ETHNOBOTANICAL AND ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL DOCUMENTATION

OF ANTIMALARIAL PLANTS USED BY THE JAKUN COMMUNITY IN KG PETA, ENDAU-

ROMPIN, JOHOR, MALAYSIA

IZDIHAR BINTI ISMAIL

UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

ETHNOBOTANICAL AND ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL

DOCUMENTATION OF ANTIMALARIAL PLANTS USED BY THE JAKUN

COMMUNITY IN KG PETA, ENDAU-ROMPIN, JOHOR, MALAYSIA

IZDIHAR BINTI ISMAIL

A thesis submitted in

fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of

Master of Science

Faculty of Science, Technology and Human Development

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

APRIL 2017

iii

This thesis is dedicated to my beloved mother, Rohanah Hashim

a strong and gentle soul

who is nursing me with affection and love

and her dedication to my success in life

&

to my husband, Faiz Akmal

for earning an honest living for us and

for supporting and encouraging me to believe in myself.

In memory of

my late father, Ismail Alip

without you

I would not be who I am today.

DEDICATION

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Most of all, I would like to offer my heartfelt gratitude to Almighty God for giving

me this great privilege and wisdom to carry out and complete this work.

I take pride acknowledging my main supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Alona

Cuevas Linatoc and co-supervisor Prof. Emeritus Datin Dr. Maryati Mohamed,

Department of Technology and Heritage, University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia for

their unfailing optimism, dedication, encouragement, help and support that they gave

me to carry out this work successfully.

I am thankful to Department of Orang Asli Development (JAKOA) for the

approval to conduct the research. My special thanks to residents of Kg. Peta, Endau-

Rompin, Johor especially, Kak Ayu, Wak Salam, Mak Weh, Mak Misah, Mak Meh

for their kindness and help all throughout the duration of my field work. My

appreciation also goes to those who are helping me directly and indirectly, my

research group from Centre of Research for Sustainable Uses of Natural Resources

(CoR-SUNR), and the Johor National Parks Corporation (JNPC) staffs and residents

in Kg. Peta.

I am very grateful to Johor Biotechnology & Biodiversity Corporation (J-

Biotech) for their cooperation in allowing me to use their facilities to carry out my

laboratory work.

My sincere thanks also to plant taxonomist, Mr. Kamarudin Saleh from Flora

Biodiversity Programme (FLORA), Division of Forest Biodiversity, Forest Research

Institute Malaysia (FRIM) for the time spent in taxonomical identification of my

plant samples.

This research has been supported by the UTHM Multidisciplinary Research

(MDR) Grant Vot 1314, without which this study would have not been possible.

Finally, I would like to thank to my family and my husband, Faiz Akmal for

their patience, understanding, support and belief in my ability to complete this study.

v

ABSTRACT

Malaria, one of the leading infectious diseases in many tropical regions including

Malaysia is caused by the parasite Plasmodium. An ethnobotanical survey of

medicinal plants used by the indigenous people particularly the Jakun tribe from Kg.

Peta, Endau-Rompin, Johor for the treatment of malaria and malaria associated

symptoms was conducted using a semi-structured interview. The declining

popularity of application of traditional remedies by the young generation threatens

the disappearance of traditional knowledge possessed mainly by the older generation.

Hence, the need for documentation of this knowledge justifies the relevance of this

study. Out of 19 species (17 families) were recorded, 7 species: Hodgsonia

macrocarpa, Pentaphragma begoniifolium, Rennellia elliptica, Saprosma

corymbosa, Strychnos ignatii, Tacca integrifolia and Tetracera macrophylla were

investigated for phytochemical and in vitro antiplasmodial activities. Twelve

aqueous and 12 methanolic extracts were screened for antiplasmodial phytochemical

classes i.e., alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids and anthraquinones using thin-layer

chromatography (TLC). Results revealed the presence of at least one of the

phytochemical class in each extracts. Extracts were subjected to antiplasmodial

activity through histidine-rich protein II (HRP2) assay against K1 strain of P.

falciparum chloroquine-resistant. Overall, ten methanolic extracts from H.

macrocarpa (stem), P. begoniifolium (root, stem and leaves), R. elliptica (root, stem

and leaves), S. corymbosa (leaves), T. integrifolia (root) and T. macrophylla (stem)

have potential antiplasmodial activities against chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum

(IC50 < 10 µg/mL). The part of the plants species involves indicates statistically

significant difference of IC50 between the kinds of extractions (p < 0.05). The results

scientifically validated the plants used in Jakun’s traditional medicine displayed

promising therapeutic properties and further studies could lead to develop

phytomedicines in the treatment of malaria.

vi

ABSTRAK

Malaria, salah satu penyakit berjangkit yang utama di kebanyakan kawasan tropika

termasuk Malaysia yang disebabkan oleh parasit Plasmodium. Satu survei etnobotani

tumbuhan ubat-ubatan yang digunakan oleh orang-orang asli terutamanya suku Jakun

yang tinggal di Kg. Peta, Endau-Rompin, Johor bagi rawatan malaria dan gejala-

gejalanya telah dijalankan menggunakan temu duga separa terarah. Penurunan

populariti penggunaan ubat-ubatan tradisional oleh generasi muda menyebabkan

kepupusan pengetahuan tradisional terutamanya yang dimiliki oleh generasi tua.

Oleh itu, keperluan mendokumentasi pengetahuan ini adalah bagi menjustifikasi

kerelevanan kajian ini. Daripada 19 spesies (17 famili) yang direkodkan, 7 spesies:

Hodgsonia macrocarpa, Pentaphragma begoniifolium, Rennellia elliptica, Saprosma

corymbosa, Strychnos ignatii, Tacca integrifolia dan Tetracera macrophylla telah

dikaji bagi fitokimia dan aktiviti in vitro antiplasmodial. Dua belas akueus dan 12

ekstrak metanol telah disaring bagi kelas fitokimia antiplasmodial i.e., alkaloid,

flavonoid, terpenoid dan antrakuinon dengan menggunakan kromatografi lapisan-

nipis (TLC). Hasil kajian menunjukkan kehadiran sekurang-kurangnya satu kelas

fitokimia dalam setiap ekstrak. Ekstrak-ekstrak ini menjalani aktiviti antiplasmodial

melalui assai protein kaya-histidina II (HRP2) terhadap strain K1 P. falciparum

rintang-klorokuina. Keseluruhannya, sepuluh ekstrak metanol iaitu H. macrocarpa

(batang), P. begoniifolium (akar, batang dan daun), R. elliptica (akar, batang dan

daun), S. corymbosa (daun), T. integrifolia (akar) dan T. macrophylla (batang)

mempunyai potensi aktiviti antiplasmodial terhadap P. falciparum rintang-

klorokuina (IC50 < 10 μg/mL). Bahagian spesies tumbuhan yang terlibat

menunjukkan perbezaan statistik IC50 yang signifikan antara jenis pengekstrakan (p <

0.05). Hasil kajian telah mengesahkan secara saintifik bahawa tumbuhan yang

digunakan dalam perubatan tradisional masyarakat Jakun ini memaparkan ciri

terapeutik dan kajian lanjutan mampu membawa kepada pembangunan fitokimia

dalam rawatan malaria.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE i

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES xi

LIST OF FIGURES xiii

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xv

LIST OF APPENDICES xix

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS xx

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Problem statements 3

1.2.1 The erosion of traditional knowledge (TK) 3

1.2.2 The development of resistance of 4

Plasmodium sp. to popularly known

medication

1.3 Aim and objectives 4

1.4 Significance of the study 5

1.5 Scope and limitation of the study 6

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 8

2.1 Introduction 8

2.2 Traditional knowledge (TK) 8

2.2.1 Its role and value of traditional knowledge 9

(TK)

viii

2.2.2 The importance of documentation of 10

traditional knowledge (TK)

