellbeareflectionof(perceived)lackofinfluence.Thereissomecasestudyevidenceontheinfluenceofcitizenactiononlegalreforms,forexampleonwomen’srightsandcivilrights(Al-Sharmani,M.(ed.),2010).

Measuresincludedinthisdomainaredesignedtomeasuredifferencesinparticipationbetweenindividualsandgroups,politicalcapturebyelitesandcorruption.Themeasuresofinfluenceextendbeyondthepolitical,publicandworkspherestodecisionmakinginfamilies.


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Al-Sharmani,M.(ed.)(2010).FeministActivism,Women'sRights,andLegalReform,ZedBookshttps://www.ids.ac.uk/publication/feminist-activism-women-s-rights-and-legal-reform

Fuentes-Nieva,R.,andGalasso,N.(2014).WorkingfortheFew:Politicalcaptureandeconomicinequality,OxfamBriefingPaper178,publishedbyOxfamGBforOxfamInternationalunderISBN978-1-78077-540-1https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/bp-working-for-few-political-capture-economic-inequality-200114-en.pdf

Gaventa,J.,andMcGee,R.(2010).CitizenActionandNationalPolicyReform:MakingChangeHappen,Zedbookshttp://www.ids.ac.uk/publication/citizen-action-and-national-policy-reform-making-change-happen

Gilen,M.(2012).AffluenceandInfluence:EconomicInequalityandPoliticalPowerinAmerica,PrincetonUniversityPress.

Gilens,M.,andPage,B.I.(2014).TestingTheoriesofAmericanPolitics:Elites,InterestGroups,andAverageCitizens,PerspectivesonPolitics,12(3):564–581.

Gurumurthy,A.,Bharthur,D.,andChami,N.(2017).Voiceorchatter?MakingICTsworkfortransformativecitizenengagement,IDSresearchreporthttp://www.makingallvoicescount.org/publication/voice-chatter-making-icts-work-transformative-citizen-engagement/

Petitt,J.(2012).EmpowermentandParticipation:bridgingthegapbetweenunderstandingandpracticehttp://www.un.org/esa/socdev/egms/docs/2012/JethroPettit.pdf

https://www.ids.ac.uk/publication/feminist-activism-women-s-rights-and-legal-reform

https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/bp-working-for-few-political-capture-economic-inequality-200114-en.pdf

http://www.ids.ac.uk/publication/citizen-action-and-national-policy-reform-making-change-happen

http://www.ids.ac.uk/publication/citizen-action-and-national-policy-reform-making-change-52

http://www.makingallvoicescount.org/publication/voice-chatter-making-icts-work-transformative-citizen-engagement/

http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/egms/docs/2012/JethroPettit.pdf


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Sub-domain6.A:Participateinandhaveinfluenceoverdemocraticandotherdecision-makingprocessesatanyterritoriallevel,andincludingindigenous,customaryorcommunitydecision-makingprocesses

Indicator6.1:PoliticalparticipationMeasure6.1.1:Percentageofthepopulationentitledtovotefor:(a)alllevelsofpolitical

office;(b)onlysomeofthemostpowerfulpoliticalpositions;(c)none

Measure6.1.2:Inequalityinvoterturnoutinnationalorlocalelections

Measure6.1.3:Percentageofseatsin(a)nationalparliamentsand(b)localgovernmentsbysex,age,disabilitystatus,privatelyeducated,familybackgroundandpopulationgroups(e.g.ethnicity)

Indicator6.2:PoliticalactivityMeasure6.2.1:Percentagewhohaveformallycontactedlocalrepresentatives/national

governmentrepresentative/politicalpartyinlast12months

Measure6.2.2:Percentagewhohaveexercisedtheirrighttopetitionorprotestinlast12months

Measure6.2.3:Percentagewhoattendedapoliticalrally,meetingorspeechinlast12months

Measure6.2.4:Percentagewhohavebeeninvolvedinanyofficialconsultation,town-hallmeetingand/oranyotherofficialgovernmentalpracticeinrulemaking(national,regionaland/orlocallevel)

Indicator6.3:PerceivedinfluenceMeasure6.3.1:Percentagewhofeeltheycaninfluencedecisionsaffectingtheirlocalarea

Measure6.3.2:Percentageofpopulationwhobelievedecision-makingisinclusiveandresponsive,bysex,age,disabilityandpopulationgroup

Sub-domain6.B:Evidenceofpowerfuleliteswithexcessinfluenceandcontroloverdecision-makingprocessesinpublicandpoliticallife

