Flame, Riot Control Agent, And Herbicide Operations

8/3/2019 Flame, Riot Control Agent, And Herbicide Operations

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FM 3-11.11

MCRP 3-3.7.2

FLAME,

RIOT CONTROL

AGENT,

AND

HERBICIDE

OPERATIONS

HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Distribution authorized to US Government agencies only to

protect technical or operational information from automatic dissemination under the

International Exchange Program or by other means. This determination was made

10 November 1993. Other requests for this document will be referred to Commandant, US

Army Chemical School, ATTN: ATSN-CM-DD, 401 MANSCEN Loop, Suite 1029, Fort Leonard

Wood, MO 65473-8926.

DESTRUCTION NOTICE: Destroy by any method that will prevent disclosure of contents or

reconstruction of the document.

This FM has been renumbered from FM 3-11 to FM 3-11.11


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FM 3-11.11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

C1

Change 1

Field Manual Headquarters

No. 3-11.11 Department of the Army

Marine Corps Reference Publication United States Marine Corps

No. 3-3.7.2Washington, DC, 10 March2003

FLAME, RIOT CONTROL AGENT, AND

HERBICIDE OPERATIONS

1. Change FM 3-11, 19 August 1996, as follows. The number of this field manual (FM) is being

changed to FM 3-11.11. The old number will be reused for the new manual FM 3-11, Multiservice

Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Defense Operations.

Remove Old Pages Insert New Pages

Cover page Cover pagePages i and ii Page i

2. A bar ( ) marks new or changed material.

3. File this transmittal sheet in front of the publication.

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Distribution authorized to US Government agencies only to protect

technical or operational information from automatic dissemination under the International Exchange

Program or by other means. This determination was made 10 November 1993. Other requests for this

document will be referred to Commandant, US Army Chemical School, ATTN: ATSN-CM-DD, 401

MANSCEN Loop, Suite 1029, Fort Leonard Wood, MO 65473-8926.

DESTRUCTION NOTICE: Destroy by any method that will prevent disclosure of contents or

reconstruction of the document.

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

ERIC K. SHINSEKI

General, United States Army

Chief of Staff

Official:

DISTRIBUTION

Active Army, Army National Guard, and US Army Reserve:To be distributed in accordance with the initial

distribution number 110153, requirements for FM 3-11.11.

JOEL B. HUDSON

Administrative Assistant to the

Secretary of the Army

0304501


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i

*C1, FM 3-11.11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

FIELD MANUAL HEADQUARTERS

NO. 3-11.11 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

MARINE CORPS REFERENCE PUBLICATION UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS

NO. 3-3.7.2 Washington, DC, 19 AUGUST 1996

FLAME, RIOT CONTROL AGENT,

AND HERBICIDE OPERATIONS

Contents

Page

PREFACE .................................................................................................................................................... ii

Part One - Flame Operations

CHAPTER 1. US Policy for Flame, Riot Control Agents, and Herbicides..............................................1-1

CHAPTER 2. Flame Operations............................................................................................................2-1

CHAPTER 3. Flame Fuels.....................................................................................................................3-0

CHAPTER 4. Exploding Flame Devices ................................................................................................4-1

CHAPTER 5. Flame Illuminators ...........................................................................................................5-0

Part Two - Riot Control Agent Operations

CHAPTER 6. Riot Control Agents .........................................................................................................6-1

CHAPTER 7. RCA Employment............................................................................................................7-1

Part Three - Herbicide Operations

CHAPTER 8. Herbicides for Contingency Use ......................................................................................8-1

CHAPTER 9. Herbicide Delivery Systems.............................................................................................9-0

CHAPTER 10. Tactical Employment of Herbicides ...............................................................................10-0

APPENDIX A. Demolition Skills for Constructing Flame Field Expedients ............................................ A-0

APPENDIX B. Riot Control Agent Munitions and Delivery Systems ...................................................... B-1

APPENDIX C. Safety .............................................................................................................................C-1

APPENDIX D. Herbicide Spray Systems ............................................................................................... D-1

GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................. Glossary-0

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... References-1

INDEX.................................................................................................................................................Index-1

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION:Distribution authorized to US Government agencies only to protect tech-

nical or operational information from automatic dissemination under the International Exchange Program or

by other means. This determination was made 10 November 1993. Other requests for this document will be

referred to Commandant, US Army Chemical School, ATTN: ATSN-CM-DD, 401 MANSCEN Loop, Suite

1029, Fort Leonard Wood, MO 65473-8926.

DESTRUCTION NOTICE:Destroy by any method that will prevent disclosure of contents or reconstruction

of the document

*This publication supersedes FM 3-11, 19 September 1990.

MARINE CORPS PCN: 14400001200

NOTE: This FM has been renumbered from FM 3-11 to FM 3-11.11.

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.


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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

P r e f a c e

This publication describes the doctrine, tactics, and techniques for employing flame weapons, riot control agents(RCA), and herbicides during peacetime and combat. It is intended primarily for use by chemical personnel at allechelons in planning the employment of flame and non-lethal materials (RCAs and herbicides). Training withRCAs is discussed in detail in TC 3-8, Chemical Training.This manual does not implement any international standardization agreements; however, the material within themanual is in accordance with related international agreements.Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusively to men.Extracts from FM 5-250, Explosi ves and Demolit ions, are used extensively throughout this field manual fortechnical and operational clarity. For further information concerning the use of military explosives and theircomponents, see FM 5-250.The proponent of this publication is the US Army Chemical School. Send comments and recommendations on DAForm 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) directly to:

CommandantUS Army Chemical SchoolATTN: ATZN-CMR-AFort McClellan, AL 36205-5020

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

CHAPTER 1

U.S. Policy for

Flame,Riot Control Agents

a n d

Herbicides

PEACETIME USEPolicy goveri ng US poli cy for R CA and herbicides i sfound in Executive Order 11850 dated 8 Apr 75,

Renunciation of Certain Uses i n War of Chemicals,The Secretary of the Army, as Executive Agent for

Herbicides, and Ri ot Control Agents. the Department of Defense for civil disturbanceoperations, has issued instructions governing the use

WARTIME USEThe US has renounced first use of herbicides in warexcept under regulations applicable to domestic use orfor control of vegetation within US bases andinstallations and around their immediate perimeters.

The US has renounced the first use of RCAs in war.US forces will only use RCAs in war in defensivemodes to save lives as approved by the President.

In wartime, use of RCAs outside the war zone isauthorized as prescribed for peacetime.

For RCA and herbicide use, war is any period ofarmed conflict no matter how it may becharacterized, including declared and undeclared war,counterinsurgency, and any other uses of armedforces in engagements between US military forcesand foreign military or paramilitary forces. Armedconflict is conflict between states in which at leastone party has resorted to the use of armed force toachieve its aims. It also may involve conflict betweena state and uniformed or non-uniformed groupswithin that state, such as organized resistance groups.

Commanders must recognize that, while the US doesnot consider herbicides and riot control agents to bechemical weapons, some other countries do not drawa distinction. Commanders must considerinternational ramifications and Rules of Engagement

before recommending the use of herbicides or RCAs.

of RCAs in civil disturbances in the US, theCommonwealth of Puerto Rico, and US possessionsand territories.

RCAs may be used on US bases, posts, embassygrounds, and installations for protection and securitypurposes, riot control, installation security, andevacuation of US noncombatants and foreignnationals. The US-controlled portions of foreigninstallations are considered US installations.

Chemical aerosol-irritant projectors may be used bymilitary law enforcement personnel for theperformance of law enforcement activities. They maybe used

On-base and off-base in the United States and itsterritories and possessions.

On-base overseas and off-base overseas in thosecountries where such use is specifically authorized bythe host-country government.

RCAs may be used off-base (worldwide) for theprotection or recovery of nuclear weapons under the

CONTENTSWartime Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-1

Peacetime Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2

Weapons Employing Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

same conditions as those authorized for the use oflethal force. (See DOD Directive 5210.56.)

RCAs may be used in training. A review of currenttreaties and/or Status-of-Forces Agreements betweenthe host country and US forces may be required indetermining whether or not training with RCAs isauthorized overseas.

Herbicides may be used within US bases, posts, andinstallations for control of vegetation. Use ofherbicides off-base overseas must be in accordancewith host country laws and agreements, USEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA)requirements, or Service regulations, whichever arethe most stringent.

AUTHORITYOnly the President may authorize the following:

Use of RCAs in war, including defensive military

modes. However, advance authority to use RCAs forprotection or recovery of nuclear weapons has beendelegated to the Secretary of the Defense.