2.2.3 The role and status of traditional knowledge 11

(TK) on documentation of medicinal plants

in healthcare and medicine in Malaysia

2.3 The Orang Asli 14

2.3.1 Definition, origin and background of 14

Orang Asli

2.3.2 The Jakun community in Kg. Peta, 17

Endau-Rompin, Mersing, Johor

2.3.3 The Jakun people and medicinal plants 20

2.4 Malaria 22

2.4.1 Epidemiology of malaria worldwide 22

2.4.2 Epidemiology of malaria in Malaysia 23

2.4.3 Life cycle of Plasmodium sp. 25

2.4.4 Symptoms of malaria 28

2.4.5 Malaria treatments 28

2.4.5.1 Malaria and ethnomedicinal plants 29

2.4.5.2 Antimalarial drugs 34

2.5 Antiplasmodial phytochemical classes 36

2.5.1 Alkaloids 36

2.5.2 Flavonoids 37

2.5.3 Terpenoids 38

2.5.4 Quinones 39

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 41

3.1 Introduction 41

3.2 Materials 43

3.2.1 Materials and instruments used 43

3.2.2 Chemicals and reagents used 43

3.2.3 Plant samples 43

3.3 Ethnobotanical methods 44

3.3.1 Study area 44

3.3.2 Selection of key informants 45

3.3.3 Interview with key informants 46

ix

3.3.4 Preparation of plant voucher specimens 47

3.3.5 Identification of plant specimens 49

3.4 Ethnopharmacological methods 50

3.4.1 Evaluation in selecting plant samples 50

3.4.2 Collection and preparation of plant samples 50

3.4.3 Extractions of plant samples 52

3.4.3.1 Aqueous extraction 52

3.4.3.2 Methanol extraction 54

3.4.4 Qualitatively phytochemical screening of 55

the crude plant extracts using thin-layer

chromatography (TLC)

3.4.5 Determination of in vitro antiplasmodial 59

activity of plant extracts using histidine-rich

protein II (HRP2)

3.4.5.1 Cultivation of parasites 59

3.4.5.2 Microscopic examination and 60

synchronization of P. falciparum

3.4.5.3 Preparation of drug dilution 62

3.4.5.4 In vitro histidine-rich protein II 64

(HRP2) drug sensitivity assay

3.4.5.5 Determination of IC50 values of 65

crude plant extracts

3.4.6 Statistical analysis 66

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS 67

4.1 Introduction 67

4.2 Ethnobotanical results 68

4.2.1 Demographic profile of the key informants 68

4.2.2 Ethnomedicinal plants associated malaria 68

symptoms

4.3 Ethnopharmacological results 88

4.3.1 Percentage yield of plant extracts 88

4.3.2 Screening of major antiplasmodial 91

phytochemical classes from

plant extracts

x

4.3.3 In vitro antiplasmodial activity of plant 93

extracts

CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSIONS 96

5.1 Introduction 96

5.2 Ethnobotanical research 96

5.2.1 Study area 96

5.2.2 Traditional knowledge and practice 97

5.2.3 General perceptions by the younger 99

generations towards traditional

knowledge (TK)

5.2.4 Ethnomedicinal plants associated malaria 100

disease

5.2.5 Habit of the medicinal plants used 102

5.2.6 Medicinal plants and the associated 104

knowledge

5.2.7 Frequency of plant parts used 104

5.2.8 Mode of preparation and 105

administration

5.2.9 Frequency and time consumption 108

5.2.10 Reported side effects and restrictions 109

5.2.11 Frequency of citation 111

5.3 Ethnopharmacological research 111

5.3.1 Percentage yield of plant extracts 111

5.3.2 Phytochemical screening and in vitro 112

antiplasmodial activity of plant extracts

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 121

REFERENCES 123

APPENDICES 144

VITAE 192

xi

LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Documentation of medicinal plants 13

used by other tribes in Malaysia

2.2 Proto-Malay ethnic group, location 18

and estimates population in 2013

(JAKOA, 2014)

2.3 Previously-published medicinal 30

plants used in treating various diseases

2.4 Treatment regimen for malaria 35

(Ashley et al., 2006)

2.5 Classification scheme of terpenoids 38

(Croteau et al., 2015)

3.1 Parts of plant samples used for the 51

treatment of malaria and malaria

associated symptoms

3.2 Solvent system used for TLC of 56

aqueous crude plant extracts

3.3 Solvent system used for TLC of 57

methanol crude plant extracts

3.4 TLC analysis protocol of 58

plant extracts

3.5 Proposed thresholds for in vitro 66

activity of antiplasmodial extracts

(Rasoanaivo et al., 2004)

4.1 Demographic profile of the 69

key informants

4.2 Plants used for the treatment of 71

malaria and malaria associated symptoms

xii

in Kg. Peta, Endau-Rompin, Johor

4.3 Number of plant used that has malaria 84

symptoms mentioned by

key informants

4.4 Yield percentage and appearance of 89

the crude extract after extraction with

aqueous solvent

4.5 Yield percentage and appearance of 90

the crude extract after extraction with

methanol solvent

4.6 Phytochemical screening of seven 93

medicinal plants for major classes of

antiplasmodial in the aqueous

and methanolic extract

4.7 Representative of in vitro 94

antiplasmodial activities of standard

drugs against P. falciparum

K1 strain

4.8 The antiplasmodial activities of 95

aqueous and methanol extracts of

seven medicinal plants

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

2.1 Three main ethnics and 18 tribes of 16

Orang Asli in Peninsular Malaysia

2.2 Distribution of Orang Asli by tribe 17

groups in Peninsular Malaysia

2.3 Number and incidence of malaria 24

(per 1,000 populations) in

Malaysia, 2000-2012

(MOH, 2014)

2.4 Malaria deaths and case fatality 25

rate in Malaysia, 2000-2012

(MOH, 2014)

2.5 Life cycle of the malaria parasite 27

(MOH, 2014)

3.1 The flow chart of research 42

methodology

3.2 The location of Kg. Peta in Johor 44

National Park Endau-Rompin

(TNJER)

3.3 The flow chart of selection of 45

key informants

3.4 The herbarium specimens 49

3.5 The flow chart of collection and 52

preparation of plant samples

3.6 The flow chart of preparation of 53

aqueous extracts

3.7 The flow chart of preparation of 55

methanol extracts

xiv

3.8 The flow chart of phytochemical 58

screening of crude plant extracts

using thin-layer

chromatography (TLC)

