Light, Architecture and Dominant Ideologies Throughout History

Nita Wareechatchai

ARCH 3120: Systems, Texts and Building; Architectural Theory and Analysis

December 14, 2018

Wareechatchai 1

1. Introduction and Purpose.

Since Plato and Socrates, common themes in western philosophy have been the good life,

justice, and the state. All of these ideas relate because for many philosophers a part of the good

life is to live in community. Justice in the state involves asking what characteristics of a state and

what environment would promote and preserve a good life for its citizens. The Greek

philosopher Aristotle put forward two ideas in regards to a just society. The two ideas are telos

and honor. Telos involves defining the purpose, end, or essential nature of the practice, while

honor involves deciding what virtues society should reward, honor, and promote in light of the

telos or purpose of the practice. Aristotle’s ideas of telos and honor relate to an idea of ends and 1

means. A society’s telos are its ends, while honoring virtues are a means to promote those ends.

A part of being a culture or a society is deciding what your society values and what

virtues the state should to promote. Architects as well are making these judgments of telos and

honor in their practice. While designing and building civic or community spaces, architects are

making judgements on what virtues they would like to promote based on some ideology of the

purpose, end, or essential nature of buildings, society, and the good life. Architecture is a

physical expression in reality of the architect’s judgements on the telos and virtues of society, of

the good life, and of building. In other words, the ideals and ideology of the architect is

embedded in his or her design and appears physically in their built work. The designed space is

meant to reinforce specific ideals and encourage certain feelings or behavior related to that

perceived telos.

1 Sandel, Michael J. Justice: What’s the Right Thing To Do? p. 186

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In my research paper, I would like to analyze the architect’s view of the telos and virtues

of society, building, and the good life through three overarching ideological and stylistic

movements throughout history: pre-modernism, modernism, and postmodernism. The ideologies

and philosophies of these movements will define the ends a society should promote. The style

and architectural choices of buildings should reflect these ends and promote or honor the virtues

related to the telos of a society or good life defined by the systems in power at the time of

construction. This paper will use the design of man-made space as evidence and explore how the

styles of architecture in a philosophical system promote the ideologies of the system, what that

system says about how people should live in society, how institutions affected the community

life of the citizens of their time, and what virtues or behaviors these spaces encourage.

2. Limiting the Breadth of this Essay.

Since this paper is limited in length and analyzing all the architecture these three

philosophical systems encompass would be difficult to do within that limited length, my scope

will be narrowed to studying light and church within each of these systems. One specific and

essential aspect of architecture and designed space is the control of light. Architects must always

consider light or the lack thereof when designing. Light affects the viewer’s perception of space

and material. Louis Kahn, an architect, regarded light as the “giver of all presences” because

light is what creates shadow and is vital to the sense and experience of space. Furthermore, a 2

building type which principally considers light is the church. Vital to church architecture is the

control of light. Additionally, while designing churches, architects are also making judgements

2 Schielke, Thomas. “Light Matters: Louis Kahn and the Power of Shadow.”

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on what virtues they would like to promote based on some ideology of the purpose, end, or

essential nature of buildings, society, and the good life. The only difference being that churches

especially have a specific divinity and ideology behind them that also informs the architecture

beyond a stylistic movement or philosophical system. However, despite the fact that church

architecture is informed with more than merely a stylistic movement, the styles in place at the

time period of building the church still affect the design of the church. The church is apt for our

purposes and can be subject to the same analysis as any other building type.

3. An Overview of these Systems or Movements.

Grouping history into three ideological systems or movements will entail much

generalization and will have allow for much variation in order to encompass all the styles and

ideas within these frameworks. As a basic way to differentiate these large styles of thought, I will

begin by viewing the three in terms of their epistemology or theory of knowledge; the essay will

use this as a basis for defining each system as a whole. In addition, the chronology of these

systems will help characterize the systems. Largely, modernism is a reaction to pre-modernism;

likewise, postmodernism is a reaction to modernism. Both modernism and pre-modernism can be

characterized as what came after the previous system.

4. Pre-modernism.

This essay understands pre-modernity to span the time period from the fall of Rome in

476 AD, through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and ends with the advent of the

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Enlightenment in the 17th century. For pre-modernism, knowledge of truth comes from direct 3

revelation from authoritative sources such as God or the ruling authority, and the ideologies of

the time expressed a reliance on authority. Medieval social theory divided society into three 4

parts including the nobility, the church, and the people. The church was the only universal 5

European institution and was “the most dominant institution in medieval life, its influence

pervading almost every aspect of people’s lives.” The church was the center of power in this 6

time period, and many cities across Europe had grand cathedrals at their center.