Wartime use of herbicides, including installationvegetation control.The Secretary of Defense may authorize the following:

Use of RCAs or herbicides in peacetime.Use of RCAs in wartime for the protection or

recovery of nuclear weapons.CINCs and the Chiefs of Services may authorize:

The use of RCAs in peacetime on US installationsfor riot control, installation security, civil disturbanceoperations, and non-combatant emergency evacuation

operations. The US-controlled portions of foreign

installations are considered US installations.The movement and storage of RCAs and

herbicides, as necessary, to support requirements,provided US control is maintained.

The off-base use of RCAs in peacetime for theprotection or recovery of nuclear weapons under thesame situations as authorized for the use of lethal

force.The use of herbicides in peacetime within and,when authorized by the host country government,around US bases for control of vegetation.

The use of chemical aerosol-irritant projectors bymilitary law enforcement personnel during peacetimefor the performance of law enforcement activities inthe following areas:

On-base and off-base in the US and itsterritories and possessions.

On-base and off-base overseas in thosecountries where such use is specifically authorized bythe host country government.

Authority for use of RCAs in peacetime situationsnot covered by the above (for example, to save livesin counterterrorist operations) will be addressed inplans and requested by the combatant commandersfor Secretary of Defense approval.

WEAPONS EMPLOYING FIREThe use of weapons that employ fire, such as tracerammunition, flamethrowers, napalm, and otherincendiary agents, against targets requiring their useis not a violation of international law. They shouldnot, however, be employed to cause unnecessary

suffering to individuals.

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

CHAPTER 2

Flame Operations

FLAME EFFECTSFlame is a valuable close combat weapon that burns,depletes oxygen, and impacts psychologically. Sinceman fears flame, it is used to demoralize troops andreduce positions that have resisted other forms ofattack. Flame produces the following effects:

Casualties. Casualties result fromBurns. Thickened fuel sticks to clothing and skin,

burns with intense heat, and is extremely difficult toextinguish.Inhalation of flame, hot gases, and carbon

monoxide.Suffocation.Shock.

Psychological. The psychological impact is probablyone of the greatest effects of flame. In many cases,defending personnel will leave well-preparedpositions and risk exposure to other weapons orcapture. In other cases, the enemy is forced towithdraw from firing positions during the effective

period of the flame attack. This permits friendlyforces to close in before the enemy reoccupies hisfiring positions.

Splatter. Flame reaches around corners through thesplattering and ricochet action of the thickened fuelon adjacent surfaces. The splattering action of thethickened fuel spreads the flame over an areaincontrast to the point effects of nonfragmenting smallarms ammunition.

Incendiary. Flame ignites combustible materials tocause additional problems for personnel. Flameweapons ignite clothing, tentage, wires, petroleum

products, buildings of light construction, lightvegetation, munitions, and other combustible material.

Battlefield Illumination and Signaling.Controlled,slower burning flame field expedients (FFEs) can beused for close-in battlefield illumination andsignaling. These devices can be made to vary inillumination time from a few minutes to hours.

Smoke. The burning fuel from flame weapons andFFEs produces a dense black smoke that can reduce

battlefield visibility appreciably. Smoke from ignitedmaterials can prolong this condition. This blacksmoke may attract the enemys attention to the flameattack and invite counterfire. To minimize anyhindrance to friendly operations, the presence of thissmoke must be anticipated when planning operationsin which flame weapons or FFEs will be used.

FLAME WEAPONSThe flame weapons available are the M202A1 rocketlauncher, incendiary grenades, and FFEs.

M202A1Rocket LauncherThe M202A1 Rocket Launcher (Figure 2-1) is alightweight, individual rocket launcher aimed andfired on the right shoulder from the standing,kneeling, or prone position. The launcher is loadedwith a clip (M74) which contains four rockets. It canfire one to four rockets semiautomatically at a rate ofone rocket per second and can be reloaded with a newclip.

CONTENTS

Flame Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

Flame Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

Flame Attack Targets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2

Weather Effects on Flame Fuels andWeapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3

Destruction to Prevent Enemy Use............2-3

Flame Employment Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4

Offensive Flame Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4

Defensive Flame Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5

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The M74 rocket (Figure 2-2) is filled with thickenedpyrophoric agent (TPA). This TPA is triethylalum-inum (TEA), a substance similar to whitephosphorus, which bums spontaneously whenexposed to air (exposure occurs on impact, therefore,no fuel is wasted by burning en route to target). It

burns at temperatures between 1400-2200 degreesFahrenheit. The M74 is used to engage area-type

targets out to a range of 750 meters and point-typetargets out to a range of 200 meters. The minimumsafe firing distance to a target is 20 meters (M74 hasa bursting radius of 20 meters; therefore, engagingtargets closer than 20 meters may result in injury tofriendly troops).

Incendiary GrenadesThe AN-M14 TH3 incendiary hand grenade is filledwith thermite, which bums at 4,000 degreesFahrenheit. The grenade bums for 40 seconds andcan bum through a 1/2-inch homogeneous steel plate.It can damage, immobilize, or destroy vehicles,

weapon systems, shelters, or munitions. The grenademay also be used to start fires in areas containingcombustible materials.

Flame Field ExpedientsFFEs can generate violent, effective combat power atdecisive times and places on the battlefield. Thesesystemsfougasses, flame mines and flame

trenchescan be used by tactical commanders to aidin

Repelling enemy penetrations.Destroying enemy forces.Gaining time.Providing obstacles.Isolating or canalizing an enemy.

Slowing enemy movement.Surprising enemy forces.Degrading enemy morale.Deceiving enemy forces.

FFEs are formidable, uncomplicated weapons thatlend themselves to support of both light and heavyforces at all levels of the spectrum of conflict. Whenapplied at decisive times and places on the battlefield,flame weapons reinforce fighting positions, achievesurprise, and produce casualties and psychologicalshock. They may also provide battlefield illuminationduring limited visibility to help see enemy forcestrying to assault friendly forces. Exploding FFEdevices produce casualties from the immediatedevelopment of extremely high levels of heat at themoment of detonation. Additionally, exploding FFEsproduce hundreds of white-hot shards of metal as thecontainer breaks apart. However, the most dangerouspart of an FFE is the burning thickened fuel thateither is spread in all directions or projected over alarge area. Thickened fuel is a syrupy liquid thatsticks to a target and continues to burn. Once ignited,flame fuel is extremely difficult to extinguish.

Selected FFE devices are constructed to simply burnin place and provide light during limited visibility.

Illuminating devices burn for an unspecified time.Generally, these flare-like systems will burn fromfour to eight hours depending upon the quantity offuel contained. They are designed to provide

battlefield illumination for the destruction of enemyforces trying to assault friendly fighting positions.

FLAME ATTACKTARGETS

In selecting flame attack targets, consider the type offlame weapon available.

FortificationsFlame is particularly effective in the attack ofpersonnel in shelters such as fortifications. Itseffectiveness depends on as the size, number, andtype of apertures and construction of the fortification.A small fortification may be entirely reduced, but afortification with more than one internal compartment

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

fortification with more than one internal compartmentusually affords comparative safety to its occupants.The flame fuel must actually penetrate a fortificationfor maximum results. More fuel is required to causecasualties among personnel in well-ventilatedfortifications than in poorly ventilated ones of thesame size. Casualties in fortifications may result from

suffocation (because oxygen from the air is consumedby the flame) or from actual burns.

Other TargetsPersonnel in open fighting positions are vulnerable toflame. Thickened and pyrophoric fuel tends to stickto the clothing and skin of the occupants and the area,forcing the occupants to abandon the position or stayand be burned by the flaming fuel and risk becomingcasualties.

Occupants of built-up areas can be forced to abandontheir positions or become casualties, either fromcontact with the burning fuel or from fires caused byignition of combustible materials (such as woodenbuildings).

Personnel concealed in vegetation can be forced toabandon their positions or become casualties.

If the burning fuel penetrates the occupiedcompartment of the vehicles, personnel in armoredvehicles may become casualties unless they abandonthe vehicles. Armored vehicles buttoned up andmoving are not good targets for flame. The burningfuel must penetrate the openings of the vehicles to beeffective. Burning fuel will not ignite the tracks ofmoving armored vehicles. Incendiary devices attachedto or penetrating the openings of armored vehiclescan be effective in disabling the vehicles.

Personnel in unarmored vehicles will becomecasualties or be forced to abandon the vehicles ifflaming fuel is placed in them, since any combustiblematerial in or a part of the vehicles may be ignited ordamaged.

Weapon positions may become untenable if hit withburning fuel or incendiary material. Occupants maybecome casualties and weapons and ammunition may

be damaged.Wires and cables covered with combustible materialmay be damaged by ignition of the coverings from

burning flame fuel or fires from flame or incendiarydevices.