3.9 The flow chart of cultivation 60

of parasite

3.10 Trophozoite form 61

3.11 Schizont form 62

3.12 The layout of the test plate 63

3.13 The flow chart of in vitro 65

P. falciparum HRP2 drug

sensitivity assay

4.1 Photographs of nineteen plants species 82

used by Jakun people to treat malaria

and malaria associated symptoms

4.2 Different habits of medicinal plants 83

used for antimalarial remedy by

Jakun people in Kg. Peta,

Endau-Rompin, Johor

4.3 Plant parts used for antimalarial 85

remedy by Jakun people in Kg. Peta,

Endau-Rompin, Johor

4.4 Mode of preparation of the 86

herbal remedies

4.5 Mode of administration of the 86

herbal remedies

4.6 Presence of major antiplasmodial 92

phytochemical spots on the plate after

stained by reagent and its Rf value

5.1 The roots of Eurycoma longifolia 108

and Rennelia elliptica after being

used by decoction

xv

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

~ - Similarity

> - Greater than

< - Less than

± - Uncertainty

% - Percentage

°C - Degree Celsius

µg/mL - Microgram per milliliter

µL - Microliter

µL/well - Microliter per well

µM - Micromolar

cm - Centimeter

g - Gram

g/mL - Gram per milliliter

gsm - Grams per square meter

ha - Hectare

in - Inch

kg - Kilogram

km - Kilometer

km2 - Square kilometer

m - Meter

mg - Milligram

mg/kg - Milligram per kilogram

mg/mL - Milligram per milliliter

mM - Millimolar

mm - Millimeter

mL - Milliliter

ng/mL - Nanogram per milliliter

xvi

nM - Nanomolar

nm - Nanometer

rpm - Revolutions per minute

w/w - Weight per weight

wt/vol - Weight per volume

ABS - Access and Benefit Sharing

ACT - Artemisinin based Combination Therapy

ANOVA - Analysis of Variance

Art - Artemisinin

ASMQ - Artesunate-mefloquine

B.C. - Before Christ

BSA - Bovine serum albumin

BSCII - Biosafety Cabinet Class II

C6H14 - Hexane

C4H8O2 - Ethyl acetate

C4H10O - Butanol

CBD - Convention on Biological Diversity

CCM - Complete Culture Medium

CH3COOH - Acetic acid

CO2 - Carbon dioxide

CQ - Chloroquine

DBP - Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka

DCM - Dichloromethane

DMSO - Dimethyl suplhoxide

E - East

ELISA - Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay

EtOAc - Ethyl acetate

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization

FRIM - Forest Research Institute Malaysia

GMT - Greenwich Mean Time

GPS - Global Positioning System

H2O - Water

H2SO4 - Sulfuric acid

HEPES - 4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid

xvii

HRP2 - Histidine-rich Protein II

IC50 - 50% Inhibitory Concentration

IC90 - 90% Inhibitory Concentration

IgG - Immunoglobulin G

IgM - Immunoglobulin M

ILO - International Labour Organization

IMR - Institute for Medical Research

JAKOA - Department of Orang Asli Development

JNPC - Johor National Parks Corporation

Kg. - Kampung

M - Molar

Mef - Mefloquine

MeOH - Methanol

MOH - Ministry of Health Malaysia

N - North

NaCl - Sodium chloride

NaHCO3 - Sodium bicarbonate

NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization

OD - Optical Density

PBS - Phosphate buffer solution

PBST - PBS-Tween

pH - Power of Hydrogen

PIC - Prior Inform Consent

pLDH - Plasmodium Lactate Dehydrogenase

Q - Quinine

R&D - Research and Development

RAMSAR - The Convention on Wetlands of International

Importance

RBC - Red blood cell

Rf - Relative Front

RPMI - Roswell Park Memorial Institute Medium

SDX/PYR - Sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine

SPR - Slide Positivity Rate

THM - Traditional Herbal Medicine

xviii

TK - Traditional Knowledge

TLC - Thin-layer Chromatography

TM - Traditional Medicine

TMB - 3,3', 5,5;-tetramethylbenzidine

TNJER - Johor National Park Endau-Rompin

UNCCD - United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

UNCED - United Nations Conference on the Environment and

Development

UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme

UNESCO - United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural

Organization

USA - United States of America

UTHM - Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

UV - Ultraviolet

WHO - World Health Organization

WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organization

xix

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Seven Medicinal Plants Species Used 144

B Approval Letter from Department of 152

Orang Asli Development (JAKOA)

C Approval Letter from Johor National 155

Parks Corporation (JNPC)

D Semi-structured Questionnaire 158

E Prior Inform Consent (PIC) and 163

Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS)

F Plants Collection Permit 168

G Acknowledgments in Consolation Money 171

H Label of Voucher Specimen 174

I List of Plant Species Reported 176

J Preparation of Staining Reagents 180

K Raw Data of In vitro Antiplasmodial 183

Activities of the Aqueous and Methanol

Crude Extracts

L One-way ANOVA Tables 189

xx

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

Journals:

(i) Ismail, I., Linatoc, A. C., Mohamed, M., & Tokiman, L. (2015).

Documentation of medicinal plants traditionally used by the Jakun people

of Endau-Rompin (Peta) for treatments of malaria-like symptoms. Jurnal

Teknologi, 77(31), 63-69.

(ii) Ismail, I., Linatoc, A. C., & Mohamed, M. (2016). Antiplasmodial

potential of selected medicinal plants used traditionally in Johor National

Park Endau-Rompin. International Journal of Pharmacy and

Pharmaceutical Sciences.

[Accepted with minor correction]

xxi

Proceeding/ Conference/ Seminar:

(i) Ismail, I., Linatoc, A. C., Mohamed, M., & Tokiman, L. (2014).

Documentation of medicinal plans traditionally used in treatments of

malaria. In Bio Johor 2014, Persada Johor Convention Centre, Johor Bahru,

25-27 August 2014.

(ii) Ismail, I., Linatoc, A. C., Mohamed, M., & Tokiman, L. (2015).

Traditional knowledge on medicinal plants among the Jakun people for the

treatment of malaria-like symptoms in Kampung Peta, Endau-Rompin

Johor, Malaysia. In International Conference on Biodiversity (ICB) 2015,

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Johor, 16-17 November 2015.

(iii) Ismail, I., Linatoc, A. C., Mohamed, M., & Tokiman, L. (2016). Herbal

medicine traditionally used by indigenous people in Endau-Rompin, Johor,

Malaysia. In Joint Seminar on Biodiversity & Conservation UTHM-UGM.

Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, 13 April 2016.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Ethnobotanical research involves the relationship between human and plants in many

aspects of life such as food resources, portion in cosmetics, base in textiles and

elements in farming. Ethnopharmacology on the other hand, emphasizes on the

pharmacological treatment in general (Ríos, 2011). Such study is itemized on the

bio-evaluation of the effectiveness of traditional medicines. Ethnomedicine also has

close relation with ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology as it is based on written

sources and verbal information such as knowledge and practices which are passed

from generations to generations for centuries (Ríos, 2011).

In the modern era, some people are still practicing traditional treatment and

medication in their lives. Most of the under-developed countries practically uses the

plants and herbs for health and treatment which are the repetition of their ancestors’

practices for generations. In Malaysia, majority of natives from different ethnics

exercise different traditions in using herbs and plants as medicinal sources. They

have a close relationship with the forest since forest products have traditionally

formed as the basis of their livelihood (Lin, 2005).

Medicinal plants are used by Orang Asli Jakun in Kg. Peta, Endau-Rompin to

treat and cure people who were infected by certain illnesses or diseases. The location

where they stay in the Johor National Park Endau-Rompin (TNJER) make it possible

for them to access suitable plants and herbs in the treatment of various illnesses or

used as sources of food. Most of the older generation (above 40 years old) who

believed in the traditional medication based on plants. Therefore, they are

2

knowledgeable in many aspects of traditional medication and practices. This

traditional knowledge (TK) and practices are inherited and passed on continuously to

the younger generation. This traditional knowledge is essential to be preserved but

the young generations now lack the urge to learn the traditional practices as they

prefer the convenience provided by the use of modern medication. The consequence

of the new generation being indulged in modernizations results in the erosion of

traditional knowledge (Ismail et al., 2014). Hence, the ways in which the Orang Asli

Jakun in Kg. Peta treats illnesses like malaria and malaria-associated symptoms

should be documented promptly so that the TK on the use of medicinal plants may be

preserved before they are eroded and totally forgotten.

Like any other communities, the Orang Asli of TNJER also suffer from

malaria. Malaria is a very old disease and a major public health concern in many

tropical and subtropical countries (Jonville et al., 2008; Adebayo & Krettli, 2011;

Basir et al., 2012) including Malaysia even though malaria control and prevention

activities over the last few decades have greatly reduced the incidence of malaria

(Sanders et al., 2014).

Malaria is an infectious disease transmitted from one person to another via

the bite of female Anopheles mosquito. There are four species of plasmodia causing

malaria in humans, namely: Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. malariae and P.

ovale (Adebayo & Krettli, 2011; WHO, 2014). Additionally, P. knowlesi, a simian

malaria parasite is now recognized as the fifth plasmodium species that can cause

malaria to humans (Singh & Daneshvar, 2010; Azidah et al., 2014).

The onsets of malaria symptoms are nonspecific. This is due to presence of

one or more vague features of general body weakness. The incubation period is about

10 to 15 days after the first bite by the infected mosquito. The symptoms appear are

fever, chills, shivering, headache, loss of appetite, vomiting, dizziness, muscle and

joint aches, fatigue and nausea. If severe cases of malaria are not addressed properly,

this can lead to complications and eventually death (WHO, 2014).