4.1. Architecture and Symbolism in the Pre-Modern Church.

Architecture of a pre-modern church or cathedral reinforces ideas of faith by imbuing

cosmological symbolism in the structure of the buildings and through creating sense experiences

3 Bristow, William. "Enlightenment." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. and Heather, Peter. "History - Ancient History in Depth: The Fall of Rome." 4 "Premodern, Modern, Postmodern Epistemology." The Reformed Mind. 5 The Church and the Middle Ages. 6 Bovey, Alixe. "Church in the Middle Ages: From Dedication to Dissent."

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that explicitly remind the religious worshiper of the ideas of his faith. Alain De Botton, a

contemporary philosopher and writer, believes that religious art and architecture is essentially

propaganda. I find that this sentiment is especially pertinent to pre-modern churches. Pre-modern

churches, mosques, and cathedrals are a deliberate spreading of the specific ideas involved in a

faith, and when one walks through a church, one cames in contact through the senses with truths

taught by the religion. Essentially, pre-modern churches are, through their symbolic structure and

the experiences they create, explicit “visceral encounter[s] with the most important ideas of your

faith.” 7

4.2. Churches in Pre-Modern Architecture - Hagia Sophia.

The Hagia Sophia was the largest church reconstructed in the 6th century by Emperor

Justinian in the Byzantine empire. The name Hagia Sophia itself means ”Holy Wisdom” and 8

comes from an idea of “Christ as the Wisdom” relating to the pre-modern epistemological theory

that true knowledge comes from God. The design of the Hagia Sophia combines “geometry, 9

light, and cosmology,” creating spaces that are symbolic of God. Procopius, Justinian's court 10

historian, explained

the power of the new church’s space thus: ‘Whenever one enters the church to pray, he

understands at once that it is not by any human power or skill, but by the influence of

7 Botton, Alain De. "Atheism 2.0." 8 "History." Hagia Sophia Museum. 9 "History." Hagia Sophia Museum. and Jabi, Wassim, and Iakovos Potamianos. "Geometry, Light, and Cosmology in the Church of Hagia Sophia." 10 Jabi, Wassim, and Iakovos Potamianos. "Geometry, Light, and Cosmology in the Church of Hagia Sophia."

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God, that this work has been so finely tuned. And so, his mind is lifted up toward God

and exalted, feeling that He cannot be far away, but must especially love to dwell in this

place which He has chosen.’ 11

Much religious symbolism is imbued in the Hagia Sophia’s geometry, use of material, use of

light, and use of sound.

The geometry of floor plan is a circle inscribed within a square circumscribed within

another circle which is itself also inscribed within another square. Both of these shapes have

cosmological reference as the “cube symbolized the order of the universe while the sphere

symbolizes its physical form.” The geometry of the Hagia sophia in plan also served to create 12

proportional religion space. The geometry of the apse and its light shaft is oriented so that light

comes through at a significant time of day from the east. Light shines through the apse at the

third hour of day which represents the descent of the Holy Ghost; physical light reminds the

worshipers of the ethereal spirit of the Holy Ghost. Furthermore, the central dome of the Hagia 13

Sophia has windows to allow light into the dome. This creates a focus of central light in the

dome which in turn creates a centralized space within the dome while representing God and

implying a centralization of power. 14

The Byzantine church dome appears to “emit light from within” enhanced by the fact that

the pendentives are shaped such that they allow light in and give the appearance of the dome as

11 Ingersoll, Richard. World Architecture: A Cross-cultural History. p. 214 12 Jabi, Wassim, and Iakovos Potamianos. "Geometry, Light, and Cosmology in the Church of Hagia Sophia." 13 Pentcheva, Bissera V. "Hagia Sophia and Multisensory Aesthetics." 14 Coch, Glòria Serra. “Religious Architecture and Light. Part II.”

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lifted off the ground and as not subject to earthly gravity. This relates to the idea that the church 15

is not a structure of man, but a structure under the influence of God.

The materials of the church includes marble and gold which paired with the shifting

natural light of the space creates a constantly moving surface that the viewer sees. A worshiper

would relate the shifting marble floors with the idea of the sea, which evokes the idea of

“inspiriting matter,” which evokes the “Eucharist… the imparting of spirit into matter,

transforming bread and wine into flesh and blood.” The constant flux of the gold mosaic and 16

marble floors expresses the concept of “the presence of the spirit in matter.” This relates to 17

what I mentioned earlier about visceral encounter with ideas of faith. The dynamic changes with

light of the physical surfaces of the Hagia Sophia produce an illusion of God or the Holy Spirit

physically in the matter of the space. A worshiper in the space is reminded of and understands

the ideas of his faith through the architecture of the physical space.