Small arms ammunition may be destroyed by use offlame fuels and/or incendiary devices.

Generally, supplies that are combustible may bedestroyed or damaged by flame fuels.Noncombustible supplies can be damaged ordestroyed by incendiary devices or by secondary firesfrom combustible materials; for example, suppliesstored in a wooden building would be damaged byfires that destroyed the building.

WEATHER EFFECTSON FLAME FUELSAND WEAPONS

Wind has minimal effect on the M202A1s range andaccuracy.

Rain has little effect on flame fuel in flight. Flamefuel will float and burn on water. The incendiaryeffect is less on damp material than on dry material.

Snow has little effect on flame fuel in flight.However, snow tends to smother flame, reducing itsincendiary effects in the target area.High temperatures tend to increase the fuelsincendiary action. Flame fuels in high temperaturesmay have to be thickened so that they do not burnexcessively in flight to the target. Low temperaturesdecrease the incendiary action and more fuel may berequired to ignite combustible materials. Additionallyat low temperatures, flame fuel may have to be madeless thick to ensure ignition. Specific precautions andprocedures must be followed in fuel selection,preparation, storage, and firing.

DESTRUCTION TOPREVENT ENEMY USE

Materiel subject to capture or abandonment in acombat zone (except medical) is destroyed by theusing unit only when, in the judgement of the militarycommander concerned, destruction is necessary tokeep the materiel from falling into enemy hands.

Emergency destruction procedures for fuel,ingredients, and flame weapons are given below.Detailed methods of equipment destruction arepresented in appropriate technical manuals and

bulletins pertaining to specific items of equipment.Flammable fuels or lubricants may be destroyed byburning or pouring on the ground.

Thickeners may be destroyed by opening thecontainers and either dumping the contents into wateror tire or spreading the contents on the ground.

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

M202A1 rocket launchers and M74 rocket clipsshould be destroyed by burning, demolition, gunfiie,or disposal.

FLAME EMPLOYMENTPRINCIPLES

Flame weapons are employed for both anti-personneland anti-materiel effects. This principal use inoffensive operations reduces fortifications, suppressesfire, and produces casualties or exposes enemypersonnel to the fire of other weapons. In defensiveoperations they complement other weapons in fireplans. They can be used to destroy buildings andequipment, clear tunnels, destroy food, clear lightvegetation, counter ambushes, illuminate defensiveareas, warn of enemy approach, and restrict enemyuse of trails and paths.

TacticsFlame assumes great importance in ground warfareagainst an enemy whose tactics place emphasis onmass in the attack and stubborn, unyielding resistancein the defense. Even in relatively fluid, rapidlychanging situations, an enemy may be able toestablish excellent defensive fortifications, requiringincreased use of flame for destruction.

The M202A1 and incendiary grenades are usedprimarily in offensive operations while FFEs are usedprimarily in the defense. The M202A1 can be used in

both offensive and defensive roles because of its lightweight, great range, and minimal servicerequirement. The decision to use M202A1, grenades,or FFEs is based on their comparative effectivenessfor the particular mission.

In planning the attack, the commander considers theuse of flame as a part of his fire support plan.Defensively, flame weapons may be used in thecoordinated plan for fires and in support of thecounterattack. Flame can often be used to blunt anddisrupt mass enemy attacks, but the disadvantages offlame in both defensive and offensive operations must

be considered. Careful planning and coordination areneeded for maximum benefit from the use of flame in

the attack or defense.

OFFENSIVE FLAMEUSE

Flame has many qualifications as an offensive assaultweapon. It demoralizes, produces casualties, andignites combustible material; and it has good

searching capability through its splattering action.When combined with infantry, tanks, and supportingfires, flame contributes greatly to the accomplishmentof the mission. It is particularly effective whencombined with infantry fires during the last stages ofthe assault. Flame weapons can be decisive against anenemy lacking any tank or fire support other than

automatic weapons.Plans should be as simple and direct as possible.Apply the following basic principles of employmentin planning for the use of flame weapons in the attack.

As with other weapons, a proper reconnaissance is amust for successful employment of flame weapons.The target and any element supporting it must belocated; a route of approach that offers protectionfrom enemy fire must be selected; and the amount offlame required and the need for demolition and

breaching support must be determined. The M202A1can be employed without a thorough reconnaissance if

the rear danger zone and the minimum safe rangerestrictions are observed.

Use sufficient flame. The number of flame weaponsused depends on a number of factorthe size andnature of the objective, the terrain, and the enemies'morale and physical condition, for example.Piecemeal use of the M202A1 should be avoided. Theenemy should be made to feel that unless hesurrenders or withdraws immediately he will be

burned to death. Within control capabilities forcoordination of flame weapons supporting themaneuver force, the more flame that can be placed on

suitable targets, the greater the probability of successduring the attack. The attack should be pressedboldly. Supporting fires must lift or shift as necessaryto allow flame weapons to close with the enemy.These fires should continue on enemy supportingpositions.

Follow up with infantry. The enemy seldom fights athis best when he is caught in a flame attack. Heusually does one of three things: surrenders, runs, orhides under cover. If he runs before the arrival of theflame, he may return to his position when the attackis over, even though the flame fuel is still burning on

the ground. Enemy positions in the flame attack areamay hold their fire until the flame attack is over. It isessential, therefore, that infantry supported by aflame attack follow it closely and quickly before theenemy can regain his position or reorganize hisdefenses. Friendly infantry must and can enter thearea while flame is still burning on the ground.Troops must be given training in following a flame

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attack closely and in dashing through flame on theground. Surprise and shock must be exploited to thefullest extent. Success in any tactical operationdepends largely on the timing and coordination

between the flame teams and the unit with which theyare operating.

Rehearse. Time should be made available forrehearsals for flame attack. Rehearsals should beconducted on ground similar to the terrain to betraversed and against a point resembling theobjective. If the attack is to be made at night,rehearsals should be conducted at night.

DEFENSIVE FLAMEUSE

The use of flame weapons can be a major factor inthe successful defense of any position. Flameweapons are particularly effective in disrupting the

final stages of an enemy assault. The short range offlame weapons, however, restricts their employmentand requires that they be carefully located to obtainthe best advantage. The longer range of the rocketlauncher increases that weapons flexibility.

The following flame weapons/munitions can be usedin the defense: M202A1 and FFEs. These weaponsare integrated into defensive fire plans to supplementor reinforce other fires. Defensive flame fire plansmay employ flame weapons uniformly within unitareas, massed at likely avenues of approach againstanticipated massed enemy assaults, or may deploythem in reserve blocking positions ready for use inthe counterattack. Particular attention is given to theresupply or replacement of empty flame weapons toensure sustained support for the defense.

Flame weapons are most effective when integratedinto the plan for fire support and the obstacle plan.They are used to supplement or reinforce otherdefensive fires or to defend a small sector not covered

by other weapons.

The basic considerations of defense apply to the useof flame:

Proper use of terrain. Flame teams are located on key

terrain on the perimeter of the platoon defense areas.FFEs may be emplaced in the gaps between platoons,in approaches to the position, or on key terrainforward of the battle position that the defending forcedoes not plan to hold, and in blocking positions indepth.

Defense in depth. FFEs are placed in likely areas ofpenetration. The use of these expedients iscoordinated with counterattacking forces.

Mutual support. FFEs should be integrated into finalprotective fires and should be emplaced to providemutually supporting area coverage. A technique is to

use FFEs to fill gaps between indirect fire targets andforce or canalize enemy troops into final protectivefires.

All-round defense. FFEs may be positioned to protectthe flanks and rear of the position.

The fire plan. FFEs can be used to supplement thelong-range and close defensive fires of mortars andartillery. However, coordination is required toprevent duplication of effort and destruction of theFFEs by friendly fires. FFEs can also be used ininternal defense operations to counter ambush, clearunderbrush, illuminate defensive areas, serve as

warning devices, and inflict casualties on theattacking troops.

Reinforcement of obstacles. Natural and artificialobstacles can be reinforced or extended by flameweapons. For example, flame fuel floats and burns onwater and can be used on shallow streams to preventassaulting foot troops from crossing. FFEs can beused as floating flame devices. FFEs must be usedcarefully to avoid damaging mines or destroyingcamouflage.

Antitank measures. Armored vehicles can often movesafely through flame fuel burning on the ground if the

area is traversed quickly and the flames are not highenough to be sucked in through vents. However,flame fired directly on a tank can neutralize it byobscuring the drivers vision, seeping inside throughvents, or setting the tank afire. The minimum effect isprofound fear and decreased efficiency of the tankcrew. FFEs may be located on probable tankapproaches.