3

1.2 Problem statements

1.2.1 The erosion of traditional knowledge (TK)

All community of indigenous people worldwide possess their own unique traditional

knowledge. Traditional knowledge is very diverse. It covers literary, artistic or

scientific works, song, dance, medical treatments and practices as well as agricultural

technologies and techniques. The precious medicinal values that hold by folk

medicines usually belong to indigenous people as they have been using medicinal

plants since myriad of time (Lim et al., 2010).

Medicinal plants have been demonstrated to be potential source in the

medical field while the indigenous people keep and transfer the knowledge and

practices usually through an informal system and adapting it as their way of life. This

knowledge is often transmitted from one generation to another as such the traditional

uses of many plants have not been documented. The lack of survey and

documentation of medicinal plants that are used by indigenous people leads to

knowledge erosion and lost with succeeding generations.

This phenomenon occurs in Malaysia due to less consciousness among the

community of the indigenous ethnics about traditional knowledge (Kulip, 2003; Lin,

2005; Samuel et al., 2010). The documentation of traditional usage of medicinal

plants to treat certain diseases is still less favorable. In contrast with others ethnics in

the world such as the Chinese, the Indians, the Bhutanese and etc., keep upgrading

the data into pharmacopoeia. In addition, nowadays the young generations just take a

shortcut by receiving modern treatment in hospital. They are use conventional

approach because of the belief to modern medicine is strongly convincing. Exposure

to modern culture also a key reasons that contribute to degradation of traditional

knowledge.

Hence, by conducting a proper survey and documentation be able to avoid

danger of losing this precious knowledge before degradation of natural habitats and

ecosystems leading to loss of plants and cultural diversity. Therefore, there is a need

to document traditional knowledge especially about medicinal plant diversity and

how the native communities are using them.

4

1.2.2 The development of resistance of Plasmodium sp. to popularly known

medication

Nowadays, the burden of this infectious disease is getting worse. All of the

Plasmodium species such as P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. malariae, P. ovale and P.

knowlesi have been identified to be responsible for human malaria infection. Among

these species, P. falciparum is the most common cause of fatality due to malaria

worldwide (WHO, 2014). The disease has become more severe as P. falciparum has

developed resistance against conventional medicines and therefore cause decline in

reducing the incidence of malaria (Noor Rain et al., 2007; Muganga et al., 2010;

Stangeland et al., 2011).

According to Noor Rain et al. (2007), P. falciparum also plays a role in the

incidence of malaria cases in Malaysia. Therefore, the disease is endemic to this

country even though various control activities was carried out over the last few

decades. Current available drugs have become ineffective towards these parasites.

Since 1963, this species were reported to be resistant particularly to chloroquine

subsequently to combination of chloroquine and pyrimethamine and also to

sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine (SDX/PYR) in endemic areas of Peninsular Malaysia

(Noor Rain et al., 2007).

Being one of the potential parasitic in Malaysia and developing of the

resistance, it is time to explore and discover medicinal plants that can be basis

platform of finding new antiplasmodial properties via effectiveness of bioassay

activity. In addition, the results can be groundwork for pharmacologist to develop

new novel of antimalarial drugs for treatment, prevention and management of the

disease.

1.3 Aim and objectives

This research aims to perform an ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological study of

medicinal plants used by the Jakun people to treat malaria and malaria associated

symptoms in Kg. Peta, Endau-Rompin, Mersing, Johor. The study has collected and

documented herbal remedies traditionally used for the treatment, screening the

5

antiplasmodial phytochemical classes and also evaluate for antiplasmodial activity of

the plants selected.

The specific objectives are:

(i) To document medicinal plants used by the Jakun people in Endau-Rompin,

Johor for the treatment of malaria and malaria associated symptoms.

(ii) To screen crude extracts of selected medicinal plants in the treatment of

malaria and malaria associated symptoms in Endau-Rompin, Johor for the

presence and absence of antiplasmodial phytochemicals property.

(iii) To investigate crude extracts in an in vitro antiplasmodial activity in order to

verify and evaluate the potential selected medicinal plants in the treatment of

malaria and malaria associated symptoms as claimed by the Jakun people in

Endau-Rompin, Johor.

1.4 Significance of the study

Endau-Rompin Johor rainforest is the oldest tropical rainforest in the world. It has its

own attraction from its tranquillity and uniqueness. Its ecological system encircled

the rich of flora and fauna in the rainforest. The plant species has its own

distinctiveness (Wong, Saw & Kochummen, 1987). It relates to the use of it as an

antidote and medicinal cure to specific illness. Commonly, modern pharmaceutical

depends on plants as a resource in modern medical practices. It is due to the

numerous active phytochemicals needed in remedial of human disease. Furthermore,

it is estimated nearly one-fourth of prescription drugs made of extracts or active

phytochemicals which derived from plant essence (Brahmachari, 2009). Thus,

documentation of medicinal plants used by Orang Asli Jakun in Kg. Peta, Endau-

Rompin for the treatment of malaria disease is vital in order to avoid erosion of

traditional knowledge (TK). The tribe rich in knowledge of traditional treatment then

feared of losing this precious knowledge if the young generation who do not

responsible to take the task for preserving them. At the same time, the research

function as preliminary tasks in the scientific approach on selected plants to treat

malaria diseases as claimed by key informants in Kg. Peta. This research also

functions as a medium to identify the presence and absence of major antiplasmodial

phytochemical in the selected plants. The antiplasmodial phytochemical classes

6

which had been identified from the traditional plants can be the basis platform in the

pharmacological on the deviations and modification of new antiplasmodial

medication. Next, effectiveness of bioassay activity in the selected plants used in the

research, the possibilities to act as the medication and resources in finding and

discovering the antimalarial treatment is able to contribute in the pharmacology field.

Besides that, the information about the traditional plants, usefulness, extracts

preparation, dose and formula and mode of administration from traditional

practitioners and users may help in the preliminary for pharmacologist. This research

may contribute to Ministry of Health Malaysia (MOH) in finding the cure of malaria

diseases specifically to the residence which had the obstacle to gain the modern

allopathic. Other than that, this research is enabling to stand as the fundamentals in

the development of the herbal and complementary medication exploration. Finally,

the research may be realistic, resulting on the success of selecting the appropriate

plants species. Then, it may be commercialized and contribute to the society about

the healing agent and medicinal conception.

1.5 Scope and limitation of the study

The main purpose of this study is to evaluate selected ethnomedicinal plants for

treating malaria and malaria associated symptoms based on the traditional practices

of the Orang Asli in Johor National Park Endau-Rompin (TNJER). Based on the

requirements of the objectives, the scope and limitations of this research were

identified: the location of the study, ethnicity, type of traditional knowledge domain,

selection of medicinal plants, screening of phytochemical classes and bioassay

activity of antiplasmodial.

The location of this study area at the south state of Peninsular Malaysia with

selected indigenous community namely as Jakun (or Orang Hulu) who settled down

in a small village called Kg. Peta, Endau-Rompin, Mersing, Johor was chosen as key

informants to provide knowledge of medicinal plants. The location of the study area

is within TNJER which is an area south of the state of Pahang and northern-east part

of Johor. Though they lived far inland but they are surrounded by tropical rainforest

which are oldest in the world who still practice traditional medical treatments into

their lives. Thus, it was limited to key informants who are knowledgeable about

7

medicinal plants also expert in medical practices. In traditional settings, preparation

of plant extracts that involves performance of rituals such as shamanism and

divination and also combination of other plant species may disregards. This study

was limited on the therapeutic activity of a single plant species in the treatment of

malaria and malaria associated symptoms due to the efficacy of the plant that do not

related to the whole traditional healing process.

