FM 3-11 Flame, Riot Control Agents & Herbicide Ops

8/7/2019 FM 3-11 Flame, Riot Control Agents & Herbicide Ops

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MCWP 3-3.7.2

19 AUGUST 1996

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

DENNIS J. REIMERGeneral, United States Army

Chief of Staff Official:

Administrative Assistant to the

Secretary of the Army 02190

Paul K. Van RiperLieutenant General, US Marine Corps

Commanding General Marine Corps Combat envelopment Command

Quantico, Virginia

DISTRIBUTION:

Active Army, USAR, and ARNG: To be distributed in accordance with DA Form12-11E, requirements for FM 3-11,Flame, Riot Control Agents and Herbicide Operations(Qty rqr block no. 0153) *U.S. Government Printing Official 1996- 728-027/4


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P r e f a c e

This publication describes the doctrine, tactics, and techniques for employing flame weapons,(RCA), and herbicides during peacetime and combat. It is intended primarily for use by chemechelons in planning the employment of flame and non-lethal materials (RCAs and herbicidesRCAs is discussed in detail in TC 3-8,Chemical Training.This manual does not implement any international standardization agreements; however, thmanual is in accordance with related international agreements.Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusiveExtracts from FM 5-250,Explosives and Demolitions,are used extensively throughout this field manual fotechnical and operational clarity. For further information concerning the use of military explocomponents, see FM 5-250.The proponent of this publication is the US Army Chemical School. Send comments and recoForm 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) directly to:

CommandantUS Army Chemical SchoolATTN: ATZN-CMR-AFort McClellan, AL 36205-5020

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CHAPTER 1

U.S. Policy for

F lame ,Riot Control Agents

a n dHerbic ides

PEACETIME USEPolicy govering US policy for RCA and herbicides is found in Executive Order 11850 dated 8 Apr 75,Renunciation of Certain Uses i n War of Chemicals,

The Secretary of the Army, as Executive Agent foHerbicides, and Riot Control Agents. the Department of Defense for civil disturbanceoperations, has issued instructions governing the

WARTIME USEThe US has renounced first use of herbicides in warexcept under regulations applicable to domestic use orfor control of vegetation within US bases andinstallations and around their immediate perimeters.The US has renounced the first use of RCAs in war.US forces will only use RCAs in war in defensivemodes to save lives as approved by the President.In wartime, use of RCAs outside the war zone isauthorized as prescribed for peacetime.For RCA and herbicide use, war is any period of armed conflict no matter how it may becharacterized, including declared and undeclared war,counterinsurgency, and any other uses of armedforces in engagements between US military forcesand foreign military or paramilitary forces. Armedconflict is conflict between states in which at leastone party has resorted to the use of armed force toachieve its aims. It also may involve conflict betweena state and uniformed or non-uniformed groupswithin that state, such as organized resistance groups.Commanders must recognize that, while the US doesnot consider herbicides and riot control agents to bechemical weapons, some other countries do not drawa distinction. Commanders must considerinternational ramifications and Rules of Engagement before recommending the use of herbicides or RCAs.

of RCAs in civil disturbances in the US, theCommonwealth of Puerto Rico, and US possessioand territories.RCAs may be used on US bases, posts, embassygrounds, and installations for protection and secupurposes, riot control, installation security, andevacuation of US noncombatants and foreignnationals. The US-controlled portions of foreigninstallations are considered US installations.Chemical aerosol-irritant projectors may be used bmilitary law enforcement personnel for theperformance of law enforcement activities. They m be used

On-base and off-base in the United States and itterritories and possessions.

On-base overseas and off-base overseas in thosecountries where such use is specifically authorizedthe host-country government.RCAs may be used off-base (worldwide) for theprotection or recovery of nuclear weapons under th

CONTENTSWartime Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1Peacetime Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Authority. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weapons Employing Fire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2

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same conditions as those authorized for the use of lethal force. (See DOD Directive 5210.56.)RCAs may be used in training. A review of currenttreaties and/or Status-of-Forces Agreements betweenthe host country and US forces may be required indetermining whether or not training with RCAs isauthorized overseas.Herbicides may be used within US bases, posts, andinstallations for control of vegetation. Use of herbicides off-base overseas must be in accordancewith host country laws and agreements, USEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA)requirements, or Service regulations, whichever arethe most stringent.

AUTHORITYOnly thePresidentmay authorize the following:

Use of RCAs in war, including defensive military

modes. However, advance authority to use RCAs forprotection or recovery of nuclear weapons has beendelegated to the Secretary of the Defense.

Wartime use of herbicides, including installationvegetation control.TheSecretary of Defensemay authorize the following:

Use of RCAs or herbicides in peacetime.Use of RCAs in wartime for the protection or

recovery of nuclear weapons.CINCs and the Chiefs of Services may authorize:

The use of RCAs in peacetime on US installationsfor riot control, installation security, civil disturbanceoperations, and non-combatant emergency evacuation

operations. The US-controlled portions of foreign

installations are considered US installations.The movement and storage of RCAs and

herbicides, as necessary, to support requiremenprovided US control is maintained.

The off-base use of RCAs in peacetime for thprotection or recovery of nuclear weapons undesame situations as authorized for the use of leforce.The use of herbicides in peacetime within anwhen authorized by the host country governmaround US bases for control of vegetation.

The use of chemical aerosol-irritant projectmilitary law enforcement personnel during pefor the performance of law enforcement activitthe following areas:

On-base and off-base in the US and itsterritories and possessions.

On-base and off-base overseas in thosecountries where such use is specifically authorithe host country government.

Authority for use of RCAs in peacetime situnot covered by the above (for example, to savein counterterrorist operations) will be addressedplans and requested by the combatant commanfor Secretary of Defense approval.

WEAPONS EMPLOYING FIREThe use of weapons that employ fire, such as tammunition, flamethrowers, napalm, and otherincendiary agents, against targets requiring theiis not a violation of international law. They shonot, however, be employed to cause unnecessar

suffering to individuals.

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CHAPTER 2

Flame Operat ions

FLAME EFFECTSFlame is a valuable close combat weapon that burns,depletes oxygen, and impacts psychologically. Sinceman fears flame, it is used to demoralize troops andreduce positions that have resisted other forms of attack. Flame produces the following effects:Casualties.Casualties result from

Burns. Thickened fuel sticks to clothing and skin, burns with intense heat, and is extremely difficult toextinguish.

Inhalation of flame, hot gases, and carbonmonoxide.

Suffocation.Shock.

Psychological.The psychological impact is probablyone of the greatest effects of flame. In many cases,defending personnel will leave well-preparedpositions and risk exposure to other weapons orcapture. In other cases, the enemy is forced towithdraw from firing positions during the effective

period of the flame attack. This permits friendlyforces to close in before the enemy reoccupies hisfiring positions.Splatter.Flame reaches around corners through thesplattering and ricochet action of the thickened fuelon adjacent surfaces. The splattering action of thethickened fuel spreads the flame over an areaincontrast to the point effects of nonfragmenting smallarms ammunition.Incendiary.Flame ignites combustible materials tocause additional problems for personnel. Flameweapons ignite clothing, tentage, wires, petroleum

products, buildings of light construction, lightvegetation, munitions, and other combustible material.Battlefield Illumination and Signaling.Controlled,slower burning flame field expedients (FFEs) can beused for close-in battlefield illumination andsignaling. These devices can be made to vary inillumination time from a few minutes to hours.

Smoke.The burning fuel from flame weapons andFFEs produces a dense black smoke that can reduc battlefield visibility appreciably. Smoke from ignimaterials can prolong this condition. This blacksmoke may attract the enemys attention to the flamattack and invite counterfire. To minimize anyhindrance to friendly operations, the presence of thsmoke must be anticipated when planning operatiin which flame weapons or FFEs will be used.

FLAME WEAPONSThe flame weapons available are the M202A1 roclauncher, incendiary grenades, and FFEs.

M202A1

Rocket LauncherThe M202A1 Rocket Launcher(Figure 2-1) is alightweight, individual rocket launcher aimed andfired on the right shoulder from the standing,kneeling, or prone position. The launcher is loadedwith a clip (M74) which contains four rockets. It fire one to four rockets semiautomatically at a rateone rocket per second and can be reloaded with a nclip.

CONTENTSFlame Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1Flame Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Flame Attack Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Weather Effects on Flame Fuels andWeapons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3Destruction to Prevent Enemy Use............2-3Flame Employment Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4Offensive Flame Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Defensive Flame Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5

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The M74 rocket (Figure 2-2) is filled with thickenedpyrophoric agent (TPA). This TPA is triethylalum-inum (TEA), a substance similar to whitephosphorus, which bums spontaneously whenexposed to air (exposure occurs on impact, therefore,no fuel is wasted by burning en route to target). It burns at temperatures between 1400-2200 degreesFahrenheit. The M74 is used to engage area-typetargets out to a range of 750 meters and point-typetargets out to a range of 200 meters. The minimumsafe firing distance to a target is 20 meters (M74 hasa bursting radius of 20 meters; therefore, engagingtargets closer than 20 meters may result in injury tofriendly troops).