Indicator6.4:PoliticalprivilegeandevidenceofundueinfluenceandcorruptionMeasure6.4.1:Evidenceofapoliticalelite(a)politicaldynasties;(b)narroweducational

background(particularschools/universities);(c)medianwealthofelectedpoliticians

Measure6.4.2:Evidenceofpoliticalrevolvingdoors:(a)personnelmovingbetweeninfluentialpoliticalpositionsandrolesinthelobbyingindustry;(b)personnelmovingbetweenrolesaslegislatorsandregulatorsandmembersofindustriesaffectedbythelegislationandregulation


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Measure6.4.3:Extentofcorruption:Proportionofpersonswhohadatleastonecontactwithapublicofficialandwhopaidabribetoapublicofficial,orwereaskedforabribebythosepublicofficials,duringtheprevious12months

Sub-domain6.C:Participateindecision-makingandmakedecisionsaffectingyourownlifeindependentlywithinyourhouseholdandfamily

Indicator6.5:Decision-makingwithinfamiliesMeasure6.5.1:Whomakesfinaldecisionswithinthefamilyonkeyaspectssuchaswhereto

live,children’seducation,work,finances,etc.:(a)decisionsaremadejointly;(b)decisionsaremadebyheadoffamily(specifygender)

Sub-domain6.D:Participateinnon-governmentalorganisationsconcernedwithpublic,politicalandworkinglife

Indicator6.6:Participationinnon-governmentalorganisationsMeasure6.6.1:Percentagewhoareamemberofalocaldecision-makingbody(town/village

council,localassociation,localeducationorhealthbodies)

Measure6.6.2:Percentageofemployeeswhoareamemberofatradeunionorworkplaceorganisationactiveinrelationsandconditionsofwork

Sub-domain6.E:Havefreedomtoformandjoincivilorganisations,socialmovementsandsolidaritygroups,includingtradeunions;freedomofassemblyandassociationandenjoyactivecitizenship

Indicator6.7:Takingpartincivilorganizations,socialmovementsandothersocialcollectiveactions

Measure6.7.1:Percentageactiveinacampaigninggroup,socialmovementorpoliticalparty(canbeviasocialmedia)

Domain7:Individual,familyandsociallife

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Domain7.Individual,familyandsociallife:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoyindividual,familyandsociallife,toexpressyourselfandtohaveself-respect

Thecapabilitytoenjoyindividual,familyandsociallife,toexpressyourselfandhaveself-respectisfundamentaltobeingabletolivethetypeoflifepeoplehavereasontovalue.Thisdimensionrepresentsanimportantareaoflifethattypicallydoesnotfeatureinexistingframeworks,highlightingtheadvantageofadoptingthecapabilityapproachasthetheoreticalfoundation.

Peopleneedtobefreetoformulateandpursuegoalsandobjectivesforthemselves,todevelopasapersonthroughfreedomofexpressionandtolivewithoutfearofhumiliation,harassment,orabusebasedonwhotheyare.Noteveryoneisfreetodevelopasapersoninthiswayandimportantinequalitiesexistbetweendifferentgroupsofpeopleinmanycountries.Thiscanhaveanegativeimpactonself-confidence,self-respectandself-esteem.Recentresearchhasshownthatroughlyaquarteroftheworld’scountriesarestillgrapplingwithhighlevelsofreligioushostilities(PewResearchCenter,2015).Differencesinpersonalresources,legalframeworks,socialnorms,treatmentbythoseinauthorityorwithcareresponsibilities,socialrecognition,anddiscriminationbasedonpersonalcharacteristicscanplayanimportantroleinshapingtheseinequalities.Discriminationcantakemanyforms,includingdiscriminationbasedon:sexualidentity(UNHRC,

Sub-domains

7.A:Freedomtodevelopasaperson,maintaindignity,self-respect,self-esteemandself-confidence;freedomtoexpressyourself

7.B:Formandmaintainintimaterelationships,friendshipsandafamily;enjoyindependenceandequalityinprimaryrelationships,includingmarriage,beconfidentthattheywillbetreatedwithdignityandrespect

7.C:Enjoyfamilylife,includinginthecontextofglobaldisplacementandinternationalmigration

7.D:Spendtimewithothersincludingwiderfamilyandknowthatthereissomeoneyoucancountonwhenhelpisneeded

7.E:Befreetoenjoyasociallife,engageinculturalandothervaluedactivities(includingvoluntarywork)


56

2015);healthstatussuchasHIV/AIDS(VisserandSipsma,2013);race;gender,aswellasintersectionalformsofdiscrimination(HillCollinsandBilge,2016).Measuresinthisdomainincludeperceptionsoffreedomofchoiceandcontroloverthewaylifeturnsout,abilitytopracticereligionorbeliefswithoutfacinghostility,andcontrolovermakingpersonaldecisions.