15 Jabi, Wassim, and Iakovos Potamianos. "Geometry, Light, and Cosmology in the Church of Hagia Sophia." 16 Pentcheva, Bissera V. "Hagia Sophia and Multisensory Aesthetics." 17 Pentcheva, Bissera V. "Hagia Sophia and Multisensory Aesthetics."

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5. Modernism.

Modernism begins in the 17th century with the Enlightenment and ends in the mid-20th

century with the birth of postmodernism. For modernism, knowledge of truth came from

empiricism or logic, and with the rise of modernism, came the idea of the human as the center of

life and society as opposed to God. Modernism is a reaction against the previous order of God as

the authority. With the rapid progression of science and reason in the Enlightenment, the

supernatural beliefs and knowledge of the world from the religious orders comes under

suspicion. Science and reason begins to hold more influence, and many thinkers of the time

believed that philosophy and science “would dramatically improve human life.” The 19

enlightenment and modernism is a departure from God in favor of the individual as a thinking,

18 Image used in diagram 2 retrieved from: http://yama-bato.tumblr.com/post/14606322214/conservation-of-hagia-sophia-mosaics-istanbul 19 Bristow, William. "Enlightenment."

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rational, and conscious being with intellectual powers who can determine for itself how to act

and what to believe.

These ideas come from a school of rationalism in the Enlightenment founded by René

Descartes. Descartes is largely regarded as the father of modern philosophy most famous for his

work the Meditations On First Philosophy wherein which the idea of “I think therefore I am”

comes from. This provided a groundwork for human knowledge rather than God’s knowledge. 20

Additionally, the skepticism Descartes employs in his Meditations On First Philosophy is

another major form of thinking in the Enlightenment. One other major school in modernism is

empiricism which favors experimental natural science “founded on empirical observation and

experimentation,” “arrived at through a method of induction,” and “as ultimately aiming at, and

as confirmed by, enhanced practical capacities.” These three schools of rationalism, skepticism, 21

and empiricism are the beginning of modern thought and a world with man as the center.

20 Newman, Lex. "Descartes' Epistemology." 21 Bristow, William. "Enlightenment."

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5.1. Modern Ideals for Society.

Many varying ideas for organizing society came about in this period such as socialism,

utilitarianism, and industrialism, but three common concepts run throughout the period. The first

concept is that by using reason and science, we could vastly improve society and the lives of

human beings. The second concept is universalism, the idea that a sound theory of social justice

can apply in all societies or that a theory of how to live well is the same for everyone. There 22

22 Bell, Daniel. "Communitarianism."

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exists an objective basis for social justice and there exist objective principles on how to live well

or at least on what one needs to be well. For example, Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye, which he

considered a machine for living, would work as a standardized machine for living for all

different types of people. The third concept is the idea of efficiency and utility. With 23

technological advancements in agriculture and industry, the machine rose as a prominent

paradigm of efficiency and utility, where each part functions together in the operation of an

efficient system. For the most part in this time period, “form ever follows function” in modern

architecture. 24

5.2. Churches in Modern Architecture - Ronchamp.

The shift from a theocentric worldview to an anthropocentric worldview does have an

effect on church architecture. In Le Corbusier’s Ronchamp, light still plays a large role, and the

space does give off a feeling sacred and religious space with an aural, sacred ambiance.

However, light in Ronchamp is not an explicit metaphor for tenants of faith or God and the Holy

Spirit. The light is not assigned a divine narrative, rather the light is abstracted and decentralized,

coming from multiple sources. The white walls create and ethereal atmosphere “in the church in

tune with the religious activities.” Light no longer represents God, but in a more 25

anthropocentric way, light now compliments the human activities within the space. For the

modernists, even in the church, “light is made for the human.” 26

23Kohlstedt, Kurt. "Machines for Living In: Le Corbusier's Pivotal "Five Points of Architecture".” 24 Ingersoll, Richard. World Architecture: A Cross-cultural History . p. 707 25 Kroll, Andrew. “AD Classics: Ronchamp / Le Corbusier.” 26 Coch, Glòria Serra. “Religious Architecture and Light. Part III.”

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In modern architecture, light accentuates the strategy and design of the architecture

without any reference to God as the influence or power that allowed this church to come to be.

Le Corbusier’s skill, not God’s, is behind the magnificent and interesting design of Ronchamp.

In modern architecture light is more geometrically organized as can be seen from the windows

Le Corbusier placed in the walls which, though sporadically placed, were geometrical in frame.