Incendiary GrenadesThe AN-M14 TH3 incendiary hand grenade is filledwith thermite, which bums at 4,000 degreesFahrenheit. The grenade bums for 40 seconds andcan bum through a 1/2-inch homogeneous steel plate.It can damage, immobilize, or destroy vehicles,

weapon systems, shelters, or munitions. The grenademay also be used to start fires in areas containingcombustible materials.

Flame Field ExpedientsFFEs can generate violent, effective combat power atdecisive times and places on the battlefield. Thesesystemsfougasses, flame mines and flame

trenchescan be used by tactical commanders to aidin

Repelling enemy penetrations.Destroying enemy forces.Gaining time.Providing obstacles.Isolating or canalizing an enemy.Slowing enemy movement.Surprising enemy forces.Degrading enemy morale.Deceiving enemy forces.

FFEs are formidable, uncomplicated weapons thlend themselves to support of both light and heforces at all levels of the spectrum of conflict. Wapplied at decisive times and places on the batflame weapons reinforce fighting positions, achisurprise, and produce casualties and psychologshock. They may also provide battlefield illuminduring limited visibility to help see enemy forcetrying to assault friendly forces. Exploding FFEdevices produce casualties from the immediatedevelopment of extremely high levels of heat at moment of detonation. Additionally, exploding Fproduce hundreds of white-hot shards of metal container breaks apart. However, the most dangepart of an FFE is the burning thickened fuel thateither is spread in all directions or projected ovelarge area. Thickened fuel is a syrupy liquid thasticks to a target and continues to burn. Once ignflame fuel is extremely difficult to extinguish.Selected FFE devices are constructed to simply in place and provide light during limited visibiIlluminating devices burn for an unspecified tiGenerally, these flare-like systems will burn frofour to eight hours depending upon the quantityfuel contained. They are designed to provide battlefield illumination for the destruction of eforces trying to assault friendly fighting position

FLAME ATTACKTARGETS

In selecting flame attack targets, consider the tyflame weapon available.

FortificationsFlame is particularly effective in the attack of personnel in shelters such as fortifications. Itseffectiveness depends on as the size, number, antype of apertures and construction of the fortificA small fortification may be entirely reduced, bfortification with more than one internal comp

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fortification with more than one internal compartmentusually affords comparative safety to its occupants.The flame fuel must actually penetrate a fortificationfor maximum results. More fuel is required to causecasualties among personnel in well-ventilatedfortifications than in poorly ventilated ones of thesame size. Casualties in fortifications may result fromsuffocation (because oxygen from the air is consumed by the flame) or from actual burns.

Other TargetsPersonnel in open fighting positions are vulnerable toflame. Thickened and pyrophoric fuel tends to stickto the clothing and skin of the occupants and the area,forcing the occupants to abandon the position or stayand be burned by the flaming fuel and risk becomingcasualties.Occupants of built-up areas can be forced to abandontheir positions or become casualties, either fromcontact with the burning fuel or from fires caused byignition of combustible materials (such as wooden buildings).Personnel concealed in vegetation can be forced toabandon their positions or become casualties.If the burning fuel penetrates the occupiedcompartment of the vehicles, personnel in armoredvehicles may become casualties unless they abandonthe vehicles. Armored vehicles buttoned up andmoving are not good targets for flame. The burningfuel must penetrate the openings of the vehicles to beeffective. Burning fuel will not ignite the tracks of moving armored vehicles. Incendiary devices attachedto or penetrating the openings of armored vehiclescan be effective in disabling the vehicles.Personnel in unarmored vehicles will becomecasualties or be forced to abandon the vehicles if flaming fuel is placed in them, since any combustiblematerial in or a part of the vehicles may be ignited ordamaged.Weapon positions may become untenable if hit with burning fuel or incendiary material. Occupants may become casualties and weapons and ammunition may

be damaged.Wires and cables covered with combustible materialmay be damaged by ignition of the coverings from burning flame fuel or fires from flame or incendiarydevices.Small arms ammunition may be destroyed by use of flame fuels and/or incendiary devices.

Generally, supplies that are combustible may bedestroyed or damaged by flame fuels.Noncombustible supplies can be damaged ordestroyed by incendiary devices or by secondary from combustible materials; for example, suppliestored in a wooden building would be damaged bfires that destroyed the building.

WEATHER EFFECTSON FLAME FUELSAND WEAPONS

Wind has minimal effect on the M202A1s rangeaccuracy.Rain has little effect on flame fuel in flight. Flamfuel will float and burn on water. The incendiaryeffect is less on damp material than on dry materiSnow has little effect on flame fuel in flight.However, snow tends to smother flame, reducing incendiary effects in the target area.High temperatures tend to increase the fuelsincendiary action. Flame fuels in high temperaturmay have to be thickened so that they do not buexcessively in flight to the target. Low temperatudecrease the incendiary action and more fuel mayrequired to ignite combustible materials. Additiat low temperatures, flame fuel may have to be mless thick to ensure ignition. Specific precautionsprocedures must be followed in fuel selection,preparation, storage, and firing.

DESTRUCTION TOPREVENT ENEMY USE

Materiel subject to capture or abandonment in acombat zone (except medical) is destroyed by theusing unit only when, in the judgement of the milcommander concerned, destruction is necessary tokeep the materiel from falling into enemy hands.Emergency destruction procedures for fuel,ingredients, and flame weapons are given belowDetailed methods of equipment destruction arepresented in appropriate technical manuals and

bulletins pertaining to specific items of equipmFlammable fuels or lubricants may be destroyed b burning or pouring on the ground.Thickeners may be destroyed by opening thecontainers and either dumping the contents into or tire or spreading the contents on the ground.

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M202A1 rocket launchers and M74 rocket clipsshould be destroyed by burning, demolition, gunfiie,or disposal.

FLAME EMPLOYMENTPRINCIPLES

Flame weapons are employed for both anti-personneland anti-materiel effects. This principal use inoffensive operations reduces fortifications, suppressesfire, and produces casualties or exposes enemypersonnel to the fire of other weapons. In defensiveoperations they complement other weapons in fireplans. They can be used to destroy buildings andequipment, clear tunnels, destroy food, clear lightvegetation, counter ambushes, illuminate defensiveareas, warn of enemy approach, and restrict enemyuse of trails and paths.

TacticsFlame assumes great importance in ground warfareagainst an enemy whose tactics place emphasis onmass in the attack and stubborn, unyielding resistancein the defense. Even in relatively fluid, rapidlychanging situations, an enemy may be able toestablish excellent defensive fortifications, requiringincreased use of flame for destruction.The M202A1 and incendiary grenades are usedprimarily in offensive operations while FFEs are usedprimarily in the defense. The M202A1 can be used in both offensive and defensive roles because of its lightweight, great range, and minimal servicerequirement. The decision to use M202A1, grenades,or FFEs is based on their comparative effectivenessfor the particular mission.In planning the attack, the commander considers theuse of flame as a part of his fire support plan.Defensively, flame weapons may be used in thecoordinated plan for fires and in support of thecounterattack. Flame can often be used to blunt anddisrupt mass enemy attacks, but the disadvantages of flame in both defensive and offensive operations must be considered. Careful planning and coordination areneeded for maximum benefit from the use of flame inthe attack or defense.

OFFENSIVE FLAMEUSE

Flame has many qualifications as an offensive assaultweapon. It demoralizes, produces casualties, andignites combustible material; and it has good

searching capability through its splattering actioWhen combined with infantry, tanks, and suppofires, flame contributes greatly to the accomplishof the mission. It is particularly effective whencombined with infantry fires during the last stagethe assault. Flame weapons can be decisive againenemy lacking any tank or fire support other thanautomatic weapons.Plans should be as simple and direct as possible.Apply the following basic principles of employmin planning for the use of flame weapons in the aAs with other weapons, a proper reconnaissance must for successful employment of flame weapThe target and any element supporting it must blocated; a route of approach that offers protectionfrom enemy fire must be selected; and the amounflame required and the need for demolition and breaching support must be determined. The M20can be employed without a thorough reconnaissathe rear danger zone and the minimum safe rangrestrictions are observed.Use sufficient flame. The number of flame weapused depends on a number of factorthe size annature of the objective, the terrain, and the enemmorale and physical condition, for example.Piecemeal use of the M202A1 should be avoidedenemy should be made to feel that unless hesurrenders or withdraws immediately he will be burned to death. Within control capabilities forcoordination of flame weapons supporting themaneuver force, the more flame that can be placesuitable targets, the greater the probability of sucduring the attack. The attack should be pressed boldly. Supporting fires must lift or shift as neceto allow flame weapons to close with the enemy.These fires should continue on enemy supportinpositions.Follow up with infantry. The enemy seldom fighhis best when he is caught in a flame attack. Heusually does one of three things: surrenders, runshides under cover. If he runs before the arrival offlame, he may return to his position when the attais over, even though the flame fuel is still burnin

the ground. Enemy positions in the flame attack amay hold their fire until the flame attack is over. essential, therefore, that infantry supported by aflame attack follow it closely and quickly before enemy can regain his position or reorganize hisdefenses. Friendly infantry must and can enter tharea while flame is still burning on the ground.Troops must be given training in following a flam

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attack closely and in dashing through flame on theground. Surprise and shock must be exploited to thefullest extent. Success in any tactical operationdepends largely on the timing and coordination between the flame teams and the unit with which theyare operating.