Brush and forest fires. Flame weapons must be usedcarefully to avoid starting brush and forest fires thatmay hinder the defense. When it is desirable to startfires deliberately, consider the following factors:

Probable effect on enemy operations.Danger to friendly troops and installations.Effect on friendly observations.Effect on future friendly operations.Effect on environment.Effect on noncombatants.

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CHAPTER 3

Flame Fuels

The three types of flame fuels are unthickened, Burning unthickend/thickened fuel is very effective. .

thickened, and triethylaluminum (TEA). Unthickened against personnel caught in the open.fuel is a thin, pourable, highly flammable liquidcomposed of gasoline and oil. Thickened fuel is a THICKENED FLAME FUELSthick, jellylike substance ranging in consistency from Thickened fuel consists of a thickener and gasoline.a pourable liquid to a rubbery, very thick gel. TEA is The Army uses two different thickeners, M4 and M1.a thickened pyrophoric substance similar to whitephosphorus. It burns spontaneously at temperatures of M4 thickener is a fine white powder that is a1,400 to 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit when exposed to by-product of petroleum processing. Even though M4air. thickener is hydroscopic (absorbs water from the air),

Use unthickened fuel in situations where range is notan important factor or when fuel is needed on shortnotice. Unthickened fuel has advantages: you canprepare it quickly and it is readily available;however, it has a short range of about 20 meters andis quickly consumed. Another disadvantage is thatunthickened fuel offers little penetration offortifications or fighting positions. It does notrebound effectively from surfaces.

Thickened fuel requires equipment, time, andpersonnel for mixing, aging, and transferring. Unlessyou store it in airtight steel containers, thickened fuelhas an uncertain period of stability. However,thickened fuel burns longer than unthickened fuel andclings to a target. It splashes across surfaces and,therefore, is effective when employed during militaryoperations on urbanized terrain (MOUT). Since youwill use thickened fuel more extensively thanunthickened fuel in flame field expedients, thischapter will primarily address thickened fuel.

Both thickened and unthickened fuels are used to kill,dislodge, and demoralize personnel, to neutralizefortifications, and to destroy flammable material.

you may reseal a partially used container and store itfor one day. M4 thickener comes in 2.5-pound cansor 100-pound drums.

M1 thickener is a coarse, light tan, granular materialthat is extremely hydroscopic. The presence ofmoisture in it decreases its ability to form a stableflame fuel. You should discard a partially usedcontainer of M1 thickener.

Thickened FuelFlame field expedients use number 3 flame fuel. Theconsistency of the fuel is based on a factor of 3 indetermining the amount of thickener to add to aspecific amount of gasoline. When mixing a batch offlame fuel, use the applicable equation for either M4or M1 thickener.

CONTENTS

Thickened Flame Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-0

Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4

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CHAPTER 4

Exploding Flame Devices

Historically, exploding flame devices have beenemployed with great success in combat. In the KoreanConflict, the 8th Cavalry Regiment, 1st CavalryDivision, inflicted casualties on the ChineseCommunists with strategically placed exploding flamedevices. During combined operations in the Republicof Vietnam, the 10lst Airborne Division and the 2dRepublic of Korea Marine Brigade made extensiveuse of FFEs to the south of Da Nang to clearvegetation and rid several areas of booby traps.

GENERAL INFORMATIONExploding flame devices cause casualties by inflictinginjuries from burning fuel and flying debris. These

devices also have a great psychological effect thatmay deter or slow an enemy attack. All explodingflame devices consist of a container, incendiary fuel,and a firing system (burster and igniter) to scatter andignite the fuel. The size of the area covered dependson the size of the container and the firing system used.

ComponentsField expedient flame weapons generally consist offour basic components--a container, fuel, an igniter,and a burster.Appendix Bcontains detailedinformation on the proper use of demolition

accessories.Container

Anything that will hold the fuel, such as a standardissue military canteen or even a 55-gallon drum, canserve as a container.

FuelFuel is a combustible liquid that produces animmediate fire, such as thickened or unthickenedMOGAS.

IgniterAn igniter is an incendiary used to set the explodingfuel alight. M49 trip flares, incendiary grenades,M34 white phosphorus (WP) grenades (combat useonly), or even small containers of raw gasoline may

be used. An expedient method for employing rawgasoline as an igniter is to fill a used meals,ready-to-eat (MRE), bag with gasoline and seal itwith tape. This will produce enough immediate fire toensure ignition of an FFE device.

BursterA burster is an explosive charge that scatters the fuel.Examples of bursting charges include, but are notlimited to, trinitrotoluene (TNT), composition C4,M4 field incendiary bursters, detonating cord, and

NOTE

Expedient battlefield illuminators do notdetonate; there is no need for a bursterwhen employing this type of FFE. Battlefieldilluminators are discussed inChapter 5.

CONTENTS

General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

Electrically Initiated Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...4-2

Bunker Bombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6

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CHAPTER 5

Flame Illuminators

The main purpose of flame illuminators is to provide

extended burning time with maximum illumination,although they may also produce casualties. You mayuse flame illuminators for warning as well asillumination by contact detonation. This chapterdiscusses some improvised flame illumination devicesused for limited battlefield illumination.

Flame illuminators vary and may be constructed ofmany differing components. FFE illuminators include5-or 55-gallon flame illuminators, hasty flameilluminators, water illuminators, field expedientilluminators, Husch flares, and illuminated signalarrows.

5- OR 55-GALLONFLAME ILLUMINATORS

You can construct a flame illuminator (Figure 5-1)from a 5-gallon or a 55-gallon drum filled withthickened fuel, tightly sealed, and set into a hole withthe top slightly below ground. Five turns ofdetonating cord are wound around the inside edge ofthe drum top and tightly tamped with mud. Whendetonated, the detonating cord cuts off the drum topand an M49 trip flare or M34 WP grenade (in combatonly) placed on top of the drum, ignites the thickenedfuel.

The fuel will burn for several hours. However, youmay control burning time somewhat by the size ofcontainer used, the thickness of the fuel mixture, andthe addition of straw or dirt to the thickened fuel.

Each 55-gallon flame illuminator requires thefollowing ammunition:

100 foot of detonating cord.

Nonelectric blasting cap.

Seven and a half feet of M700 time fuse.M60 fuse igniter.Electric blasting cap.

CONTENTS

5- or 55-Gallon Flame Illuminator . . . . . . . .5-0Hasty Flame illuminators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

Water Illuminators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

Field Expedient Illuminators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

Husch Flares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

Illuminated Signal Arrows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2

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CHAPTER 6

Riot Control Agents

Riot control agents disable hostile forces or rioting

personnel for limited periods of time by producingtemporary disabling physiological effects when theycome into contact with the eyes or skin or when theyare inhaled. Their effects are typically peripheral,such as irritation to the eyes, mucosa, respiratorytract, or skin. The effects generally subside quicklyonce the individual is removed from the atmosphereof the RCA. On the other hand, incapacitatingconcentrations can act systemically, have longerlasting, more profound physiological effects such asimmobilization of limbs, systemic interference of

breathing, disruption of cognitive function or any ofseveral other centrally controlled effects. The

physiological effects may continue after personnelleave the target area. RCA levels at 5-10 milligramsper cubic meter (mg/m3) achieve incapacitatingconcentrations. Training concentrations (1-3 mg/m3)for CS are irritating concentrations normally found inchamber or field training exercise settings. In tacticalconcentrations, RCAs do not permanently injurepersonnel but should be used like incapacitating

congestion, or heart conditions) may experience

increased irritation and incapacitation upon exposureto these agents. Agent CN (popularly known as maceor tear gas) and its analog are considered obsolete formilitary employment; most CN munitions have beenphased out of the system.

CSIn 1959, the US Army adopted CS(orthochlorobenzalmalononitrile) for combat trainingand riot control purposes. The Army has found it to

be both safe and effective, especially for training andcreating combat realism in low concentrations. OnlyCS in a capsule form may be used in the CS chamber.In Vietnam, CS was an effective incapacitant whileits variable persistency made it an economicalcontaminant. Different forms of CS have differentpersistence characteristics, due to their formulation,dissemination, and rate of hydrolysis. CS is normallyused either as a pure powder in bulk form or aspellets in a pyrotechnic mixture for employment in

agents. In enclosed places, prolonged exposure to theresulting high dosages of RCAs can kill or disablepersonnel and can cause serious physiologicalreactions. Detailed descriptions of RCA munitionssystems can be found inAppendix B.