Moreover, crude extract comprises a mixture of phytochemical classes but its

limited to screen four major secondary metabolites of antiplasmodial which are

alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids and anthraquinones. Detection of major classes

present in these plant extracts using thin-layer chromatography (TLC) may be

difficult because of the overlapping spots making it difficult to detect the colour

changes after staining by reagent.

Besides that, P. falciparum K1 strain was used in histidine-rich protein II

(HRP2) to evaluate the in vitro antiplasmodial activity of the selected plants. This

bioassay activity was focuses on at crude extracts level in order to verify their

ethomedicinal plant property that claimed by the Jakun peoples.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews four keywords of this study. Section 2.2 elaborates on role and

value of traditional knowledge (TK), importance of documentation of TK and the

role and status of TK on documentation of medicinal plants in healthcare and

medicine in Malaysia. Section 2.3, explains definition, origin and background of

Orang Asli in Malaysia then zoom in to Jakun people in Kg. Peta, Endau-Rompin

and their interactions with medicinal plants. Section 2.4 comprises of epidemiology

of malaria worldwide and in Malaysia, the life cycle of Plasmodium sp., symptoms

of malaria and the malaria treatments in terms of practicing traditionally and using

modern medication. Lastly, in Section 2.5, reviews the major antiplasmodial

phytochemical classes such as alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids and quinones.

2.2 Traditional knowledge (TK)

Traditional knowledge (TK) denotes and distinguishes a community’s way of life or

culture and the conceptualise of the indigenous and how people contextual principle

applied in daily lives which depends on the traditional knowledge and the forming of

a cultural and spiritual identity which being moulded and passed on verbally from

generation to generation and transmitted through many form of art and

communication. Other forms of traditional knowledge are expressed through

different means (Lim et al., 2010).

9

2.2.1 Its role and value of traditional knowledge (TK)

Traditional knowledge (TK) gains its recognition to the facts that it contributes to

sustainable development. Thousands years of traditional practices had proven to

enhance and promote biodiversity at the local level and aid in maintaining a healthy

ecosystem. The benefits of TK valued, referred to its function and tasks in the

society. TK contributes in industrial growth and industries such as plant-based

medicine, health products and cosmetics as well as handicraft (Lim et al., 2010).

Traditional knowledge usage and benefits in daily lives had been recognized.

Many international bodies such as International Labour Organization (ILO), Food

and Agriculture Organization (FAO), United Nations Educational Scientific and

Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Environment Programme

(UNEP), North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the World Bank, United

Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the United Nations

Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED) and The Convention on

Wetlands of International Importance (RAMSAR), had accepted TK in

pharmaceutics’ ground (CBD, 2015). TK had international respect.

International Property Laws had been formed to preserve, protect and

promote traditional knowledge. In 1992, the Convention on Biological Diversity

(CBD) recognized the value of TK in protecting species, ecosystems and landscapes

and incorporated language regulating access to it and its use. Three broad approaches

to protect traditional knowledge have been developed. The first emphasizes on

protecting of traditional knowledge as a form of cultural heritage. The second point

at protection of traditional knowledge as a collective human right. The third, taken by

the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) to investigate the interpretation

use of existing genus or species to protect the traditional knowledge (UNCCD,

2014).

The contribution of the indigenous and local communities to the conservation

and sustainable use of biological diversity had gone far beyond their role as natural

resource managers. Their skills and contribution techniques provide valuable

information to the global community and a useful model for biodiversity policies

until it is recognized internationally. Furthermore, as on-site communities with

10

extensive knowledge of local environments, they are most directly involved with

conservation and sustainable use (Lim et al., 2010).

2.2.2 The importance of documentation of traditional knowledge (TK)

The importance of traditional knowledge (TK) is known worldwide. In 1998,

Malaysia had established the National Policy on Biological Diversity. Malaysia is

coined to utilise its ground biological diversity and to preserve the natural sources to

reach the objectives of 1992 United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity

(CBD). The government share benefits of the natural sources globally. Article 15 of

CBD emphasized on the implementation of access and sharing the natural sources

(Lim et al., 2010).

Malaysia targets to develop and commercialise the use of natural resources in

living organisms derived from plants and herbs internationally. Products such as the

Tongkat ali (Eurycoma longifolia), Kacip fatimah (Labisia pumila), Mas cotek

(Ficus deltoidea), Pegaga (Centella asiatica), Misai kucing (Orthosiphon staminues)

and etc. are some of the name in the pharmaceuticals and medicinal supplement

which had been documented and shared by universally (Zainon, 2004).

The heredity of plants in the tropical rainforests transects the human needs

and it is public’s responsibility to conserve the 30% of our green. South America,

Central Africa and Southeast Asia are the tropical rainforest found in the world.

Malaysia rainforest is believed to be the oldest tropical rainforest and covers 59% of

the total land area. Currently, search and exploration on the genetic resources in

living plant in tropical rainforest leads to the founding of its scientific and traditional

pharmaceutical values. It is upsetting when deforestation threats the environment,

leaving the researchers with worries of its extinctions. About 4.9 million hectares of

forests in Malaysia shown reduction within 1983-2003 (WWF, 2015). In between

2000 and 2012 Malaysia recorded the world’s highest rate of forests lost, covering

47,278 km2 area of land forest (Butler, 2013). Rapid degradation of natural habitats

distracts the ecosystem and brings destruction to the rainforest. Meanwhile in

Africa’s inhabitants are reported to practise the utilising of its living organism in the

community. The indigenous in Ogbomoso, Nigeria use plants to treat the malaria

disease. The society clicks to medicinal plants treatment in curing any ailments

11

(Olorunnisola et al., 2013). This conduct had not been documented since, and

demands to such conducts were important to treasure. Lack of pertinent

documentation will cause the knowledge to disappear.

Malaria treatment is still in search. The aboriginal ways of handling the issue

of malaria amongst them is seen as the phases in conserving traditional knowledge of

medicinal plants. Malaysia’s young generation view the preserving of traditional

issue lightly. Modernization cause these younger generations to migrate to urban area

and forget the existence of traditional medicine (Ong, Faezah & Milow, 2012).

Approaches should be taken to overcome such circumstances. Ninth Malaysia Plan

(2006-2010) by Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) discussed the application

of TK in modern era and establish the traditional medicinal in the society of the rural

and urban area locally and internationally also globally (Lim et al., 2010).

Malaysia bioproducts growth had been proven to be potential due to the

ample and rich sources of traditional plants to utilise in the industry of traditional

pharmaceutical. Act and steps needed to ensure the traditional medicinal preserved

used in future generation. Thus, government must set up a programme whereby the

community in modern times valued the TK and view the issue of processing and

gathering the information of TK seriously by collecting the database at the

preliminary stages, screen the plants for traditional medicinal means then stress at its

potential in industrial world. Malaysia authority must cooperate with the local and

involvement from the private sectors is vital. All steps taken by the government is an

assurance to result in the success of conserving the traditional medicinal in Malaysia

and to the world to utilise it in modern pharmaceutical. The Research and

Development (R&D) programme is essential to the success of authority’s programme

and taken step a reality. Laws and order should be implementing in assurance to

preserve the heritage and treasure of the TK.

2.2.3 The role and status of traditional knowledge (TK) on documentation of

medicinal plants in healthcare and medicine in Malaysia

In life circle, it is transparent that the existence of human was not complete without

ties to plants and the growing nature. Human needs plants in every aspects of life.

History shown that not only humans use and utilise plants as food but in many terms

12

of daily use such as in construction, clothes preparation and design, and importantly

in medicine and healthcare (Brahmachari, 2009). Traditional herbal medicine (THM)

is the knowledge in implementing plants as main sources of important material in

health care product. Its pharmaceutical value, proven and clearly be seen in the lives

of the indigenous. WHO (2013) state that the use of traditional and herbal medicine

influenced the society in diverse community.