Rehearse. Time should be made available forrehearsals for flame attack. Rehearsals should beconducted on ground similar to the terrain to betraversed and against a point resembling theobjective. If the attack is to be made at night,rehearsals should be conducted at night.

DEFENSIVE FLAMEUSE

The use of flame weapons can be a major factor inthe successful defense of any position. Flameweapons are particularly effective in disrupting the

final stages of an enemy assault. The short range of flame weapons, however, restricts their employmentand requires that they be carefully located to obtainthe best advantage. The longer range of the rocketlauncher increases that weapons flexibility.The following flame weapons/munitions can be usedin the defense: M202A1 and FFEs. These weaponsare integrated into defensive fire plans to supplementor reinforce other fires. Defensive flame fire plansmay employ flame weapons uniformly within unitareas, massed at likely avenues of approach againstanticipated massed enemy assaults, or may deploythem in reserve blocking positions ready for use inthe counterattack. Particular attention is given to theresupply or replacement of empty flame weapons toensure sustained support for the defense.Flame weapons are most effective when integratedinto the plan for fire support and the obstacle plan.They are used to supplement or reinforce otherdefensive fires or to defend a small sector not covered by other weapons.The basic considerations of defense apply to the useof flame:Proper use of terrain. Flame teams are located on keyterrain on the perimeter of the platoon defense areas.FFEs may be emplaced in the gaps between platoons,in approaches to the position, or on key terrainforward of the battle position that the defending forcedoes not plan to hold, and in blocking positions indepth.

Defense in depth. FFEs are placed in likely areapenetration. The use of these expedients iscoordinated with counterattacking forces.Mutual support. FFEs should be integrated into fprotective fires and should be emplaced to provmutually supporting area coverage. A technique

use FFEs to fill gaps between indirect fire targetforce or canalize enemy troops into final protectifires.All-round defense. FFEs may be positioned to pthe flanks and rear of the position.The fire plan. FFEs can be used to supplement tlong-range and close defensive fires of mortars aartillery. However, coordination is required toprevent duplication of effort and destruction of FFEs by friendly fires. FFEs can also be used iinternal defense operations to counter ambush, clunderbrush, illuminate defensive areas, serve as

warning devices, and inflict casualties on theattacking troops.Reinforcement of obstacles. Natural and artificiaobstacles can be reinforced or extended by flameweapons. For example, flame fuel floats and burwater and can be used on shallow streams to prassaulting foot troops from crossing. FFEs can bused as floating flame devices. FFEs must be uscarefully to avoid damaging mines or destroyincamouflage.Antitank measures. Armored vehicles can often safely through flame fuel burning on the groundarea is traversed quickly and the flames are not henough to be sucked in through vents. Howeveflame fired directly on a tank can neutralize it byobscuring the drivers vision, seeping inside throvents, or setting the tank afire. The minimum efprofound fear and decreased efficiency of the tancrew. FFEs may be located on probable tankapproaches.Brush and forest fires. Flame weapons must be ucarefully to avoid starting brush and forest fires tmay hinder the defense. When it is desirable to sfires deliberately, consider the following factors

Probable effect on enemy operations.Danger to friendly troops and installations.Effect on friendly observations.Effect on future friendly operations.Effect on environment.Effect on noncombatants.

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CHAPTER 3F l a m e F u e l s

The three types of flame fuels are unthickened,Burning unthickend/thickened fuel is very effectiv. .thickened, and triethylaluminum (TEA). Unthickenedagainst personnel caught in the open.fuel is a thin, pourable, highly flammable liquidcomposed of gasoline and oil. Thickened fuel is a THICKENED FLAME FUELSthick, jellylike substance ranging in consistency fromThickened fuel consists of a thickener and gasolina pourable liquid to a rubbery, very thick gel. TEA isThe Army uses two different thickeners, M4 and a thickened pyrophoric substance similar to whitephosphorus. It burns spontaneously at temperatures of M4 thickener is a fine white powder that is a1,400 to 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit when exposed to by-product of petroleum processing. Even thoughair. thickener is hydroscopic (absorbs water from the Use unthickened fuel in situations where range is notan important factor or when fuel is needed on shortnotice. Unthickened fuel has advantages: you canprepare it quickly and it is readily available;however, it has a short range of about 20 meters andis quickly consumed. Another disadvantage is thatunthickened fuel offers little penetration of fortifications or fighting positions. It does notrebound effectively from surfaces.Thickened fuel requires equipment, time, andpersonnel for mixing, aging, and transferring. Unlessyou store it in airtight steel containers, thickened fuelhas an uncertain period of stability. However,thickened fuel burns longer than unthickened fuel andclings to a target. It splashes across surfaces and,therefore, is effective when employed during militaryoperations on urbanized terrain (MOUT). Since youwill use thickened fuel more extensively thanunthickened fuel in flame field expedients, thischapter will primarily address thickened fuel.Both thickened and unthickened fuels are used to kill,dislodge, and demoralize personnel, to neutralizefortifications, and to destroy flammable material.

you may reseal a partially used container and storefor one day. M4 thickener comes in 2.5-pound caor 100-pound drums.M1 thickener is a coarse, light tan, granular materthat is extremely hydroscopic. The presence of moisture in it decreases its ability to form a stableflame fuel. You should discard a partially usedcontainer of M1 thickener.

Thickened FuelFlame field expedients use number 3 flame fuel. Tconsistency of the fuel is based on a factor of 3 indetermining the amount of thickener to add to aspecific amount of gasoline. When mixing a batchflame fuel, use the applicable equation for either Mor M1 thickener.

CONTENTSThickened Flame Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-0

Storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4

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For M4 thickener, the equation is gallons of gasolinex fuel number = ounces of thickener required. Forexample, to mix 50 gallons of thickened flame fuel,calculate the amount of thickener needed as follows:50 (gallons) x 3 (flame fuel) = 150 ounces of M4thickener.

For M1 thickener, the equation is gallons of gasolinex fuel number x 2 = ounces of thickener required.For example, to mix 50 gallons of thickened flamefuel, calculate the amount of thickener needed asfollows: 50 (gallons) x 3 (flame fuel) x 2 = 300ounces of M1 thickener.

NOTE:Although this publication addresses M1thickener, it is not currently maintained inthe active Army inventory. However, limitedstocks exist in certain Reserve and NationalGuard units and some Allied armies.

Mixing SiteMixing sites must be

Free of fire hazards.Located on firm, well-drained terrain.Convenient to supply delivery points for gasoline

and thickener.Centrally located for fuel delivery to using units.Well-ventilated and outside of any enclosures such

as buildings or tents.Posted with NO SMOKING WITHIN 50 FEETsigns.

In addition, an appropriate (at least a 10-poundcarbon dioxide) fire extinguisher should be at the site.

WARNINGAllow no smoking within 50 feet of gasolineor fuel. You must strictly enforce this rule.Post NO SMOKING signs in prominent placesaround an area where fuel is being mixed,

handled, or stored. If NO SMOKING signs arenot available, post guards.Do not permit open flames, heated stoves, orother sources of heat that might causeignition of gasoline fumes in the immediatevicinity of mixing and filling operations orwhere fuel is stored and handled.

PersonnelUse personnel experienced in mixing flame fuelThoroughly train inexperienced personnel beforeallowing them to mix flame fuel.

ContainersAll containers used for mixing or storing flame fmust be clean and ungalvanized. Zinc from agalvanized container will cause the fuel to breakdown.

MixingYou can mix flame fuels either by hand or with source using the "bubbling" procedure.

Hand MixingUse hand mixing for small quantities of flame fuThis method requires the following equipment:

Clean, ungalvanized container or containers ofgasoline.Bucket and funnel if transferring into smallercontainers for use in flame expedient devices.

One 10-pound carbon dioxide fire extinguisherM4 thickener.Mixing paddle (wooden).

Use the following four steps for mixing by handStep 1.Open container of gasoline.Step 2.Open container of thickener and breakuplumps by hand. Add thickener to gasoline evenlya 5 to 9 minute time span. Do not dump it into thfuel. Stir gasoline continuously while adding the

thickener.Step 3.Continue to stir mixture until fuel has theappearance of applesauce.Step 4.Check fuel periodically during mixing toensure that thickener has become evenly suspewithin the gasoline. If the thickener begins to sethe bottom, mix more slowly.

NOTEAt low temperatures (below 32F for M4thickener and 70F for M1 thickener), longermixing time is required with larger amounts

of thickener. You may need as much as twohours for mixing in very cold conditions.

Mechanical MixingMechanical mixing (also called "bubbling") umechanical equipment to prepare flame fuel. Tequipment must be grounded before use to safe

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gasoline temperature above 85 degrees F. Fuel that istoo thin will flow like gasoline with a few lumps in it.This is caused by not enough thickener, too littlestirring, or gasoline temperature below 32 degrees F.Once the fuel is fully mixed, you cannot change itsconsistency by adding fuel or thickener.