STANDARD AGENTSThe standard RCAs currently in the US Armyinventory are CS, CSX, CS1, CS2, and CR. Thephysiological effects desired and the disseminationmeans available determine the choice of RCA to usein a particular situation. Individuals havingrespiratory problems (such as colds, asthma, lung

CONTENTS

Standard Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

Oleoresin Capsicum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-3

Protection Against RCAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3

Physiological andSafety Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3

Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4

Operational Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-5

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burning grenades and bomblets. A yellowishpowdered solid in pure form, CS has a characteristicpungent pepper-like odor. Employed in aerosol form,CS irritates the eyes, nose, throat, and (if used insufficiently high concentration) will cause militarilysignificant incapacitation. By weight, theeffectiveness of CS is about 10 times that of CN. The

symptoms of exposure to training concentrations ofCS areExtreme burning of the eyes, with much tearing,

coughing, and difficulty in breathing with tightness inthe chest and pain in breathing.

Involuntary closing of the eyes.Heavy mucous formation in the nose with sinus and

nasal drip.Stinging or burning on moist skin areas.

Exposure to field concentrations may cause nauseaand vomiting and prolonged exposure to CS on skinmay cause severe irritation and blistering.

Incapacitation is caused by the individuals inabilityto see or preoccupation with the agents effects.Effects of the agent appear almost immediately andwill continue as long as the individual is exposed.Affected individuals usually recover within 10minutes in fresh air. CS has been specially formulatedfor varied dissemination characteristics and/or effectsas CSX, CS1, and CS2. CSX is a form of CSdeveloped for dissemination as a liquid rather than apowder. One gram of powdered CS is dissolved in 99grams of solvent trioctyl phosphate (TOF) and isdispersed as aliquid aerosol from the M32 hand-helddisperser (seeAppendix B). As with CS, CSX causes

stinging and irritation of the eyes, skin, nose, throat,and lungs of exposed personnel. It is only available inM32 hand-held dispersers.

Variations in the formulation of CS result in differentpersistencies for CS, CS1, and CS2. CS originatingfrom burning munitions is disseminated only as anairborne cloud and its persistence depends mainly onair movement. The aerosol particles, once contactingthe ground or other surfaces, adhere and do notre-aerosolize. Due to the relatively low volatility andrapid rate of hydrolysis, the CS aerosol usuallypresents a negligible residual hazard. However, acertain amount of caution must be exercised, sincepockets of the airborne agent may linger in closedstructures or other places where movement of air isslight.

CS1CS1 has been specially formulated to prolongpersistency and increase effectiveness. Unlike CS,CS1 is free-flowing agent powder (95 percent CS to 5

percent silica aerogel), that is readily usable indisseminating devices (for example, spray tanks) thatrequire a free-flowing material. CS1 is CS blendedwith silicone-treated silica aerogel which not onlyprevents coagulation and increases fluidity, but alsomarkedly increases its resistance to water. This formof CS prolongs the effectiveness for both immediate

and surface contamination effects for direct andresidual use. As CS1 settles out of the air, it readilycontaminates terrain, vegetation, personnel, andequipment. When disturbed, CS1 re-aerosolizes tocause respiratory and eye effects.

CS1 exhibits typical CS activity for several days ondry ground at initial incapacitating concentrations(5-10 mg/m3). Persistency tests have shown that CS1can remain effective for about 14 days when usedinside a dry tunnel or bunker and about 7 days onopen terrain under ideal environmental conditions.

CS2

CS2 is far more resistant to water degradation,maintaining an effectiveness for a periodapproximately double that of an equivalent initialconcentration of CS1. It is so resistant to wetting thatwhen spread upon the surface of a body of water,agitation of the surface by wind or wading mayregenerate an effective aerosol. CS2 will remaineffective on open terrain under suitable conditions forabout 30 days. Although rain does not effectivelydissolve the agent, it may physically wash away fromthe site of deposit. High winds will dissipate it.

CRIn 1974, the US Army approved the use of CR(dibenz (b,f-1, 4-oxazepine) in riot control situations.CR has a stronger harassing action than CS. Inaddition, the toxicity of CR is lower than that of CS.CR is not used in its pure form (a yellow powder) butis dissolved in a solution of 80 percent propyleneglycol and 20 percent water to forma 0.1 percent CRsolution. As a solution, the operational flexibility ofCR increases since it can be dispersed on the targetareas as a liquid rather than as an aerosol cloud. CRis a highly potent irritant that affects the eyes,respiratory tract, and exposed skin. Eye pain,

discomfort, and excessive tearing occur withsometimes painful sensitivity to strong light. Nasalirritation, coughing, sneezing, and nasal drip alsooccur. Exposure of the skin to CR results in astinging or burning sensation with increased irritationon moist skin. Sometimes these symptoms areaccompanied by nausea and vomiting, and can persistfrom 15 to 30 minutes. Severity of symptoms

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increases with the CR solution concentration in anenvironment of high temperature and humidity.

CR is quite persistent in the environment. The CRsolution provides effective wetting and spreading ofthis agent on all surfaces. It does not degrade in waterand can be considered as persistent or more persistent

than CS2. Under suitable conditions, CR can persiston certain surfaces (especially porous material) for upto 60 days.

OLEORESIN CAPSICUMA possible nonstandard riot control agent is oleoresincapsicum (OC or pepper spray). This agent is mostoften used by the military police for incapacitatingviolent or threatening subjects, but also hasapplications for special forces and stability andsupport operations. OC is a naturally occurringsubstance found in the oily resin of cayenne and othervarieties of peppers (can also be producedsynthetically).Contact with OC particles in a sprayed mistincapacitates subjects by inducing an almostimmediate burning sensation of the skin and burning,tearing, and swelling of the eyes. When inhaled, therespiratory tract becomes inflamed causing themucous membranes to swell. This restricts breathingto short, shallow breaths.

As stated earlier, standard RCAs also cause tearingand respiratory discomfort (irritant effects), but donot induce the inflammation and swelling effects of

OC. When sprayed (OC is dispersed in hand-heldcanister similar to M32/36) most people cannot keeptheir eyes open unless they physically hold theireyelids apart due to the swelling. Fear anddisorientation often result from this temporary

blindness. Affected personnel may also lose strengthand coordination due to the shortness of breath.

Treatment and decontamination procedures:Move to uncontamimted air.Flush face with cool water; if burning persists, use

icepack.Do not rub area.Remove contacts, if applicable.Decon required areas with soap and water.

OC effects usually last approximately 15 to 45minutes. If symptoms have not abated within 45minutes, seek medical attention.

Limits of OC include:Alcohol-based sprays must not be used around

flames/sparks.

Effective range of OC is 4 to 6 feet (maximumrange is approximately 25 feet).

Personnel should not spray an individual closer than2 feet from themselves to prevent being affected.

Rain and wind decrease effectiveness.Eyeglasses/sunglasses may deflect agent (shift aim

to nose/mouth).Perspiration may cause longer agent effects.OC may have detrimental effects on people with

pre-existing respiratory problems.

As with any RCA, personnel must be properlytrained on OCs capabilities/employment, limitations,and applicable rules of engagement/ARs prior to use.

PROTECTIONAGAINST RCAs

Use the following measures to protect against RCAs.Protect the eyes and respiratory passages from CS by

immediate masking. A dry field uniform will usuallyprovide adequate protection for a short time in mosttactical situations. Those personnel handling andloading bulk CS should wear protective clothing,masks, and gloves. Personnel exposed to CS1, CS2,and CR should wear protective clothing, masks,hoods, and gloves. Protective clothing should besecured at the neck, wrists, and ankles.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ANDSAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

RCAs produce effects that must be considered for

both tactical and training uses. The RCAs in trainingconcentrations will produce temporary, irritatingeffects to normal, healthy individuals. Thesepersonnel will recover from the exposure quiterapidly. However, individuals with a common cold,asthma, lung congestion, high blood pressure, orcardiovascular problems will experience increasedeffects and may suffer longer recovery times.Therefore, they should not be exposed to these agentsduring training exercises. Pregnant soldiers with anexempt letter from a doctor should also be exemptfrom training with RCAs.

Particles of CS remaining on exposed skin for longperiods can cause severe burns. CS should beimmediately flushed from the skin with cold water.

Prolonged, continuous, or even intermittent exposureto field concentrations of CS combined with a hightemperature and humidity may result in a cumulativeeffect (more intense stinging, tearing, watering of theeyes).

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Food and drink contaminated with CS can be detectedeasily since it is quite repulsive to the taste. Whenfood items are suspected to have been contaminated

by CS in training, check them using the followingprocedures: (Do not use these procedures in combatwhen chemical or biological agents may also bepresent.)

If packaged, clean the package and check for leaksor damage. If no odor is present, the food is probablynot contaminated. If the package is damaged orleaking, unpack the contents and inspect them.