Inthefamilyandrelationshipsphere,theabilitytoformintimaterelationshipsandafamilyandtoenjoyindependenceandequalityinprimaryrelationships,underpinnedbyfreedominmattersofsexualrelationsandreproduction,areallimportantforindividualwell-being.Thisdomainincludesmeasurestocaptureinequalitiesinautonomywithregardstoprimaryrelationshipsandtheabilitytoenjoyfamilylifeinthecontextofglobal(andlocal)displacementandinternationalmigration.

Inthesocialsphere,itisimportanttobeabletoformfriendships,havetimetospendwith,andcarefor,friendsandfamilyandtobeabletocelebratespecialoccasionsandculturalevents.Equallyknowingthatthereissomeonewhowilllookoutforyouandcareforyouintimesofneedisimportantforpersonalwell-being.Contactwiththewidercommunitycanstrengthensocialconnectionsandenhancesociallives.Engagementinculturalandreligiouspracticeswithothermembersofyourchosengrouporgroupsisimportantfordevelopingandmaintainingculturalandreligiousidentities.Lonelinessisariskfactorforpoorhealthandmortality(HawkleyandCacioppo,2010)andismoreprevalentamongsomegroupsthanothers.Theelderly,particularlythoselivingaloneareparticularlyatriskbutratesvarybetweencountries(HansenandSlagsvold,2016).Anothergroupwhoaremorelikelytoexperiencelonelinessaremigrants,especiallythoseseparatedfrompartnersandfamilies(vandeBroekandGrundy,2017).Thedomainincludesmeasurescapturinginequalityintheseaspectsofsociallife.


Inequalitymeasuresinthisdomainincludeperceptions(forexample,freedomofchoiceandcontrol),experience(forexample,experienceofreligioushostility)andincidence(forexample,marriedatanearlyage(before15and18years)).Somemeasureinequalityinordinalvariablessuchasself-esteem,self-confidenceandloneliness.

Anumberoftheinequalitymeasuresincludedinthisdomainwillnotbefoundinofficialstatisticsbuthouseholdsurveysareagoodsourceofinformation.


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Hansen,T.,andSlagsvold,B.(2016).‘Late-lifelonelinessin11Europeancountries:ResultsfromtheGenerationsandGenderSurvey’,SocialIndicatorsResearch,129(1):445–464.doi:10.1007/s11205-015-1111-6.

Hawkley,L.C.,andCacioppo,J.T.(2010).‘Lonelinessmatters:Atheoreticalandempiricalreviewofconsequencesandmechanisms’,AnnalsofBehavioralMedicine,40(2):218–227.doi:10.1007/s12160-010-9210-8.

HillCollins,P.,andBilge,S.(2016).Intersectionality,Cambridge:Polity.

PewResearchCenter(2015).‘LatestTrendsinReligiousRestrictionsandHostilities,PewResearchCenterreporthttp://www.pewforum.org/2015/02/26/religious-hostilities/

Renger,D.,andSimon,B.(2011).‘Socialrecognitionasanequal:Theroleofequality-basedrespectingrouplife’,SpecialIssue:TheCentralityofSocialImageinSocialPsychology,41(4):501-507.https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.814

UNHRC(2015).Discriminationandviolenceagainstindividualsbasedontheirsexualorientationandgenderidentity,UNHumanRightsCouncilA/HRC/29/23http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/HRC/29/23&referer=/english/&Lang=E

vandenBroek,T.,andGrundy,E.(2017).‘LonelinessamongPolishmigrantsintheNetherlands:theimpactofpresenceandlocationofpartnersandoffspring’,DemographicResearch,37(23):727-742.ISSN1435-9871

Visser,M.,andSipsma,H.(2013).‘TheExperienceofHIV-RelatedStigmainSouthAfrica’,inLiamputtong,P.(eds.)Stigma,DiscriminationandLivingwithHIV/AIDS.Springer,Dordrecht.

http://www.pewforum.org/2015/02/26/religious-hostilities/

https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.814

http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/HRC/29/23&referer=/english/&Lang=E