Water DetectionMoisture in either gasoline or thickener is verydetrimental to the quality of the thickened flame fuel.Moisture will cause the fuel to break down rapidly.You can easily detect water in gasoline by samplingthe liquid at the bottom of the container. An alternatemethod is to stir the contents of the drum briskly,sample the gasoline (with a clear container) while it isstill agitated, and let the sample settle. If water ispresent, it will be visible at the bottom of the clearcontainer.

Water RemovalYou may use any of several methods to remove waterfrom gasoline before mixing thickened flame fuel.These methods include siphoning, decanting, andfiltering.

WARNINGContainers of gasoline can be heavy andawkward to handle. You will need more thanone individual to complete the water removalprocess, Gasoline can spill and cause a firehazard or gasoline bums.

SiphoningTilt the drum containing-gasoline and let it stand inthe tilt position for several minutes. Water in gasolinecontainer will collect in the lowest portion and can besiphoned off.

DecantingLet the gasoline container stand undisturbed for 10 to15 minutes. Then very carefully pour the gasoline inone continuous motion, leaving any water that hassettled to the bottom of the container.

FilteringFiltering is a simple field expedient method forremoving water from small amounts of gasoline. Tofilter, pour the gasoline through a shelter half spreadloosely over a dry, open 55-gallon drum and boundsecurely to the drum (Figure 3-l). Gasoline will passthrough the shelter half but water will not. You can

filter fifty gallons of gasoline in 10 minutes at aaverage rate of 5 gallons per minute, which slowthe filtering continues.Remove any water or silt remaining in the hollothe shelter half before you filter more gasoline.Shelter halves used for this purpose are no longeserviceable; dispose of them after use.

Fuel QualityMany factors interact when you mix thickened ffiel. These factors are variable and may changequality of the fuel.

TemperatureGasoline temperature has a pronounced effect ogelling of thickened flame fuel. For best resultsgasoline temperature should be between 32 degrand 85 degrees F. At gasoline temperatures belodegrees F (70 degrees F when M1 thickener is mixing time becomes prohibitive.

ThickenerThe ratio of thickener and gasoline directly influthe properties of thickened flame fuel. A higherthickener content causes a greater consistency ogel. Increasing the amount of thickener producefollowing effects:

Decreased mixing time.A more stable fuel in storage.Decreased amount of fuel burned in flight to

target.Increased burning time on target.

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CHAPTER 4

Exploding Flame Devices

Historically, exploding flame devices have beenemployed with great success in combat. In the KoreanConflict, the 8th Cavalry Regiment, 1st CavalryDivision, inflicted casualties on the ChineseCommunists with strategically placed exploding flamedevices. During combined operations in the Republicof Vietnam, the 10lst Airborne Division and the 2dRepublic of Korea Marine Brigade made extensiveuse of FFEs to the south of Da Nang to clearvegetation and rid several areas of booby traps.

GENERAL INFORMATIONExploding flame devices cause casualties by inflictinginjuries from burning fuel and flying debris. Thesedevices also have a great psychological effect thatmay deter or slow an enemy attack. All explodingflame devices consist of a container, incendiary fuel,and a firing system (burster and igniter) to scatter andignite the fuel. The size of the area covered dependson the size of the container and the firing system used.

ComponentsField expedient flame weapons generally consist of four basic components--a container, fuel, an igniter,and a burster. Appendix B contains detailedinformation on the proper use of demolitionaccessories.

ContainerAnything that will hold the fuel, such as a standardissue military canteen or even a 55-gallon drum, canserve as a container.

FuelFuel is a combustible liquid that produces animmediate fire, such as thickened or unthickenedMOGAS.

IgniterAn igniter is an incendiary used to set the explodfuel alight. M49 trip flares, incendiary grenadesM34 white phosphorus (WP) grenades (combat only), or even small containers of raw gasoline be used. An expedient method for employing ragasoline as an igniter is to fill a used meals,ready-to-eat (MRE), bag with gasoline and sealwith tape. This will produce enough immediate ensure ignition of an FFE device.

BursterA burster is an explosive charge that scatters theExamples of bursting charges include, but are nolimited to, trinitrotoluene (TNT), composition CM4 field incendiary bursters, detonating cord, an

NOTEExpedient battlefield illuminators do notdetonate; there is no need for a bursterwhen employing this type of FFE. Battlefieldilluminators are discussed in Chapter 5.

CONTENTSGeneral Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

Electrically Initiated Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....4-2Bunker Bombs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6

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M18A1 Claymore mines. SeeAppendix Bfor furtherinformation about demolition materials.

Render SafeRemoval, dismantling, or otherwise rendering safe anexploding flame field expedient device that has beenemplaced consists of removing the blasting cap, theigniter, and the FFE device.

WARNINGOnly those personnel trained in safe handlingof explosives and their components areauthorized to perform render safeprocedures.

Hasty EmplacementFor hasty or overnight defensive operations (in theabsence of metal or plastic containers), dig holes inthe ground and fill with premixed thickened fuel.Attach an exploding igniter (M34 WP grenade incombat only) to the device by detonating cord. Areacoverage will vary, depending on size and shape of the hole, amount of thickened fuel, and the explosivecharge used.

ELECTRICALLYINITIATED DEVICES

Controlled devices are fired using an electrical firing

system. See Appendix A for details concerning theconstruction of electrical firing systems and propertesting procedures respectively.

5-Gallon DeviceTo construct the 5-gallon device (Figure 4-1), usethese five-step procedures:Step 1.Fill this device with thickened flame fuel. Itcan be rapidly emplaced either on the surface or in aV-trench.Step 2.Prime (hasty whip) one M4 burster with 10 to12 turns of detonating cord, leaving a 10-foot pigtail

for a main line.Step 3.Place the M4 burster inside the container.Step 4.Attach two electric blasting caps (that have been tested) to a firing wire using a common seriescircuit.Step 5.Attach both electric blasting caps to the mainline by making a loop in the detonating cord andattaching the blasting caps to it. The device is readyto be fired.

NOTE:Non-electric blasting caps can also be used.See Appendix A for further information onthe nonelectrical firing system.

Area coverage is approximately 20 to 30 meters indiameter. Use this small yet deadly device withanti-personnel mines to complement established fields. Although it is small, you may use this devicagainst enemy targets such as wheeled vehicles,personnel in the open, and suspected enemy paradrop zones.Each 5-gallon flame device requires the following

5-gallon container.Five gallons of gasoline.25 feet of detonating cord.Two electric blasting caps.M4 field incendiary burster.15 ounces of M4 thickening compound.

55-Gallon DeviceThe three devices described in the followingparagraphs are basically defensive weapons desigfor perimeter protection during static defense. Youmay employ these devices singly or in clusters forincreased coverage. Additionally, you may emplac

55-gallon land mines (flame) in the center of roadintersections to slow or stall the movement of anenemy convoy. Other uses for FFE include, but arnot limited to, large-area coverage of suspectedenemy aircraft landing zones for rotary wing aircrand parachute drop zones.

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Vertical FlameMine with M4 Burster

Use the following nine steps to construct a verticalflame mine with M4 bursters (Figure 4-2):Step 1.Fill device with thickened flame fuel andplace in an upright position.Step 2.Prime the drum with detonating cord (10 to12 turns) around the base, leaving a 3-foot pigtail forattachment to the ring main.Step 3.Prime two M4 bursters (three in combat) with10 to 12 turns of detonating cord, leaving a 4-footpigtail for attachment to the ring main.Step 4.Place the M4 bursters inside the large bungof the drum.Step 5.Place a ring main of detonating cord aroundthe device, leaving 40 feet of detonating cord to beused as a main line.Step 6.Attach both bursters and detonating cordaround the base to the ring main by girth hitches withan extra turn.Step 7.Place seven or eight sandbags on top of thedrum to force the explosion down and outward in a360-degree radius, keeping the entire detonation lowto the ground.Step 8.Attach two electrical blasting caps (that have been tested) to a firing wire, using a common seriescircuit.Step 9.Attach both electric blasting caps to the mainline by making a loop in the detonating cord andattaching the blasting caps to it. The device is readyto be fired.

Area coverage is approximately 80 to 100 meters indiameter. During combat, you will obtain maximumfragmentation by placing engineer screw picketsupright against the device. The pickets are then held

in place by tightly wrapping barbed wire aroundevice.Each 55-gallon flame land mine requires thefollowing:

55-gallon container.Fifty gallons of gasoline.

100 feet of detonating cord.Two electric blasting caps.Two or three M4 field incendiary bursters.150 ounces of M4 thickening compound.Seven or eight sandbags.