WHO (2013) regards the traditional medicine (TM) as important to the

society especially in the developing countries, where it may reduce the dominant

facts of allopathic medicine being utilize in clinical subject. It is being urged for the

developing countries to use the herbal and natural medicine in treatment of patient

and consumers in the community. About 80% of the world population use TM to

cure various ailments (Brahmachari, 2009; Wangchuk et al., 2011).

Malaysia shown the spiritual influence in medicinal matter, where in Malay

society they is “bomoh”, in Chinese custom there is ‘sin seh’ and in Indian society

there is ‘ayurvedi’. All the terms are referred to the herbalists and traditional

medicine (Kui, 2007).

The history of mankind is as old as the history of traditional medicine. 5,000

years ago, the Indian society practice Ayurveda in maintaining and curing life

ailments. This is the oldest form of medication practiced to mankind. Ayurveda is

Sanskrit words mean ‘the science’ of life. Its healing therapy passed on generations

verbally and had written record in Sanskrit (Gokani, 2014). Chinese therapy had

recorded the use of herbs and plants in its traditional treatment and had more than

2,500 years of history in traditional medication which includes the practise of

acupuncture, massage and mind/body and dietary therapy. Chinese medicinal

procedure materia medica includes plants, minerals and animals parts. (Lao, Xu &

Xu, 2012). Islamic and Christianity civilisation be seen used medicinal agents in

treating various diseases and infection in lots of ailments as mentioned in Quran and

Bible. Globally, there’s 35,000 green species identified as related to medical

resolutions (Ibrahim, 2005). Burkill (1966) in his compilation of the Malay Peninsula

economic merchandises reported 1,300 of plants in the region of traditional medicine

used in the society.

Documented of the traditional medicine and heritage are treasured for

generations and passed to next generation in many transportation: songs, folk stories,

medica pharmacopeia and to other parts of the world in terms of publications and

13

journal. Two books: ‘A Dictionary of Malayan Medicine’ (Gimlette & Thomson,

1939) and ‘A Dictionary of Economic Product of the Malay Peninsula’ (Burkill,

1966) is a documentation of Malays traditional herbs and plants in pharmaceuticals

and also in economic structure. A survey conducted by Salleh and Latiff (2002),

stated that approximately 48% of the whole publications of documented pieces in the

form of theses, 22% are of journals meanwhile 15% and 7% of the publications are

proceeding and technical reports respectively. Monograph and books fill in 8% of the

survey result in published documented. There are no accesses to public references in

the TK subject whereas the documented document only available in the institutions

where the report submitted. Table 2.1 shows documentation of medicinal plants used

by other tribes in Malaysia.

Table 2.1: Documentation of medicinal plants used by other tribes in Malaysia

Tribes Location Reported no. of

medicinal plants uses

References

Iban and Kelabit Sarawak 1,144 Christensen, 2002

Murut Sabah 68

1,300

Kulip, 2003

Kulip, 2009

Kadazandusun Croker Range, Sabah 50 Ahmad & Ismail, 2003

Dusun Tobilung Kampung Toburan,

Kudat, Sabah

49 Yusoff, Ahmad &

Pasok, 2003

All tribes Peninsular Malaysia 19 Al-Adhroey et al.,

2010

Temuan Kampung Jeram

Kedah, Negeri

Sembilan

56 Ong, Chua & Milow,

2011

Temiar Kampung Bawong,

Perak

62 Samuel et al., 2010

Jah Hut Kampung Pos

Penderas, Jerantut,

Pahang

53 Ong, Faezah & Milow,

2012

Kensiu Kampung Lubuk Ulu

Legong, Kedah

39 Mohammad, Milow &

Ong, 2012

Jakun/ Orang Hulu Kampung Peta, Johor 52

10

23

Taylor & Wong, 1987

Ismail et al., 2015

Sabran, Mohamed &

Abu Bakar, 2015

Jakun/ Orang Hulu Endau-Rompin 50

80

Omar et al., 2007

Omar et al., 2008

In Malaysia, traditional knowledge (TK) is the key player in forest

management and biodiversity conservation (Lim et al., 2010). As a matter of fact, the

medicinal values of folk medicines are famous to indigenous people as they have

been using medicinal plants since ancient time and are still practicing it until

14

previous time. However, there are decreasing data in treating disease with medicinal

plants. It leads to the facts that the indigenous knowledge of traditional usage of

many species of plants remains unknown since the knowledge is transferred orally

from generation to generation. Lacking of documented manuscript lost the valued

treasure of info in traditional medication. The way information transformed support

the facts because verbal communication may leads in the way, thus researchers must

take fast actions in documented the sources. Next, through ethnobotanical

information collection efforts, studies of herbal plants can potentially contribute to

and enhance development in the field of nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals. Herbs

or medicinal plants or other natural products are now becoming one of the world’s

most important commodities. They are defined as drugs that may cure ailments. The

use of these drugs, moreover, is used to diagnose, treat, prevent or cure diseases.

2.3 The Orang Asli

2.3.1 Definition, origin and background of Orang Asli

Dewan Bahasa Dictionary defined “peribumi” as the ‘aborigine’ and ‘aboriginal’

Malaysian (DBP, 2014). Associates to the description of “peribumi” in Malaysia,

which stated as the roots of early group in the society. Whereas, the “peribumi” is

classify into “penduduk asal” that is the ancestors of the Malay Peninsular group in

the society and the native Malaysian ethnic that is the “Orang Asli” (Kamarudin &

Ngah, 2007).

Nor (1998) implied the issue precisely in the influence of law and order that

allotted the aborigine of Malaysia to the categorization of the “bumiputera” and

“Orang Asli”. Following the proclamation, he classified the “bumiputera” in

Malaysia referred to the Malays in Peninsular of Malaysia, the Malays in Sarawak,

Iban, Bidayuh, Kayan, Kenyah, Kelabit, Melanau, Murut including other natives in

Sarawak; the Malays in Sabah, Kadazan, Dusun, Bajau and the other natives in

Sabah. The “Orang Asli” classified into 3 main ethnics identified as Negrito, Senoi

and Proto-Malay.

In accordance to the constitutional law under the Akta Orang Asli 1954, the

definition of the word “Orang Asli” and “bumiputera” generally span to all

15

Malaysia’s residents, whilst under the Akta 134 in particular to the Orang Asli act in

the Peninsular of Malaysia, distinct the “Orang Asli” as compliance to the

circumstances of (Kamarudin & Ngah, 2007):

a) Anyone whose father’s and ancestors were from the Orang Asli root, speak

the Orang Asli language, custom the way of life of the tribe in credence and

tradition. This includes the Orang Asli heritance and anyone from other social

stratification/tribe/aborigines adopted by the Orang Asli; defined as one of

the Orang Asli.

b) Children of an association/part of the Orang Asli society/member of the tribe;

requisite the male from other tribe but spoke in the Orang Asli language and

practice the Orang Asli way of life is defined as the member of the Orang

Asli.

c) Any Orang Asli neglected the way of life of the Orang Asli in associates of

émigré to another religion remains the tribe as he/she still belief in the

religion.

d) Any how to define an individual as the definite Orang Asli must be the choice

of judgements from the Minister.

Orang Asli meaning the 'original people' or 'aboriginal people' or 'first people'

is a Malaysian term used officially for the indigenous people in Peninsular Malaysia.

The terminology introduced by the anthropologists for 18 tribes to 3 main ethnics:

Negrito, Senoi and Proto-Malay. Each main ethnic divided into several small tribes

which adapt the social and culture of the aboriginal and speak the language of the

Orang Asli (Figure 2.1) (JAKOA, 2013).

The categorization of the 18 tribes group allied to the texture of the skin of

the face, culture of the people, the language use in communication and geographical

aspects of the populaces. Majority of the inhabitants live in the wilderness which

influenced by nature and belief in the ancestral trust and clench to primitive way of

life. Wholly, atheist and don’t practice law and order in the society and neglected

modernism (Masron, Masami & Ismail, 2013).

16

Figure 2.1: Three main ethnics and 18 tribes of Orang Asli in Peninsular Malaysia

The Orang Asli was the early settler in the Peninsular since 5,000 years ago.