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Sub-domain7.A:Freedomtodevelopasaperson,maintaindignity,self-respect,self-esteemandself-confidence;freedomtoexpressyourself

Indicator7.1:Personalautonomyandfreedomtodevelopasapersonandlivethelifeyouchoose

Measure7.1.1:Percentagewhofeelabletobethemselves:(a)withtheirfamily,(b)withfriends,and(c)inpublic

Measure7.1.2:Percentagewhofeelabletopracticetheirreligionorbeliefsfreely

Measure7.1.3:Percentagewhofellthattheyhavefreedomofchoiceandcontroloverthewaytheirlifeturnsout

Measure7.1.4:Percentagewhofeelthattheyhavesufficientcontrolinmakingpersonaldecisionsthataffecttheireverydayactivities

Measure7.1.5:Inequalityinlifesatisfaction

Indicator7.2:Havefreedomfromstigma,harassmentanddiscrimination;enjoydignityandself-respect,self-esteemandself-confidence

Measure7.2.1:Inequalityinself-esteem–using,forexample,theRosenbergself-esteemscale(RSES)

Measure7.2.2:Inequalityinself-confidence

Measure7.2.3:Inequalityintheexperiencesofdignityandrespect

Measure7.2.4:Percentageofthepopulationreportinghavingpersonallyfeltdiscriminatedagainstorharassedwithintheprevious12monthsonthebasisofagroundofdiscriminationprohibitedunderinternationalhumanrightslaw

Measure7.2.5:Percentageofthepopulationreportingthatthecityorareawheretheyliveagoodplaceornotagoodplacetolivefor(a)immigrantsfromothercountries;(b)gayorlesbianpeople

Measure7.2.6:GroupGrievanceindicator.Discrimination,powerlessness,ethnicviolence,communalviolence,sectarianviolence,andreligiousviolence,measuredonascaleon0(lowpressures)to10(veryhighpressures)

Measure7.2.7:Percentageexperiencingreligioushostility


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Sub-domain7.B:Formandmaintainintimaterelationships,friendshipsandafamily;enjoyindependenceandequalityinprimaryrelationships,includingmarriage,beconfidentthattheywillbetreatedwithdignityandrespect

Indicator7.3:Beingabletoformandpursuetherelationshipsyouwant,freetomakedecisionsonwhentoformandstartafamily,liveasafamilyandhaveasayonfamilylife

Measure7.3.1:Percentageforwhomothersdecideontheirbehalfwhotheyformtheirprimaryrelationshipwith

Measure7.3.2:Percentageofwomenaged20-24yearswhoweremarriedorinaunionbeforeage15andbeforeage18

Measure7.3.3:Percentageofwomenaged15-49yearswhomaketheirowninformeddecisionsregardingsexualrelations,contraceptiveuseandreproductivehealthcare

Measure7.3.4:Percentageofchildrenwhomaintaincontactwithnon-residentparentafterparentalseparation

Sub-domain7.C:Enjoyfamilylife,includinginthecontextofglobaldisplacementandinternationalmigration

Indicator7.4:Enjoyfamilylifeinthecontextofglobaldisplacementandinternationalmigration

Measure7.4.1:Percentageornumberseparatedfromfamilyduetodisplacement,migrationandwork

Sub-domain7.D:Spendtimewithothersincludingwiderfamilyandknowthatthereissomeonewhocanbecountedonwhenhelpisneeded

Indicator7.5:Havingsocialsupportandfreedomfromsocialisolation

Measure7.5.1:Percentagemeetingrelativesorfriendsatleastonceaweek

Measure7.5.2:Percentagewhofeellonely

Measure7.5.3:Percentagewhointimesoftroublehaverelativesorfriendswhotheycancountontohelpwhenneeded

Sub-domain7.E:Befreetoenjoyasociallife,engageinculturalandothervaluedactivities(includingvoluntarywork)

Indicator7.6:Beingabletoparticipateinkeysocialandculturaloccasionswhichmattertoyou

Measure7.6.1:Percentagewhosaytheyhavebeenunabletoparticipateinimportantsocialorculturaloccasionsandreasonswhy

International Inequalities Institute, LSEHoughton St, London, WC2A 2AEUnited [email protected]

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Documents

MIF - STICERDsticerd.lse.ac.uk/inequality/the-framework/media/mif-framework.pdf · The Multidimensional Inequality Framework (MIF) provides a systematic approach to measuring and