Vertical Flame Minewith Detonating Cord

To construct a vertical flame mine with detonatincord (Figure 4-3), follow the procedures describsteps 1 through 9.Step 1.Fill device with thickened fuel and place ian upright position.Step 2.Using a 6-foot length of detonating cord, tone end over the spoon handle of an igniter (M4flare or (in combat) M34 WP grenade).Step 3.Prime the drum with detonating cord (seveto ten turns) around the base of the device leavinfeet to be used as a main line.Step 4.Place a wooden stake near the device andattach igniter to it.Step 5.Attach the igniter detonating cord to mainline by use of a girth hitch with an extra turn.Step 6.Place six or seven sandbags on top of thedrum to force the explosion down and outward directions, keeping the entire detonation low to tground.Step 7.Remove the safety pin from igniter.Step 8.Attach two electrical blasting caps (that ha been tested) to a firing wire using a common sercircuit.Step 9.Attach both electric blasting caps to main

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by making a loop in the detonating cord and attachingelectric blasting caps to it. The device is ready to befired.Area coverage is approximately 50 to 80 meters indiameter. Each 55-gallon flame land mine requiresthe following:

55-gallon container.50 gallons of gasoline.200 feet of detonating cord.Two electric blasting caps.150 ounces of M4 thickening compound.M49 trip flare or (in combat) M34 WP grenade.Six or seven sandbags.

HorizontalFlame Mine

To construct a horizontal flame mine (Figure 4-4),use the following procedures (11 steps):Step 1.Fill the device with thickened flame fuel andplace it on its side.Step 2.Separately prime two 1.25-pound blocks of composition C4 or two l-pound blocks of TNT withseven to ten turns of detonating cord, leaving two3-foot pigtails on each block of explosive forattachment to the ring main.Step 3.Attach the blocks of explosives to each end of the drum. Two sandbags work well--one under andone against the device.Step 4.Place a ring main around the device.Step 5.Attach the pigtails from the blocks of explosives to the ring main by using girth hitcheswith an extra turn.Step 6.Using a 6-foot length of detonating cord, tapeone end over the spoon handle of an igniter (M49 tripflare or (in combat) M34 WP grenade.Step 7.Place a wooden stake near the device andattach igniter to it.Step 8.Attach the detonating cord from the igniter tothe ring main by using a girth hitch with an extra turn.

Step 9.Remove the safety pin from the igniter.Step 10.Attach two electrical blasting caps (that hav been tested) to a firing wire using a common seriecircuit.Step 11.Attach both electric blasting caps to themain line by making a loop in the detonating cord attaching blasting caps to it. The device is ready tofired.Area coverage is approximately 80 to 100 meterslaterally. Each horizontal 55-gallon flame land mirequires the following:

55-gallon container.50 gallons of gasoline.100 feet of detonating cord.Two electric blasting caps.150 ounces of M4 thickening compound.M49 trip flare or (in combat) M34 WP grenadeTwo 1.25-pound blocks of composition C4 or tw

1-pound blocks of TNT.

Flame FougasseDevicesThe flame fougasse is a variation of an explodingFFE in which the flame is projected by explomeans over a preselected area. An excellent defenweapon, the fougasse can also provide illuminatiowell as produce casualties. On Defensive LineWyoming, during the Korean Conflict, elements othe 1st Cavalry Division emplaced 1,000 drums oFFEs in front of fighting positions. The drums weset in the ground at a 45-degree angle with the

opening toward the enemy. Two examples of flamfougasses are the propellant charge container and55-gallon container.

Propellant ChargeContainer

To construct the propellant charge fougasse(Figure4-5), use these procedures (20 steps):Step 1.Using a metal cylinder or propellant chargecontainer, knock a small hole into the bottom.Step2. Fabricate a pusher plate (wood or metal) thsame size as inside diameter of the container.Step 3.Thread the detonation cord through the smalhole in the bottom of container.Step 4.Prime (hasty whip) one block of compositioC4 with seven to ten turns of detonating cord, leava 6-foot pigtail for attachment to the ring main.Step 5.Put the explosive charge into a plastic bag.Make a small hole in the bag, thread detonating cothrough the hole, and tape the bag shut.Step 6.Place the charge inside the container pullingthe pigtail from the propelling charge back throug

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the hole in the bottom.Step 7.Install the pusher plate on top of the explosivecharge.Step 8.Fill the container with thickened flame fuel.Place the lid on the container, but do not lock it inplace.Step 9.Dig a trench at an angle that will givemaximum effect over the area selected for coverage(25 to 45 degrees).Step 10.Carefully lower the device into the trench,making sure the bottom of the device is against the back of the trench and the detonating cord from theexplosive charge is not pinched or crimped.Step 11.Straighten the detonating cord pigtail fromthe explosive charge out behind the trench.Step 12.Stack 20 to 30 sandbags on and around thedevice, ensuring that the detonating cord is not buried.Step 13.Place a ring main of detonating cord aroundthe device.

Step 14.Attach the pigtail from the explosive chargeto the ring main using a girth hitch with an extra turn.

Step 15.Using a 6-foot length of detonating cord,tape one end over the spoon handle of the igniter(M49 trip flare or (in combat) M34 WP grenadeStep 16.Place a wooden stake near the device.Attach the igniter to it.Step 17.Attach the igniter detonating cord to the rimain using a girth hitch with an extra turn.Step 18.Remove the safety pin from the igniter.Step 19.Attach two electrical blasting caps (that h been tested) to a firing wire using a common sercircuit.Step 20.Attach both electric blasting caps to themain line by making a loop in the detonating corattaching blasting caps to it. The device is now rto be fired.Area coverage is approximately 30 to 45 meters diameter. Each propellant charge fougasse requirthe following:

metal cylinder or propellant charge container.Three gallons of gasoline.100 feet of detonating cord.Two electric blasting caps.Nine ounces of M4 thickening compound.M49 trip flare or (in combat) M34 WP grenad1.25-pound block of composition C4.Twenty to thirty sandbags.

55-Gallon ContainerTo construct a flame fougasse using a 55-galloncontainer (Figure 4-6), follow these 17 steps:Step 1.Prepare thickened flame fuel in a 55-gallodrum by mixing 150 ounces of M4 thickening

compound to 50 gallons of gasoline while agitativigorously.Step 2.Prime two blocks of TNT or composition with seven to ten turns of detonating cord leavin6-foot pigtails for attachment to the ring main.Step 3.Dig a trench at an angle that will givemaximum effect over the area selected for cover(25 to 45 degrees).Step 4.Dig a small depression in the back of thetrench to place the explosive charge.Step 5.Carefully place the explosive charge into tdepression and straighten the detonating cord pfrom the explosive charge up and out behind thtrench.Step 6.Carefully lower the device into the trench,making sure the bottom of the device is against t back of the trench and the detonating cord from explosive charge is not pinched or crimped.Step 7.Lift the device up. Place one sandbag undethe front and hasty whip seven to ten turns of detonating cord around the top of the drum, lea4-foot pigtails.

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Step 8.Remove sandbag and lower the device intoplace.Step 9.Stack 100 to 120 sandbags on and around thedevice, ensuring that the detonating cord is not buried.Step 10.Place a ring main of detonating cord aroundthe device.Step 11.Attach the pigtails to the explosive chargeand the top of the drum ring main, using a girth hitchwith an extra turn for each.Step 12.Using a 6-foot length of detonating cord,tape one end over the spoon handle of the igniter(M49 trip flare or (in combat) M34 WP grenade).Step 13.Place a wooden stake near the device.Attach the igniter to it.Step 14.Attach the igniter detonating cord to the ringmain using a girth hitch with an extra turn.Step 15.Remove the safety pin from the igniter.Step 16.Attach two electrical blasting caps (that have been tested) to a firing wire using a common seriescircuit.Step 17.Attach both electric blasting caps to the ringmain by making a loop in the detonating cord andattaching the blasting caps to it. The device is readyto be fired.

Area coverage is approximately 150 to 200 meters infront of the drum. Each 55-gallon flame fougassedevice requires the following:

55-gallon drum.50 gallons of gasoline.

100 feet of detonating cord.Two electric blasting caps.Two 1.25-pound blocks of composition C4 or tw

1-pound blocks of TNT.150 ounces of M4 thickening compound.M49 trip flare or (in combat) M34 WP grenade100 to 120 sandbags.

In combat situations, Claymore mine (M18A1)components can be used as the explosive charge adrum bottom; it will detonate the expedient deviand increase fragmentation effects. However, sommethod of ignition, such as an M49 trip flare or MWP grenade, is preferred.

Contact DevicesYou may emplace all exploding flame devices focontact detonation as improvised flame mines. Silone soldier usually detonates a contact device, a5-gallon oil can containing thickened fuel issufficient. This weapon is most effective whenpositioned in open areas where obstructions will ndecrease the fragmentation effect against personYou will obtain the best results when you use thedevice in well-camouflaged positions approximmeters (6 feet) above the ground in branches of tr bushes, or hedges.