If unpacked, sniff to detect RCA odor. If none thefood may be safe to eat. However, when in doubt,discard the package. If the food is contaminated, youmay be able to trim the food and remove thecontaminated portions. The same procedures apply tofood immersed in water or in covered containers. CRshould be stored in nonporous containers onnonporous surfaces. It will leach into porous materialand can be extremely persistent.

TREATMENTPersonnel exposed to RCAs should administer selfaid/first aid and decontaminate as soon as possible.When exposed to CS, CS1, or CS2, personnel shouldadminister self aid/first aid and decontaminate asfollows: Upon exposure to these agents, don theprotective mask, clear it, and try to keep the eyesopen as much as possible. With or without theavailability of a protective mask, move out of thecontaminated area into fresh air and face the wind.When in a safe area, remove the mask and blot away

tears; do not rub the eyes. If CS has entered the eyes,force them open and flush with water. Contact lensesare not approved for wear during training with CS.Minute particles can be trapped in the fluid betweenlens and eye, causing intense prolonged effects.

Chest discomfort can usually be relieved merely bytalking. If exposure has been heavy, significant skinreactions may develop. Immediately flush the skin orexposed areas with large amounts of cold water. A5-or 10-percent sodium bicarbonate solution in wateror a specially prepared wash solution (6.7 percentsodium bicarbonate, 3.3 percent sodium carbonate,and 0.1 percent benzalkonium chloride in cold water)is superior to water and should be used only in smallamounts. Do not use these solutions in the eyes.Oil-based lotions and skin decontamination kitscontaining bleach should not be used. CS reacts with

bleach to form a combination more toxic to the skinthan CS alone.

Decontaminate CS, CS1, and CS2 on surfaces andequipment using soap and water, especially for largearea or surface decontamination. The higher the

basicity of the decontaminant, the better. A moreeffective decontaminant for these RCAs on soil andclothing consists of 18 percent sodium hydroxide and82 percent isopropyl alcohol (20 minute contact

time). An alternate solution of cold water containing10 percent monoethanolamine (MEA) and 0.3 percentnon-ionic detergent (such as triton X-100 or IgepalCO-630) requires 30 minutes contact to be effective.Do not use chlorine bleach, oxygen bleach, standarddecontaminants, or detergents containing bleach toclean up CS. These materials can react with CS toform chemicals that are more toxic than CS ( forexample, expoxides which cause vesicant (blistering)injuries).

Personnel exposed to CR should administer selfaid/first aid and decontaminate as follows

Upon exposure to CR, personnel should mask (ifavailable) and remove themselves from thecontaminated area into fresh air. If CR has enteredthe eyes, flush them with large amounts of cold wateror water containing 2 percent sodium carbonate whileholding the eyelids opened.

If the skin is exposed to CR, wash the exposed areagently with soap and cold water or use a delugeshower if available. Individuals who have ingestedCR should be given lots of water or milk. Do notinduce vomiting. Do not use bleach, bleachcontaining decontaminants, detergents, or peroxidesfor decontamination; this combination releases toxic

fumes.Physical removal of the CR solution is the onlyapproved method of decontamination. Todecontaminate CR on equipment or on surfaces,remove CR by using towels, rags, absorbent paper,or any other method such as scraping, shoveling, orsweeping. If available, wipe the area with ragssoaked in propylene glycol or an automotiveantifreeze solution, then wipe with rubbing alcohol,and then scrub with non-bleach detergent and hotwater before rinsing with large amounts of coldwater. Even though physical removal eliminates mostof the hazard, enough CR will remain to irritate theeyes. Wash hands thoroughly with soap and coldwater before touching the face, eyes, or groin. Placeall contaminated materials used to decontaminate inan approved storage container where they cannotaffect personnel.

Soldiers who become highly contaminated with CSspray should remove their clothing as soon as feasible

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and take a shower or bath using plenty of soap andwater. If contaminated, flush the eyes with largeamounts of water. If exposure has been heavy,significant percutaneous (through the skin) reactionsmay develop. The individual may prevent this byimmediately rinsing the skin with large amounts of

water. However, 5 percent sodium bicarbonate orsodium carbonate in water or a specially preparedcutaneous wash solution is superior to water and isneeded only in small amounts. Do not use suchsolutions in the eyes.

To prepare the cutaneous wash solution, add 100grams of sodium bicarbonate, 50 grams of sodiumcarbonate, and 15 milliliters of 10 percent

benzalkonium chloride to 1,500 milliliters of distilledwater. This solution is stable and is prepared inadvance, if needed. The pharmacy may issue withoutprescription. CS agents affect the eyes, therespiratory tract, and moist skin areas of the body. Afield protective mask and field clothing with collarand cuffs buttoned and trouser legs tucked into bootswill protect against field concentrations of the agents.Personnel handling or dispensing bulk CS wearrubber gloves, hood, rubber boots, rubber apron,protective mask, and field clothing secured at theneck, wrists, and ankles.

Those affected by CS should move to fresh air andface into the wind for 5 to 10 minutes, avoid rubbingeyes, and keep well apart from other affectedpersonnel. If gross accidental contamination with CSagent occurs, promptly rinse the body with cool

water. Remove the remainder of the agent, except inand around the eyes, with a 5 percent sodiumbisulphite solution, then rinse the body with water. Ifsodium bisulphite is not available, use a 1 percentsolution of sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, oryellow general issue soap and water. Whenshowering after any exposure to a CS agent, firstrinse the body with cool water for 3 to 5 minutes

before proceeding with normal showering. If agentresidue is on the clothing, remove the clothing toprevent unmasked personnel from being affected.Showering and laundering of clothing after exerciseswill minimize the risk of skin irritation followingexposure to CS. Soldiers who may be exposed to CScan reduce skin exposure by rolling down sleeves.

OPERATIONALCONSIDERATIONS

The behavior and tactical effectiveness of RCAs insupport of military operations are affected by theweather, by the terrain in the target area, and by the

defense posture and training of target population.Understanding weather effects on RCA agent

behavior is essential to ensure maximum effectivenessin planning and conducting operations.

Conditions that are most favorable for RCAdispersion and placement on a target would be stable

(inversion) atmospheric conditions where the windspeed is less than 5 to 8 knots. Under neutralatmospheric conditions with low windspeed andsmooth terrain, large areas may be covered withRCAs. Neutral conditions may be the best formilitary planning purposes since these conditionsusually occur more often than stable or unstableconditions. The least favorable conditions for RCAemployment are heavy rains and unstable (lapse)atmospheric conditions where windspeeds are greaterthan 10 knots. Although light rains will not seriouslydegrade the effectiveness of most RCAs, heavy rainswill wash RCAs out of the air and off surfaces.

Temperature also has an effect on RCAs. Althoughthe rate of evaporation of liquid RCAs increases withincreasing temperatures, humans perspire more freelyat higher temperatures, increasing skin effects fromRCA exposure. In contrast, at lower temperatures,personnel will be wearing multi-layered clothing thatprovides a more effective barrier to skin exposure. Inthis case, RCAs may still be employed effectively fordelayed harassing effects against troops who musteventually remove their contaminated clothing.

Terrain, contour, and surface areas also influence theeffectiveness of RCAs. Under stable weatherconditions, the agent cloud tends to flow over rollingterrain and down valleys. Higher concentrations tendto flow around obstacles such as hills and persist inhollows, low ground, depressions, and foxholes. Inurban areas, the dominating terrain (buildings,streets, and trees) tends to channel wind and createeddies and currents that can be very unpredictableand cause the agent cloud to dissipate more rapidly.Turbulence on the downwind sides of buildings willtend to pool RCA concentration close to the

buildings, and may penetrate closed structuresthrough doors and windows.

Rough ground and ground covered with tall grass orbrush tends to deflect and retard cloud movement,while flat terrain and open water (under stable orneutral conditions) allows an even, steady cloudmovement and flow.

When RCAs are employed into wooded areas, thethickness and height of foliage determines agenteffectiveness. A dense canopy tends to create a

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physical barrier that resists penetration of aerosol andparticulate clouds from the outside while preventingescape of RCAs already under the canopy. The agentclouds released from munitions within woods and

jungles are generally smaller and higher inconcentration (by as much as three times) than thosereleased in the open. Wooded and jungleenvironments also require larger munitionexpenditures because some rounds will detonate ontreetops with less agent penetrating to ground level.

Soil type and condition also affect the efficiency ofRCA munitions. For instance, point detonatingdevices tend to bury into the porous surfaces andevaporate more slowly than from nonporous surfaces.As a result, a decrease in the cloud size and areacoverage could occur. When this soil is disturbed bytraffic, the RCAs may become airborne with renewedeffectiveness.