It was believed that the origin of these people were from China and Tibet that exile

to new land across Southeast Asia before they sojourn in the Malay Peninsula and

Indonesian archipelagos (Abdul Latiff, 2010).

The Negrito is assumed as the early settlers, resides in Peninsular Malaysia

approximately 25,000 years ago. Famed as ‘little Negroes’, is physically short (1.5 m

or less), dark skin, curly hair, wide nose, round eyes and low cheek. Majority of the

ethnic lives in north of the Peninsular especially in Perak and Kelantan and small

amount in Kedah and Pahang (Figure 2.2) (Kamarudin & Ngah, 2007; Masron et al.,

2013).

The Senoi is believed to be the traits of the Monggol from north, migrate to

the Peninsular in 2,000 B.C. They were physically different from the Negrito, taller

with fairer skin, billowy hair and not curly. Most of the Senoi resides in the north and

middle of Malaysia Peninsular especially in Perak, Pahang and Kelantan while some

of them were found in Selangor and Terengganu (Kamarudin & Ngah, 2007; Masron

et al., 2013).

The Proto-Malay had fairer skin with straight hair. Most of these people

reside in the south and middle of the Peninsular. No genuine historical resources on

the facts of the Proto-Malay migrate to the south of the Peninsular as Johor and

Negeri Sembilan but it was believed that they were the origin of the Orang Kuala

Orang Asli

• Kensiu

• Kintak

• Jahai

• Lanoh

• Mendriq

• Bateq

Negrito Senoi

• Semai

• Temiar

• Jah Hut

• Che Wong

• Semoq Beri

• Mah Beri

Proto Malay

• Jakun

• Semelai

• Temuan

• Orang Kanaq

• Orang Seletar

• Orang Kuala

17

which immigrate from Sumatera 500 years ago (Kamarudin & Ngah, 2007; Masron

et al., 2013).

Figure 2.2: Distribution of Orang Asli by tribe groups in Peninsular Malaysia

Orang Asli are the indigenous communities in Peninsular Malaysia. They

were the minority to the inhabitants in Peninsular (Lee, Chang & Noraswati, 2009)

make up 0.5% of 150,000 native Malaysia’s populations in 2011 (Masron et al.,

2013) but practice different culture and tradition similarly to different language. The

society’s identity was defined by the course of nature.

2.3.2 The Jakun community in Kg. Peta, Endau-Rompin, Mersing, Johor

Omar (1983) believed that the Jakun tribe originally came from Yunnan which is the

south of China, whereas Abd Rahman (2012) proclaimed that migration started 2,500

B.C. Other than that, some assumed that the Jakun tribe had blood relationship with

the Mongol and Indonesian (Asmah, 1983). The Jakun was also known as the Orang

Hulu (People of the Upriver) (Taylor & Wong, 1987; Abd Rahman, 2012).

18

Survey made by Department of Orang Asli Development (JAKOA) in 2013,

stated there’s 34,722 (46.10%) of the Jakun from 75,332 total Proto-Malay ethnic.

The Jakun people highly dominant tribe in the Proto-Malay ethnic compared to

Temuan, Semelai, Orang Kanaq, Orang Kuala/ Orang Laut and Orang Seletar (Table

2.2). In addition, JAKOA had recorded that the Jakun tribe shown second in amount

of the Orang Asli population after the Semai tribe which exist from the Senoi ethnic,

populated of 51,437 people (JAKOA, 2014).

Table 2.2: Proto-Malay ethnic group, location and estimates population in 2013

(JAKOA, 2014)

Proto-Malay ethnic Location Population Percentage (%)

Temuan Selangor & Negeri Sembilan 27,590 36.62

Semelai Middle Pahang & East Negeri

Sembilan 7,727 10.26

Jakun South Pahang & North Johor 34,722 46.10

Orang Kanaq East Johor 148 0.19

Orang Kuala West & South Johor shoreline 3,525 4.68

Orang Seletar West & South Johor shoreline 1,620 2.15

Total 75,332 100

Johor is one of the state in Malaysia. Johor situated exactly at the south of

Peninsular Malaysia. The majority of the Jakun stay in Johor and the remaining was

occupant in Pahang. The Jakun residential area in Johor is known as Kg. Peta,

Endau-Rompin, Mersing which is situated at the south of Pahang and northern-east

of Johor also located in the eco-tourism of Johor National Park Endau-Rompin

(TNJER).

Kg. Peta had its name following the incident of the Orang Asli and the

British, who went to explore the Endau-Rompin rainforest, which is known as Johor

National Park Endau-Rompin (TNJER) during the 2nd World War. They found a

map of hidden treasure during the Japanese Colonization, thus the incidents the

village is named as Kampung Peta (Kg. Peta) as in Malay language “peta” means

map (Seow et al., 2013).

The Jakun people had Malay features with olive brown skin. They speak in

Austronesia which has similarity with Malay Language. The language use had

decreased when assimilation with the Malay Language occurred. In majority, the

19

Jakun people belief in supernatural power. Their religion was animism and it was the

ancestors’ belief. However, exposure to education and development programme,

some of them had converted to Islam (Abd Rahman, 2012).

In 1950s and 1970s, the people trade the sources from the rainforest as a life

income. During that period they do not fully depend on agricultural activities because

the rainforest was rich with agricultural resources for living. Nature is the sources in

one’s native life. Nowadays, the communities leads a more proactive lives, where

some of the people indulge in small business and being the dealer of craft and art

project parallel to the other tribal indigenous activities from other ethnic in Malaysia

(Sam, Seow & Mohamed, 2013).

Nowadays, most of new generations migrate to city looking for a stable job in

industrial and plantation sector. The livelihoods of the Jakun people in Kg. Peta are

the combination of agriculture, fishing, tapping rubber trees and hunting. The rest of

the population are JNPC staff and work as a tourist guide. The community in Kg.

Peta adhered modernism and advancement in the aspects of economic, education,

and social growth following to the governments strategies and plan. The

implementation and enforcement of all the plans and programme were through the

state and federal level to assure that each and every member of the community in the

country gain the benefits of such line-up (Seow et al., 2013).

Majority of the Jakun people embraces their ancestors’ belief (Jamiran, Seow

& Mohamed, 2013). This ancestral knowledge especially in the element of traditional

medicinal substance from plants in the rainforest is a valuable paragon for new

generation. The plants and herbs in Malaysia’s rainforest contain lots of use in the

world of science and medicine. Modern generation should inherit the knowledge

from the natives, as the rich sources of the medicinal essential are from flora and

fauna in our rainforest. The modernism in pharmaceutical education should equal the

traditional curative in modern realm. The heritable knowledge from the indigenous

tribal should be conserved and nurtured by the young generation for future

orientation in traditional medicinal domain. The influence of modern science should

not sink the traditional methods in healing and curing illness in a develop country

which endow the community with modern approach of medicinal cure.

20

2.3.3 The Jakun people and medicinal plants

The Endau-Rompin rainforest situated border to the northern-east of Johor Darul

Takzim and south to Rompin, Pahang Darul Makmur. The rainforest covers 48,905

hectare of Johor National Park Endau-Rompin (TNJER) ecotourism area. It is a

nature preserve extent in Malaysia. In addition, it is renowned as world’s oldest

tropical rainforest, in the region of 248 million years by the founding and observing

of the rock formation which mantle the rainforest range. The name ‘Endau-Rompin’

is given after the rivers that flow through the Endau and Rompin River (Wong et al.,

1987).

The rainforest are packed and rich with lots of plants species. The natives had

used and consumed plants as food, traditional medicine, construction tools, clothes,

hunting and fishing gadgets also as life equipment for many centuries. World Health

Organization (WHO) researched, recorded 80% of the human population depend on

traditional medication to cure illness (Samuel et al., 2010). Biological diversity of the

rainforest benefited the society and aids them with 1000 ways of practice in life.