BUNKER BOMBSSome forms of exploding flame devices lendthemselves to a nonelectrical firing system ratherthe electric method. One such device is the "bunker bomb." See Appendix Afor further information onthe nonelectrical firing system.To construct the bunker bomb (Figure 4-7), followthese 7 steps:Step 1.Fill the ammunition can three-fourths fullwith thickened flame fuel and secure the lid.Step 2.Hasty whip the device with 15 turns of detonating cord around the center of the containusing 50 feet of detonating cord. Leave 2-foot pifor attaching the igniter and the nonelectrical blascap.Step 3.Tape the igniter (M49 trip flare or (in

combat) M34 WP grenade to the container handleStep 4.Place one detonating cord pigtail end over tigniter spoon handle. Tape it in place.Step 5.Attach the M60 fuse igniter and thenonelectrical blasting cap to the M700 time fuse.Step 6.Attach the nonelectrical firing system to thother pigtail by making a loop in the detonating cand attaching the blasting cap to it.Step 7.Remove the safety pin from the igniter (M4

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WARNING1. Carry the device only by the handle.Never use the igniter as a handle.2. Remove the trip flare igniter safety pinonly when it is time to use the device.3. Use extreme caution when handling orcarrying nonelectrical firing systems. Protectblasting caps from shock and extreme heat.Do not allow the time fuse to kink or becomeknotted. Doing so may disrupt the powdertrain and cause a misfire.4.Prime detonating cord only when it is timeto use the device.5. Remove the time fuse igniter safety pinwhen it is time to use the device.

trip flare or M34 WP grenade (in combat)). Thedevice is ready to be fired.One ammunition can flame bunker bomb requirefollowing eight items:

Small-arms ammunition container.Gallon of gasoline.Fifty feet of detonating cord.Nonelectric blasting cap.M60 fuse igniter.Seven and a half feet of M700 time fuse.Three ounces of M4 thickening compound.M49 trip flare or (in combat) M34 WP grenade

Area coverage is approximately 5 to 10 meters indiameter. The bunker bomb is designed as a portaFFE device to be used during mobile defensiveoperations or raids into enemy rear areas during doperations. This device is ideally suited for use in built-up areas during mobile operations in urban

terrain.

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CHAPTER 5

Flame I l luminators

The main purpose of flame illuminators is to provide

extended burning time with maximum illumination,although they may also produce casualties. You mayuse flame illuminators for warning as well asillumination by contact detonation. This chapterdiscusses some improvised flame illumination devicesused for limited battlefield illumination.Flame illuminators vary and may be constructed of many differing components. FFE illuminators include5-or 55-gallon flame illuminators, hasty flameilluminators, water illuminators, field expedientilluminators, Husch flares, and illuminated signalarrows.

5- OR 55-GALLONFLAME ILLUMINATORS

Youcan construct a flame illuminator (Figure 5-1)from a 5-gallon or a 55-gallon drum filled withthickened fuel, tightly sealed, and set into a hole withthe top slightly below ground. Five turns of detonating cord are wound around the inside edge of the drum top and tightly tamped with mud. Whendetonated, the detonating cord cuts off the drum topand an M49 trip flare or M34 WP grenade (in combatonly) placed on top of the drum, ignites the thickenedfuel.The fuel will burn for several hours. However, youmay control burning time somewhat by the size of container used, the thickness of the fuel mixture, andthe addition of straw or dirt to the thickened fuel.Each 55-gallon flame illuminator requires thefollowing ammunition:

100 foot of detonating cord.

Nonelectric blasting cap.

Seven and a half feet of M700 time fuse.M60 fuse igniter.Electric blasting cap.

CONTENTS

5- or 55-Gallon Flame Illuminator . . . . . . . .5-0Hasty Flame illuminators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Water Illuminators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-1Field Expedient Illuminators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1Husch Flares. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1Illuminated Signal Arrows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

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150 ounces M4 thickening compound.M49 trip flare.M34 WP grenade (in combat).50 gallons of gasoline

HASTY FLAMEILLUMINATORSConstruct hasty flame illuminators (fired within 24

hours after emplacement) by digging shallow holes ortrenches in selected avenues of approach, filling withthickened fuel, and adding an igniter system. Can beignited with electric blasting caps.Ammunition requirements depend on the number of holes or trenches dug. Each device requires thefollowing ammunition:

Five feet of detonating cord.Nonelectric blasting cap.Seven and a half feet of M700 time fuse.M60 fuse igniter.Electric blasting cap.M49 trip flare.M34 WP grenade (in combat).Gasoline as required.

WATER

ILLUMINATORS

Water illuminators are devices made by pouringgasoline, oil, or thickened fuel on the surface of calmwater and igniting it. This hasty illuminator not onlyprovides illumination but can be a formidable obstacleas well. Water illuminators should be used in combatonly and not in training.

FIELD EXPEDIENT

ILLUMINATORS

Use field expedient illuminators for defensiveperimeters. Construct these devices using number 10food cans, empty .50-caliber ammunition cans, orsimilar containers (Figure 5-2).Construct field expedient illuminators by filling thecontainer halfway with sand, then filling theremaining with diesel fuel, and covering with paper.A trip flare is used to ignite the fuel. Each containershould be strategically placed (with trip wires orwires for command-controlled detonation) at 50-meter

intervals within the forward edge of a defensiveperimeter.On activation, these devices provide illuminationabout 45 minutes.

HUSCH FLARESThe Husch flare (Figure 5-3) uses burningthickened flame fuel to provide battlefieldillumination.

vapor of

Each Husch flare is constructed from a sealed mecontainer (powder canister) that is three-quarters of thickened fuel and has a 1/8- to 3/16-inch holethe top. Place the canister cap down in half of a55-gallon drum that is three-quarters full of thickfuel. A reflector assembly made from 24-inch cushould extent about 24 inches above the top rim odrum half. Husch flares can also be constructed wother similar components.

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When you ignite the fuel in the drum half, heat fromthe burning fuel produces vapors within the canister.This vapor is expelled as a burning jet through thehole in the powder canister. Fuel in the drum half can be ignited with a trip flare.

The Husch flare, which is reusable, illuminates anarea with a radius of about 50 meters for four to fivehours. You can control burning time to some extent by the size of the container, the thickness of the fuelmixture, and the addition of straw or dirt.

ILLUMINATED

SIGNAL ARROWS

An illuminated signal arrow (Figure 5-4) consists of aseries of empty tin cans filled with an equal mixtureof diesel fuel and JP4 (or equivalent) fuel. Thenumber of cans on the stem of the arrow indicates the

number of meters or increments to the enemy location(for example, each can may represent 100 meters).When a unit is under attack, you must rapidly pointthe illuminated signal arrow in the direction of theattack and ignite the fuel in the cans. The arrow can be clearly seen by pilots of close air support aircraft.You may also use the signal arrow to mark landingzones and supply drop zones.

NOTE:Distances per can should be stipulated in theunit SOP, SOI, or other guidance.

As the situation permits, you may arrange cans on anarrow-shaped board mounted on a spindle (Figure5-4).

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CHAPTER 6

Riot Control Agents

Riot control agents disable hostile forces or rioting

personnel for limited periods of time by producingtemporary disabling physiological effects when theycome into contact with the eyes or skin or when theyare inhaled. Their effects are typically peripheral,such as irritation to the eyes, mucosa, respiratorytract, or skin. The effects generally subside quicklyonce the individual is removed from the atmosphereof the RCA. On the other hand, incapacitatingconcentrations can act systemically, have longerlasting, more profound physiological effects such asimmobilization of limbs, systemic interference of breathing, disruption of cognitive function or any of several other centrally controlled effects. The

physiological effects may continue after personnelleave the target area. RCA levels at 5-10 milligramsper cubic meter (mg/m3) achieve incapacitatingconcentrations. Training concentrations (1-3 mg/m3)for CS are irritating concentrations normally found inchamber or field training exercise settings. In tacticalconcentrations, RCAs do not permanently injurepersonnel but should be used like incapacitating

congestion, or heart conditions) may experience

increased irritation and incapacitation upon expto these agents. Agent CN (popularly known as mor tear gas) and its analog are considered obsoletmilitary employment; most CN munitions havephased out of the system.

CSIn 1959, the US Army adopted CS(orthochlorobenzalmalononitrile) for combat traiand riot control purposes. The Army has found it be both safe and effective, especially for trainingcreating combat realism in low concentrations. OCS in a capsule form may be used in the CS chaIn Vietnam, CS was an effective incapacitant whits variable persistency made it an economicalcontaminant. Different forms of CS have differepersistence characteristics, due to their formulatidissemination, and rate of hydrolysis. CS is normused either as a pure powder in bulk form or aspellets in a pyrotechnic mixture for employment

agents. In enclosed places, prolonged exposure to theresulting high dosages of RCAs can kill or disablepersonnel and can cause serious physiologicalreactions. Detailed descriptions of RCA munitionssystems can be found in Appendix B.

STANDARD AGENTSThe standard RCAs currently in the US Armyinventory are CS, CSX, CS1, CS2, and CR. Thephysiological effects desired and the disseminationmeans available determine the choice of RCA to usein a particular situation. Individuals havingrespiratory problems (such as colds, asthma, lung

CONTENTSStandard Agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1Oleoresin Capsicum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Protection Against RCAs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Physiological andSafety Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4Operational Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-5

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burning grenades and bomblets. A yellowishpowdered solid in pure form, CS has a characteristicpungent pepper-like odor. Employed in aerosol form,CS irritates the eyes, nose, throat, and (if used insufficiently high concentration) will cause militarilysignificant incapacitation. By weight, theeffectiveness of CS is about 10 times that of CN. Thesymptoms of exposure to training concentrations of CS are

Extreme burning of the eyes, with much tearing,coughing, and difficulty in breathing with tightness inthe chest and pain in breathing.