The overall utility of RCAs is greatly influenced bythe discipline, motivation, and degree of readiness ofthe soldier. RCAs have been shown to be least usefulagainst well-trained and well-equipped soldiers. Test

results have shown that a very high level ofadaptation or tolerance to CS may develop underconditions of extreme motivation or where escape toclean air is not possible. However, RCAs in surprisedosages can still incapacitate significant numbers ofwell-trained and equipped soldiers. Performancedegradation will be achieved when enemy soldiers areforced to don protective clothing and masks. Enemyuse of terrain may also be restricted. RCAs can alsobe used to complement or enhance other munitionsbeyond the effectiveness or either used alone.

In many tactical situations, the employment of RCAscannot wait for optimum environmental conditions.Their effectiveness often depends on immediate usewhen and where the situation demands. Whenemployed under adverse conditions, additionalmunition expenditures and off-target attacks mayincrease on-target RCA effects. However, RCAemployment depends primarily on the tactical

situation, regardless of the conditions that exist at thetime.

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CHAPTER 7

R C AEmployment

Specific techniques for employing RCAs in different comrades are going. To do this you can:

situations are addressed in this section. This is onlyafter the appropriate authority has given release foruse of RCAs or a rules of engagement has beenestablished.

AMBUSH RELIEFFriendly forces may not be able to react with lethalfires because of the danger of collateral injuries.Mounted forces can react to ambushes with RCAs.E8 launchers can be placed on vehicles and properlyoriented for immediate firing to the flanks. TheseE8-equipped vehicles are then spaced at intervalsthroughout the convoy, and can be commanddetonated if the convoy is ambushed. CS can also be

Lob RCA agents into the center of the crowd.Attack the crowd with RCAs from different sides incoordinated staggered time intervals (as opposed tosimultaneously).

GroupingThe purpose of causing a rioting crowd to group is tocontain the area they will be able to affect, thuslessening the impact of their rioting and allowing youto focus your resources onto a smaller area.

In order to do this you must use RCAs to cut offdifferent avenues of escape until you have contained

the crowd.used in support of withdrawal operations.

RIOT CONTROLIn conducting riot control operations the mainobjective is to "control" the rioting crowd into doingwhat we want, be that dispersing, grouping, moving,or channelizing. For further riot control guidance, seeFM 19-15, Civil Disturbances, Nov 85.

Dispersing

The purpose of dispersing a rioting crowd is to haveit break up and move off into different unorganizeddirections. The psychology behind a crowd is suchthat an individual is less emboldened to react withhostile intentions when alone than with a group ofsupporters.

In order to produce this dispersion, you must create achaotic effect in the mind of the rioter so that he doesnot know which way to go or which way his

CONTENTS

Ambush Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

Riot Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

Rescue Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2

Convoy Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2

Nuclear WeaponsSecurity Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2

Military Operationsin Urban Terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3

Base/Perimeter Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3

Terrain Restriction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3

Employing Small Area Munitions . . . . . . . . .7-4

Employing Dispersers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

Moving Supporting theMoving the rioting crowd is akin to grouping, but Delaying Actioninstead of cutting off all avenues of escape for the Once the rescue force has successfully extracted therioting crowd, you leave obvious avenues open forthe crowd to take. These obvious open avenues lead

encircled force in order to further cripple the enemys

to where you want the crowd to go. This movingpursuit, RCAs may be used to delay and hinder their

technique is used when you need to occupy the area organization and movement. This is done by havingthe crowd is currently in or want them to move to a

the rear guard attack any pursuing forces with RCAs.

different location but do not have the assets to totallycontrol them.

You can do this by first attacking the crowd from theopposite side you want the crowd to go as well as anyavenues you do not want them to go.

ChannelizingThis technique is used when you want a rioting crowdto move to a location you have chosen. Do this by

cutting off avenues of escape with RCAs, blockades,and forces, as well as pushing the crowd from behindby using advancing forces and RCAs.

This technique can be resource intensive and cannotnormally be accomplished without an adequateamount of available manpower and logistics.

RESCUE MISSIONSFor this manuals purposes, rescue missions are thetactical rescue of an encircled military force byanother force which has freedom of movement.

An example would be a convoy that becomes

surrounded and pinned down during movement.Unable to escape on its own, a rescue mission isrequired.

RCAs can be used in two ways to support a rescuemission:

Supporting the concentration of combat power atthe breakout point, used by the rupture force andsupport force.

Supporting the delaying action of the rear guard.

The best time to conduct your rescue operation is assoon as possible to the actual encirclement. This

limits the amount of time an enemy has to organize.Supporting theBreakout PointIn supporting the breakout point or breach, RCAsmay be used to cause confusion in the area where therescuing force can concentrate his combat power. TheRCAs are used by the rescuing force to break a holein the enemys lines, widen, and secure it.

CONVOYPROTECTION

The key to protecting a convoy is immediate actionwhen confronted with a situation which may endangeryour mission or the lives of your soldiers.

In a situation where the road is being blocked and theconvoy is being physically attacked (rocks, vehicles

being shaken...) the use of RCAs can provide thenecessary force to break contact with the attackingcrowd. In breaking contact you should have yoursoldiers mask, deploy RCAs in your immediate areaand in the direction you plan to move. Then move outin that direction, continuing to use RCAs along yourpath until it is clear.

NUCLEAR WEAPONSSECURITY OPERATIONS

Of all the instances where you may be allowed to useRCAs, this is probably the most serious. In protectingand recovering nuclear weapons, the use of deadlyforce will most likely already be authorized.

In protecting nuclear weapons, there must be clearlydefined levels of force you will useeach level

building on the last. The use of RCAs will be the laststep in the escalation to the use of deadly force.

The rules of engagement given to you in thesafeguarding and recovery of nuclear weapons willgive you the guidelines for RCA use. You mustunderstand that if you eventually must use lethalforce, the phase of using RCAs must end and lethalforce begin. There must be a clear distinction

between the two operations (using RCAs and using

lethal force), not only for legal purposes but for thepsychological purpose of showing to the aggressorthat the odds have changed. This in itself may causean aggressor, not truly committed to this venue, todiscontinue his actions.

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

MILITARY OPERATIONSIN URBANIZED TERRAIN

Combat in cities imposes unique demands because ofurban setting. There are greater restrictions on thecommander in the application of force for politicaland military reasons.

RCA use in cities can cause reduced effectivenessamong enemy soldiers if they remain in the affectedareas. Unprotected personnel, particularly those whodo not have protective masks readily available, willprobably move from cover or concealmenteither tofind their masks or to escape from the effects of theRCAs. The probable confusion and shock reactionamong the enemy should also be detrimental to theenemys effectiveness in holding an urban area.

RCAs may be preferable over conventional highexplosives during MOUT. They can provide excellentcapabilities for forcing hostile forces out of

basements, sewers, and other subterranean systems.From historical accounts during Operation Hue Ci ty,missions were characterized by close, intensehouse-to-house fighting with engagements usuallyranging from 20 to 150 meters. The closeness of theenemy and bad weather limited air and artillerysupport.

CS delivered by E8 launchers and grenades wasemployed extensively. When soldiers discovered theeffectiveness of the CS delivered by launchers, CSwas in high demand and had to be rationed. Assaultswere usually preceded by direct and indirect fire,

followed by CS, then a short pause followed by aninfantry assault.

Smoke and RCAs may be employed together toobscure the vision of enemy direct tire gunners andforward observers. Smoke can also be used to screenRCA delivery. When the artillery displaces topositions behind the built-up area, RCAs and smokecan be used to screen their withdrawal. From battlereports, CS in 105mm projectiles was used in acounter-rocket and counter-mortar role during thedefense of Saigon in March 1969.

The enemy placed his firing positions as close aspossible to congested areas. Because conventionalmunitions would have caused significant propertydamage and could have inflicted casualties amongcivilians, CS was used successfully to suppress theenemy rocket and mortar fire.

BASE/PERIMETERDEFENSE

RCAs can provide valuable defensive fires whenintegrated into the perimeter defense of various typesof fixed installations, including communicationscenters, airfield complexes, firebases, and supportfacilities. RCAs provide a rapid response to enemyactivity when the exact locations of enemy or friendlypersonnel outside the defensive perimeter is notknown. When used in this role, the munitions shouldbe integrated into a deliberate defense plan.

TERRAINRESTRICTION

The greatest amount of agent CS used in Vietnamwas bulk CS1 and CS2, primarily for terrain andfortification restriction. Missions involving bulk CSwere not directly exploited by maneuver units,largely because these missions supplementedeconomy of force activities.

The assessment of area restriction through use of CSwas determined by observation of enemy movementin the target area. Intelligence reports, includingairborne personnel detector readings and aerialphotographs from Vietnam, indicated the enemyceased to use lines of communication and othercontaminated terrain after bulk CS bombing missions.