The windows highlighted a design concept by Le Corbusier not God. Another aspect of the

church not inspired by God is the curving roof which allows for clerestory light. This roof design

“mimics the curves of an airplane wing.” The design is informed by modern ideals and 27

aesthetics rather than a religious power. Within Ronchamp and other modern churches, a

consideration for daylight and the cycle of the sun is still apparent. Le Corbusier’s curving roof

and window cutouts allow natural light in to create the ambient space within. The ambient and

shifting light helps reinforce the idea that the space of Ronchamp is an aural, sacred space.

27 Kroll, Andrew. “AD Classics: Ronchamp / Le Corbusier.”

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6. Postmodernism.

Postmodernism begins in the late 20th century and extends to the present day. For

postmodernism, knowledge of truth comes from many sources; postmodernists exercised

epistemological pluralism. Postmodernism is a reaction to modernism. More specifically, 29

postmodernism is a reaction against modernism. Postmodernists feel that modernity was too

oppressive, corrupt, and in favor of one dominance hierarchy without regard for other minority

28 Image used in diagram 4 retrieved from: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/301178293804792092/?lp=true 29 Hoffman, Louis. "Premodernism, Modernism, & Postmodernism: An Overview."

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groups. Postmodernism according to Britannica is “in Western philosophy, a late 20th century

movement characterized by broad skepticism, subjectivism, or relativism; a general suspicion of

reason and an acute sensitivity to the role of ideology in asserting and maintaining political and

economic power.” Jean-Francois Lyotard, a leading figure of the postmodernist movement, 30

states that postmodernism is an “incredulity toward all metanarratives” “of human biological,

historical, and social development” or rather a skeptical attitude towards truth-claims which are

only attempts at creating “totalizing systems of thought” that, in addition to being utterly false,

also impose conformity on the marginalized oppressed. Postmodernity involves much 31

fragmentation and its architecture varies for postmodernists reject any one narrative in favor of

many different stories and explanations, all of which have social subjective truth.

30 Duignan, Brian. "Postmodernism." 31 ExplorationFilms. “What is Postmodernism?” and Duignan, Brian. "Postmodernism."

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7. Churches in Postmodern Architecture - Cathedral of Christ the Light.

Postmodern architecture and postmodern churches vary greatly and are complex, sharing

few qualities. Among the qualities they do share, beyond their complexity, is their almost

transitory ideological nature that produces architecture based more on hypothesis rather than a

consolidated body of knowledge or a specific ideology. For, postmodern churches, “spiritual

conception is not the only influence in the shaping of light in the space.” Additionally, 32

postmodern architecture tends to place an emphasis on the societal openness of the built work

32 Coch, Glòria Serra. “Religious Architecture and Light. Part IV.”

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that should be welcoming for all types of people and be, for the most, part non-exclusive. Within

postmodern architecture is the idea of non-linearity which highlights the ideology’s

non-dominant nature and complexity.

A prime example of these ideas is the Cathedral of Christ the Light. Built by SOM, an

architecture firm, the Cathedral of Christ the Light “employs a non-linear approach… without

forcing a specific point of view.” Additionally, the design is meant to convey an “inclusive 33

statement of welcome and openness...the design achieves an extraordinary level of lightness and

luminosity.” The lightness of the church and its material use of mainly wood and glass which 34

are lighter materials highlight another change from pre-modern to postmodern architecture. 35

Pre-modern churches use light in a more controlled way that involved heaviness, monolithic

qualities, and darkness while postmodern churches almost completely open the facade creating

well lit and open spaces. Modern churches share both qualities with its open spaces, ambient 36

lighting, and use of heavy materials. The postmodern opening of the facade does allow for more

light to flow within and creates a sense of openness and luminosity, but this also generates a lack

of control in terms of the light. In the Cathedral of Christ the Light, the lack of control is

remedied by a use of light filters that break apart the light in the space and creates more

ambience. Postmodern churches are more decentralized, complex, open, and abstract than their 37

pre-modern and modern counterparts.

33 “The Cathedral of Christ the Light / SOM.” ArchDaily. 34“Cathedral of Christ the Light.” SOM 35 “The Cathedral of Christ the Light / SOM.” ArchDaily. 36 Coch, Glòria Serra. “Religious Architecture and Light. Part IV.” 37 Coch, Glòria Serra. “Religious Architecture and Light. Part IV.”

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8. Conclusion.

Pre-modernism, modernism, and postmodernism vary greatly in their employment of

light, and these differences stem from their ideological differences, varying from explicit to

abstract and complex. However, what remains the same between these three systems is the use of

light as a tool to create spiritual atmosphere.

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