Involuntary closing of the eyes.Heavy mucous formation in the nose with sinus and

nasal drip.Stinging or burning on moist skin areas.

Exposure to field concentrations may cause nauseaand vomiting and prolonged exposure to CS on skinmay cause severe irritation and blistering.

Incapacitation is caused by the individuals inabilityto see or preoccupation with the agents effects.Effects of the agent appear almost immediately andwill continue as long as the individual is exposed.Affected individuals usually recover within 10minutes in fresh air. CS has been specially formulatedfor varied dissemination characteristics and/or effectsas CSX, CS1, and CS2. CSX is a form of CSdeveloped for dissemination as a liquid rather than apowder. One gram of powdered CS is dissolved in 99grams of solvent trioctyl phosphate (TOF) and isdispersed as a liquid aerosol from the M32 hand-helddisperser (see Appendix B). As with CS, CSX causes

stinging and irritation of the eyes, skin, nose, throat,and lungs of exposed personnel. It is only available inM32 hand-held dispersers.Variations in the formulation of CS result in differentpersistencies for CS, CS1, and CS2. CS originatingfrom burning munitions is disseminated only as anairborne cloud and its persistence depends mainly onair movement. The aerosol particles, once contactingthe ground or other surfaces, adhere and do notre-aerosolize. Due to the relatively low volatility andrapid rate of hydrolysis, the CS aerosol usuallypresents a negligible residual hazard. However, acertain amount of caution must be exercised, sincepockets of the airborne agent may linger in closedstructures or other places where movement of air isslight.

CS1CS1 has been specially formulated to prolongpersistency and increase effectiveness. Unlike CS,CS1 is free-flowing agent powder (95 percent CS to 5

percent silica aerogel), that is readily usable indisseminating devices (for example, spray tanks) require a free-flowing material. CS1 is CS blendewith silicone-treated silica aerogel which not onlyprevents coagulation and increases fluidity, but amarkedly increases its resistance to water. This foof CS prolongs the effectiveness for both immediand surface contamination effects for direct andresidual use. As CS1 settles out of the air, it readcontaminates terrain, vegetation, personnel, andequipment. When disturbed, CS1 re-aerosolizes tocause respiratory and eye effects.CS1 exhibits typical CS activity for several days dry ground at initial incapacitating concentration(5-10 mg/m3). Persistency tests have shown that CS1can remain effective for about 14 days when usedinside a dry tunnel or bunker and about 7 days oopen terrain under ideal environmental condition

CS2CS2 is far more resistant to water degradation,maintaining an effectiveness for a periodapproximately double that of an equivalent initiaconcentration of CS1. It is so resistant to wetting when spread upon the surface of a body of water,agitation of the surface by wind or wading mayregenerate an effective aerosol. CS2 will remaineffective on open terrain under suitable conditionsabout 30 days. Although rain does not effectivelydissolve the agent, it may physically wash away fthe site of deposit. High winds will dissipate it.

CRIn 1974, the US Army approved the use of CR(dibenz (b,f-1, 4-oxazepine) in riot control situatiCR has a stronger harassing action than CS. Inaddition, the toxicity of CR is lower than that of CCR is not used in its pure form (a yellow powder)is dissolved in a solution of 80 percent propyleneglycol and 20 percent water to forma 0.1 percentsolution. As a solution, the operational flexibilityCR increases since it can be dispersed on the targareas as a liquid rather than as an aerosol cloud. Cis a highly potent irritant that affects the eyes,respiratory tract, and exposed skin. Eye pain,discomfort, and excessive tearing occur withsometimes painful sensitivity to strong light. Nairritation, coughing, sneezing, and nasal drip alsooccur. Exposure of the skin to CR results in astinging or burning sensation with increased irriton moist skin. Sometimes these symptoms areaccompanied by nausea and vomiting, and can pfrom 15 to 30 minutes. Severity of symptoms

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increases with the CR solution concentration in anenvironment of high temperature and humidity.CR is quite persistent in the environment. The CRsolution provides effective wetting and spreading of this agent on all surfaces. It does not degrade in waterand can be considered as persistent or more persistentthan CS2. Under suitable conditions, CR can persiston certain surfaces (especially porous material) for upto 60 days.

OLEORESIN CAPSICUMA possible nonstandard riot control agent is oleoresincapsicum (OC or pepper spray). This agent is mostoften used by the military police for incapacitatingviolent or threatening subjects, but also hasapplications for special forces and stability andsupport operations. OC is a naturally occurringsubstance found in the oily resin of cayenne and othervarieties of peppers (can also be producedsynthetically).Contact with OC particles in a sprayed mistincapacitates subjects by inducing an almostimmediate burning sensation of the skin and burning,tearing, and swelling of the eyes. When inhaled, therespiratory tract becomes inflamed causing themucous membranes to swell. This restricts breathingto short, shallow breaths.As stated earlier, standard RCAs also cause tearingand respiratory discomfort (irritant effects), but donot induce the inflammation and swelling effects of

OC. When sprayed (OC is dispersed in hand-heldcanister similar to M32/36) most people cannot keeptheir eyes open unless they physically hold theireyelids apart due to the swelling. Fear anddisorientation often result from this temporary blindness. Affected personnel may also lose strengthand coordination due to the shortness of breath.Treatment and decontamination procedures:

Move to uncontamimted air.Flush face with cool water; if burning persists, use

icepack.Do not rub area.Remove contacts, if applicable.Decon required areas with soap and water.

OC effects usually last approximately 15 to 45minutes. If symptoms have not abated within 45minutes, seek medical attention.Limits of OC include:

Alcohol-based sprays must not be used aroundflames/sparks.

Effective range of OC is 4 to 6 feet (maximumrange is approximately 25 feet).

Personnel should not spray an individual clos2 feet from themselves to prevent being affected

Rain and wind decrease effectiveness.Eyeglasses/sunglasses may deflect agent (shif

to nose/mouth).Perspiration may cause longer agent effects.OC may have detrimental effects on people w

pre-existing respiratory problems.As with any RCA, personnel must be properlytrained on OCs capabilities/employment, limitand applicable rules of engagement/ARs prior t

PROTECTIONAGAINST RCAs

Use the following measures to protect against RProtect the eyes and respiratory passages from C

immediate masking. A dry field uniform will uprovide adequate protection for a short time in mtactical situations. Those personnel handling andloading bulk CS should wear protective clothingmasks, and gloves. Personnel exposed to CS1, and CR should wear protective clothing, masks,hoods, and gloves. Protective clothing should besecured at the neck, wrists, and ankles.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ANDSAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

RCAs produce effects that must be considered f

both tactical and training uses. The RCAs in traconcentrations will produce temporary, irritatingeffects to normal, healthy individuals. Thesepersonnel will recover from the exposure quiterapidly. However, individuals with a common coasthma, lung congestion, high blood pressure, ocardiovascular problems will experience increaseffects and may suffer longer recovery times.Therefore, they should not be exposed to these aduring training exercises. Pregnant soldiers withexempt letter from a doctor should also be exemfrom training with RCAs.

Particles of CS remaining on exposed skin for lperiods can cause severe burns. CS should beimmediately flushed from the skin with cold wProlonged, continuous, or even intermittent expoto field concentrations of CS combined with a htemperature and humidity may result in a cumueffect (more intense stinging, tearing, watering eyes).

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Food and drink contaminated with CS can be detectedeasily since it is quite repulsive to the taste. Whenfood items are suspected to have been contaminated by CS in training, check them using the followingprocedures: (Do not use these procedures in combatwhen chemical or biological agents may also bepresent.)

If packaged, clean the package and check for leaksor damage. If no odor is present, the food is probablynot contaminated. If the package is damaged orleaking, unpack the contents and inspect them.

If unpacked, sniff to detect RCA odor. If none thefood may be safe to eat. However, when in doubt,discard the package. If the food is contaminated, youmay be able to trim the food and remove thecontaminated portions. The same procedures apply tofood immersed in water or in covered containers. CRshould be stored in nonporous containers onnonporous surfaces. It will leach into porous materialand can be extremely persistent.

TREATMENTPersonnel exposed to RCAs should administer self aid/first aid and decontaminate as soon as possible.When exposed to CS, CS1, or CS2, personnel shouldadminister self aid/first aid and decontaminate asfollows: Upon exposure to these agents, don theprotective mask, clear it, and try to keep the eyesopen as much as possible. With or without theavailability of a protective mask, move out of thecontaminated area into fresh air and face the wind.When in a safe area, remove the mask and blot away

tears; do not rub the eyes. If CS has entered the eyes,force them open and flush with water. Contact lensesare not approved for wear during training with CS.Minute particles can be trapped in the fluid betweenlens and eye, causing intense prolonged effects.Chest discomfort can usually be relieved merely bytalking. If exposure has been heavy, significant skinreactions may develop. Immediately flush the skin orexposed areas with large amounts of cold water. A5-or 10-percent sodium bicarbonate solution in wateror a specially prepared wash solution (6.7 percentsodium bicarbonate, 3.3 percent sodium carbonate,and 0.1 percent benzalkonium chloride in cold water)is superior to water and should be used only in smallamounts. Do not use these solutions in the eyes.Oil-based lotions and skin decontamination kitscontaining bleach should not be used. CS reacts with bleach to form a combination more toxic to the skinthan CS alone.