The enemy was sometimes observed using new trailsto bypass interdicted routes. He was observed onother deeper targets scraping trails with bulldozersand washing down others in an attempt to regainunrestricted trafficability. These efforts were largelysuccessful, but time consuming and costly,particularly when roads were covered by reconlooking for targets of opportunity.

Occasionally, aerial reconnaissance of anCS-contaminated area revealed footprints and vehicletracks in the agent, indicating that the enemy hadtraversed the contamination with no apparent attemptto remove the CS. This indicates that whilecontamination can restrict the use of terrain, onlyphysical occupation by ground forces can deny its

use. A determined enemy with masks would not bedeterred from penetrating an area covered by CS.However, enemy troops would probably not stay longin an area heavily covered by CS.

CS2 can also be used to create contamination on thesurface of stagnant or slowly moving water (forexample, swamps, marshes, ponds). CS2 is highlyresistant to degradation in water and will float on

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

these surfaces for days. If the surface of the water isdisturbed by foot or vehicle traffic, the CS2 powderwill become airborne, renewing the inhalationhazard. CS2 will eventually absorb water, lump up,and drift to the waters edge, but it can restrict use ofwater for short operations.

EMPLOYINGSMALL AREAMUNITIONS

The following employment techniques are imperativefor proper tactical use of small area RCA munitionssuch as grenades, launchers, and backpack dispersers:

Sufficient munitions should be employed tocompletely cover the target area periphery, ensuringdenial of escape routes and thorough coverage of thetargets outer edges.

Sufficient munitions should be employed against

moving targets to blanket the entire area of possiblemovement.Use of reserve (additional) munitions should be

planned to allow for wind drift of the agent cloud and

to attack targets of opportunity.The agent clouds similarity to white smoke should

be exploited in helping to reduce target acquisition.The downwind incapacitation of enemy forces not

in the target area should be considered in planningRCA employment against separate targets within alarger enemy formation or position.

Timely exploitation of munitions effects by fire ormaneuver. (About 10 to 15 minutes after the agent isemployed, the physiological effects of CS no longerpreclude military tasks from being performed.)

EMPLOYINGDISPERSERS

Currently available dispersers are capable ofdelivering a high volume of CS or CR on crowds orterrain. They are designed to disperse agents from aposition close to the target. Security should always beprovided to the dispersing team.

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

CHAPTER 8

Herbicides forContingency Use

Herbicides are chemical compounds used to

kill/damage plants. They can be used to dry foliage,stimulate/inhibit plant growth, or sterilize soil.

Herbicides are grouped on the basis of requiredselectivity and modes of action. Required selectivityis broken into selective and nonselective. Selectiveherbicides target specific plant types, whilenonselective herbicides affect all plant types. Modesof action are contact, translocated, soil sterilant, andpre-emergence. Contact herbicides require physicalcontact with the plant to be effective. A translocatedherbicide is absorbed through the plant walls (stalk orleaves) and spread throughout the plant. Soil sterilant

herbicides mail soil incapable of supporting plant life,while pre-emergence herbicides affect plants thathave not germinated.

The Armed Forces Pest Management Board hasapproved three herbicides for contingency use:glyphosate, bromacil, and paraquat.

GLYPHOSATEGlyphosate is the primary tactical herbicide that isused when feasible. Characteristics (see also Table8-l):

Relatively nonselective, translocated herbicide with

little or no pre-emergence impact (crops can beplanted/seeded directly onto treated areas followingapplication)

Applied as spray; visible effects usually occurwithin 7 to 10 days; however, effects are delayed bycool or cloudy weather. Available as a 41% solutionthat is further diluted with water before use.

Applied through boom equipment in area spraymissions on a spray-to-wet method.

Controls vegetation for 2 to 4 weeks.

Rainfall within 6 hours of application may wash itaway.Mechanical agitators may cause excessive foaming.Corrosive to iron and galvanized steel and should

not be stored for long periods in unlined containers.Flush sprayer parts with water after use.

Leaching is very low and has strong soilabsorption, but is subject to microbiologicaldecomposition.

Half life normally is 60 days or less.

Toxicity:Very low oral toxicity with no cases of poisoning

being reported/observed. There is no specificantidote for oral ingestion.Avoid contact with skin, eyes, or clothing. In case

of eye contact, flush with water for at least 15minutes.

No noticeable impact on wildlife/fish.

CONTENTS

Glyphosate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1

Bromacil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2

Paraquat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2Availability .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3

Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3

Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3

Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

BROMACILThis herbicide is the second choice of use.Characteristics (see also Table 8-l):

Nonselective soil sterilant.Inhabits photosynthesis with effects appearing in

21-30 days; carried to root zone by moisture.

Controls wide range of annuals, perennials, andcertain woody plant species for about 12 months.Most readily absorbed through root system, but is

also absorbed through leaves and stems; addingsurfactant to spray will enhance foliar activity.

Applied as spray on soil surface, preferably justbefore/during periods of active plant growth;available as 41% liquid solution that is further dilutedwith water before use.

May be applied using spray tanks, boom sprayers,hand-held or high-volume equipment.

Requires agitation only until mixed.Prolonged exposure to air can cause loss of water

volubility.May corrode aluminum spray equipment.Flush spray equipment with several changes of

water after use; clean glass with detergent followedby acetone rinse.

Less subject to soil absorption than many otherherbicides; is subject to microbiologicaldecomposition, but usually persists for more than onegrowing season.

Six months half-life.

Toxicity:Liquid form is harmful/fatal is swallowed.

Eye, nose, throat, and skin irritant; washthoroughly after handling.In case of contact, flush skin with water, flush eyes

for 15 minutes, and get medical attention.Avoid breathing mist and avoid contact with

clothing.Do not reuse containers.Do not apply, drain, or flush spray equipment

around desirable vegetation; do not contaminate watersupplies or bury empty containers near water.

Open dumping is prohibited.Combustible; extinguish with chemical foam, dry

chemicals, or carbon dioxide; firefighters must useself-contained breathing apparatuses.

Slightly toxic to fish; no noticeable effects onwildlife.

PARAQUATA restricted-use herbicide used only in emergencieswhen benefits outweigh safety hazards.Characteristics (See also Table 8-l):

Nonselective, contact herbicide with somepre-emergence and translocated effects.

Only effective when applied to the aerial plant partsand action is light-dependent; in bright sunlight, firsteffects can be seen within an hour of treatment.However, plant death does occur slowly in the dark

(most effective when applied in late after/earlyevening).Tenaciously bound by soil components by means of

base exchange; considered to be biologically inactivein most soils, therefore, leaves no residue whichwould affect new seedlings or established crops.

On broad leaf plants, 25 to 50% breakdown occursin about 3 weeks.

Readily absorbed by foliage and very resistant torain removal; therefore, is ideal when rapid effectsare needed or weather conditions are unfavorable forother herbicides.

Applied on leaves during ground/aerial large-spray

system, hand-held, or high-volume equipment.Available as a 20.1% solution which is further dilutedwith water before use.

Non-ionic/cationic surfactant is recommended.Concentrated aqueous solutions are corrosive to

many metals, including mild steel, tinplate,galvanized iron, and aluminum. Best kept in originalcontainer if undiluted.

If diluted, is virtually noncorrosive to sprayequipment.

Slightly sensitive to ultraviolet light. Store inshady areas.

Toxicity:Highly toxic. One swallow can kill (symptomsinclude burning sensation in mouth followed byvomiting, diarrhea, and retching). However,inhalation or contact should cause no serious injuryexcept when grossly exposed (inhalation effects areheadache, nose bleeding, sore throat, and coughing.Systemic toxicity is not likely to occur frominhalation).

Eye contact causes irritation/inflammation in 12 to24 hours, but slow recovery usually follows whilerepeated/prolonged skin contact causeedema/erythema, cracking of fingernails/toenails.

Immediately flush skin/eyes with water for 15minutes and get medical attention.If swallowed, drink multiple glasses of water and

induce vomiting. Repeat until vomitus is clear. Getmedical attention. Reduce internal absorption byadministering bentonite or activated charcoal.

Serious poisoning may cause 2 to 3 weeks oftransient kidney failure/liver complications withprogressive pulmonary changes. Death is usually due

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to pulmonary fibrosis.Sprayers/handlers should wear full protective

equipment (civilian or military).Concentrated paraquat is toxic to fish/wildlife;

relatively safe when grossly diluted.Do not reuse containers. Untreated spill material

can dry to form irritating dust. Mix spills with

clay/clay soil and dispose as waste.

AVAILABILITYHerbicides are available through Defense General

Documents

Flame, Riot Control Agent, And Herbicide Operations