Decontaminate CS, CS1, and CS2 on surfaces anequipment using soap and water, especially for lararea or surface decontamination. The higher the basicity of the decontaminant, the better. A moreeffective decontaminant for these RCAs on soil anclothing consists of 18 percent sodium hydroxide a82 percent isopropyl alcohol (20 minute contacttime). An alternate solution of cold water containi10 percent monoethanolamine (MEA) and 0.3 pernon-ionic detergent (such as triton X-100 or IgepaCO-630) requires 30 minutes contact to be effectiDo not use chlorine bleach, oxygen bleach, standadecontaminants, or detergents containing bleach clean up CS. These materials can react with CS toform chemicals that are more toxic than CS ( forexample, expoxides which cause vesicant (blisteriinjuries).Personnel exposed to CR should administer self aid/first aid and decontaminate as follows

Upon exposure to CR, personnel should mask (iavailable) and remove themselves from thecontaminated area into fresh air. If CR has enteredthe eyes, flush them with large amounts of cold wor water containing 2 percent sodium carbonate whholding the eyelids opened.

If the skin is exposed to CR, wash the exposed agently with soap and cold water or use a delugeshower if available. Individuals who have ingestCR should be given lots of water or milk. Do notinduce vomiting. Do not use bleach, bleachcontaining decontaminants, detergents, or peroxidefor decontamination; this combination releases tox

fumes.Physical removal of the CR solution is the onlyapproved method of decontamination. Todecontaminate CR on equipment or on surfaces,remove CR by using towels, rags, absorbent papeor any other method such as scraping, shoveling, osweeping. If available, wipe the area with ragssoaked in propylene glycol or an automotiveantifreeze solution, then wipe with rubbing alcohoand then scrub with non-bleach detergent and hotwater before rinsing with large amounts of coldwater. Even though physical removal eliminates mof the hazard, enough CR will remain to irritate theyes. Wash hands thoroughly with soap and coldwater before touching the face, eyes, or groin. Plaall contaminated materials used to decontaminatean approved storage container where they cannotaffect personnel.Soldiers who become highly contaminated with Cspray should remove their clothing as soon as feas

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and take a shower or bath using plenty of soap andwater. If contaminated, flush the eyes with largeamounts of water. If exposure has been heavy,significant percutaneous (through the skin) reactionsmay develop. The individual may prevent this byimmediately rinsing the skin with large amounts of

water. However, 5 percent sodium bicarbonate orsodium carbonate in water or a specially preparedcutaneous wash solution is superior to water and isneeded only in small amounts. Do not use suchsolutions in the eyes.To prepare the cutaneous wash solution, add 100grams of sodium bicarbonate, 50 grams of sodiumcarbonate, and 15 milliliters of 10 percent benzalkonium chloride to 1,500 milliliters of distilledwater. This solution is stable and is prepared inadvance, if needed. The pharmacy may issue withoutprescription. CS agents affect the eyes, therespiratory tract, and moist skin areas of the body. Afield protective mask and field clothing with collarand cuffs buttoned and trouser legs tucked into bootswill protect against field concentrations of the agents.Personnel handling or dispensing bulk CS wearrubber gloves, hood, rubber boots, rubber apron,protective mask, and field clothing secured at theneck, wrists, and ankles.Those affected by CS should move to fresh air andface into the wind for 5 to 10 minutes, avoid rubbingeyes, and keep well apart from other affectedpersonnel. If gross accidental contamination with CSagent occurs, promptly rinse the body with coolwater. Remove the remainder of the agent, except inand around the eyes, with a 5 percent sodium bisulphite solution, then rinse the body with water. If sodium bisulphite is not available, use a 1 percentsolution of sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, oryellow general issue soap and water. Whenshowering after any exposure to a CS agent, firstrinse the body with cool water for 3 to 5 minutes before proceeding with normal showering. If agentresidue is on the clothing, remove the clothing toprevent unmasked personnel from being affected.Showering and laundering of clothing after exerciseswillminimize the risk of skin irritation followingexposure to CS. Soldiers who may be exposed to CScan reduce skin exposure by rolling down sleeves.

OPERATIONALCONSIDERATIONS

The behavior and tactical effectiveness of RCAs insupport of military operations are affected by theweather, by the terrain in the target area, and by the

defense posture and training of target populatioUnderstanding weather effects on RCA agent behavior is essential to ensure maximum effectivin planning and conducting operations.Conditions that are most favorable for RCAdispersion and placement on a target would be (inversion) atmospheric conditions where the wspeed is less than 5 to 8 knots. Under neutralatmospheric conditions with low windspeed ansmooth terrain, large areas may be covered withRCAs. Neutral conditions may be the best formilitary planning purposes since these conditiousually occur more often than stable or unstableconditions. The least favorable conditions for Remployment are heavy rains and unstable (lapsatmospheric conditions where windspeeds are than 10 knots. Although light rains will not seriodegrade the effectiveness of most RCAs, heavy will wash RCAs out of the air and off surfaces.Temperature also has an effect on RCAs. Althouthe rate of evaporation of liquid RCAs increasesincreasing temperatures, humans perspire more fat higher temperatures, increasing skin effects frRCA exposure. In contrast, at lower temperaturepersonnel will be wearing multi-layered clothinprovides a more effective barrier to skin exposuthis case, RCAs may still be employed effectivedelayed harassing effects against troops who meventually remove their contaminated clothingTerrain, contour, and surface areas also influenceffectiveness of RCAs. Under stable weatherconditions, the agent cloud tends to flow over roterrain and down valleys. Higher concentrationto flow around obstacles such as hills and persishollows, low ground, depressions, and foxholesurban areas, the dominating terrain (buildings,streets, and trees) tends to channel wind and creaeddies and currents that can be very unpredictaand cause the agent cloud to dissipate more rapTurbulence on the downwind sides of buildingtend to pool RCA concentration close to the buildings, and may penetrate closed structuresthrough doors and windows.

Rough ground and ground covered with tall gra brush tends to deflect and retard cloud movemwhile flat terrain and open water (under stable oneutral conditions) allows an even, steady cloudmovement and flow.When RCAs are employed into wooded areas, ththickness and height of foliage determines ageeffectiveness. A dense canopy tends to create a

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physical barrier that resists penetration of aerosol andparticulate clouds from the outside while preventingescape of RCAs already under the canopy. The agentclouds released from munitions within woods and jungles are generally smaller and higher inconcentration (by as much as three times) than thosereleased in the open. Wooded and jungleenvironments also require larger munitionexpenditures because some rounds will detonate ontreetops with less agent penetrating to ground level.Soil type and condition also affect the efficiency of RCA munitions. For instance, point detonatingdevices tend to bury into the porous surfaces andevaporate more slowly than from nonporous surfaces.As a result, a decrease in the cloud size and areacoverage could occur. When this soil is disturbed bytraffic, the RCAs may become airborne with renewedeffectiveness.The overall utility of RCAs is greatly influenced bythe discipline, motivation, and degree of readiness of the soldier. RCAs have been shown to be least usefulagainst well-trained and well-equipped soldiers. Test

results have shown that a very high level of adaptation or tolerance to CS may develop underconditions of extreme motivation or where escapclean air is not possible. However, RCAs in surpdosages can still incapacitate significant numberswell-trained and equipped soldiers. Performancdegradation will be achieved when enemy soldiforced to don protective clothing and masks. Eneuse of terrain may also be restricted. RCAs can a be used to complement or enhance other muniti beyond the effectiveness or either used alone.In many tactical situations, the employment of Rcannot wait for optimum environmental conditiTheir effectiveness often depends on immediatewhen and where the situation demands. Whenemployed under adverse conditions, additionalmunition expenditures and off-target attacks maincrease on-target RCA effects. However, RCAemployment depends primarily on the tacticalsituation, regardless of the conditions that exist atime.

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Moving Supporting theMoving the rioting crowd is akin to grouping, but Delaying Actioninstead of cutting off all avenues of escape for theOnce the rescue force has successfully extractedrioting crowd, you leave obvious avenues open forthe crowd to take. These obvious open avenues leadencircled force in order to further cripple the ento where you want the crowd to go. This movingpursuit, RCAs may be used to delay and hinder

technique is used when you need to occupy the areaorganization and movement. This is done by havthe crowd is currently in or want them to move to athe rear guard attack any pursuing forces with Rdifferent location but do not have the assets to totallycontrol them.You can do this by first attacking the crowd from theopposite side you want the crowd to go as well as anyavenues you do not want them to go.

ChannelizingThis technique is used when you want a rioting crowdto move to a location you have chosen. Do this by

cutting off avenues of escape with RCAs, blockades,and forces, as well as pushing the crowd from behind by using advancing forces and RCAs.This t

Documents

FM 3-11 Flame, Riot Control Agents & Herbicide Ops