In addition, the Jakun tribe inhabited area is situated in Kg. Peta, TNJER

which is in the ecotourism area. They depend on nature and spiritual riches such as

the mountains, hills, rivers, rocks and caves. The Kg. Peta society held in ancestor’s

belief and practice animism, where nature influenced their being in this world. Plants

and it substance produces daily vitamins and make the package all in one where the

Jakun believed that the environment gives life to the whole society (Jamiran et al.

2013).

Generally, the native attitudes towards the use of nature are based on three

main concepts: (communal concept) a tribe owns a certain area and each individual

in the tribe had their own ground but shared sources. Secondly, the people believed

they were responsible of god’s asset and finally is they have to carry the

responsibility to take care of the nature and environment for the necessities of their

future generation. Lastly, the people pick up and pull together all the resources from

the tropical rainforest manually in order to preserve the environment (Sam et al.,

2013).

An interview with the Tok Batin son, Radu Bin Sangka who is one of Johor

National Parks Corporation (JNPC) workers, stated that the Jakun practice traditional

21

ways in using the plants and herbs medication to cure illness influenced by three

factors which strongly relates to the believed of ancestors acceptance to spiritual and

natural environment’s power or strength that cure sickness is first by having faith to

clinical or hospital scientific medication. Secondly based on the tribal descendants to

previous generation and finally the use of the herbs and plants in medication through

the indication and dream experienced (Sam et al., 2013).

Older generation believed that plants and all parts of it as the roots and herbs

from the tropical forests may cure any sickness and diseases such as high blood

pressure, fever, injured, diarrhoea, stomach ache and many other sicknesses. They

intensely hold the principal of the ability of the plants and herbs in curing diseases. It

is previously, that many of the younger generation believed in scientific means in

curing illness. These young generation seek the aids of hospitals and local clinics to

fight illness as they now assume that the equipment used in the clinics and hospitals

are more hygienic, safe to use and are modernized to apt to the modern medicinal

methods (Sam et al., 2013).

Refer to a true happening, Sam et al. (2013) which happened to a teenager

who was diagnosed having bone cancer, his biological brother dreamt of their late

great grandfathers informing him to take the stem barks of a plant known as Keruing

air then boil the roots and finally perform a ritual bath under that particular tree with

the water. Six months after the bath, the teenager condition getting better and finally

cured and healthy as before. This occurrence decisively had shown the contact and

influenced of nature and its cause to people in the native’s society, where their prime

conceptual belief is that spiritual power may give life and strength to their people.

It is undeniable to the conceptual and functions of the medicinal plants in

curing illness in the native’s society and human nature. The practice of utilizing the

plants and herbs as medicinal cure had been practiced for many generations. They

have built up a large ‘drugstore’ of plants which have healing values. While others

consuming aids from available commercial pharmaceutical products, the relatively

isolated communities still rely on plant remedies for certain ailments.

22

2.4 Malaria

Malaria disease - malaria (or ague, as it was called earlier) has been known from

antiquity. The sign is when one’s getting intermittent fevers with chills and shivering

are believed to have been malaria according to the religious and medical texts of

ancient Indian, Chinese and Assyrian civilizations. Charaka and Susrata have

described the disease and noted it in association with mosquitoes’ bites. In the 5th

century BC in Greece, Hippocrates was the first describing in details the prevalence

of the disease in certain places and seasons. The relation between the disease and

places; stagnant waters, swamps and marshy lands was recognized and measures.

Next, steps to control the disease applied by effective drainage system as practiced in

Rome and Greece by the 6th century AD. The name malaria (mal-bad, aria-air) was

given in the 18th century in Italy as it was believed to be caused by foul emanations

from marshy soil. Paludism, another name for malaria (from French) means ‘marsh’.

This infectious disease was present from thousands of years ago according to the

demonstration of a specific parasitic antigen in Egyptian mummies. In 1880,

Alphonse Laveran is a French army surgeon in Algeria was discovered the specific

causative agent of malaria in the red blood cells of a patient. Then, the mode of

transmission of the disease was established in 1897 when Ronald Ross in

Secunderabad, India identified the developing stages of malaria parasites in

mosquitoes (Paniker, 2007).

2.4.1 Epidemiology of malaria worldwide

Tropical and subtropical regions around the world face serious malaise and fatality

due to the infectious disease called malaria (Jonville et al., 2008; Fotie, 2009;

Adebayo & Krettli, 2011). The area most likely to be affected is usually the whole

spread of the sub-Saharan Africa Region and other mildly affected areas such as

Asia, Middle East and Latin America (WHO, 2016).

The World Health Organization (WHO) through its World Malaria Report

2015 had predicted that on a global scale in 2015 there were approximately 214

million cases of malaria (with a minimum cutoff rate of 149 million and a maximum

of 303 million) and an estimated 438,000 deaths (with a minimum cutoff rate of

23

236,000 and a maximum of 635,000). About 90% these deaths represent in the

African Region and 7% in the Southeast Asia Region followed by 2% in the Eastern

Mediterranean Region. However, the global death rate due to malaria has declined by

60% since 2000 and by 66% in the African Region (WHO, 2015a).

The tropical and sub-tropical belt consisting of more than 95 countries and

territories is naturally prone to malaria, thus affecting approximately 3.2 billion

people, which means that almost half of the world’s population faces the risk of

becoming victims of malaria (WHO, 2016). This disease mostly infects the sub-

Saharan African population and the majority of the deaths in the African continent

plague children under the age of 5 years with one dying every minute due this

disease and also pregnant women (Tabuti, 2008; Fotie, 2009; Muganga et al., 2010;

Musila et al., 2013).

The WHO has adopted various approaches to control malaria including

prompt and effective treatment such as by sleeping under insecticide-treated bed nets

by people at risk, applying indoor residual spraying with insecticide and wearing

long sleeved clothing, confirmation of malaria diagnosis for every suspected case,

timely treatment with appropriate antimalarial medicines to prevent the vector

mosquitoes. Furthermore, stagnant water near and around homes should be drained

as this serves as a breeding ground for mosquitoes (WHO, 2006).

2.4.2 Epidemiology of malaria in Malaysia

In Malaysia, malaria is under endemic disease of public health problem. Being one of

the vector-borne infection diseases in Malaysia, it affects indigenous people,

traditional villagers found in hilly jungles, land scheme settlers, jungle workers,

loggers as well as immigrants from endemic malaria countries (Rohani et al., 2014).

Increasing figure due to rapid influx of legal and illegal workers and large number of

tourist into this country becoming a new source of infection resulting increasing

detection of malaria cases. Immigrants that contribute to malaria cases in Malaysia

are 49.6% from Indonesians, 17.1% from Myanmarese, 11.2% Bangladeshis and

8.1% Thais and the 14% remaining reported among immigrants from Pakistan,

Nepal, India, Vietnam and Kampuchea (Alias et al., 2014).

24

The total number of malaria cases in Malaysia is trending downward from

12,705 cases in 2000 to 4,725 cases in 2012. The incidence rate declined from 0.55

per 1,000 populations in 2000 to 0.16 per 1,000 populations in 2012 (Figure 2.3).

Since then (2000-2012), a total of malaria cases are reduced from 3,918 to 1,097

cases in Peninsular Malaysia, 3,011 to 1,571 cases and 5,776 to 2,052 cases in

Sarawak and Sabah respectively (MOH, 2014). While, in Johor reported depreciation

total of cases based on declining of fatality rate (FR) is < 5% population within 10

years period (2000-2009) and annual parasitic index (API) values of > 0.1/1000

population to < 0.1/1000 population after the first four years (Alias et al., 2014).

Figure 2.3: Number and incidence of malaria (per 1,000 populations) in Malaysia,

2000-2012

(MOH, 2014)

The highest number of malaria deaths in Malaysia was reported to be 46 in

2001 and has been reduced to 16 deaths in 2012. The case fatality rate of malaria

been around 0.3 to 0.5 per 100,000 populations since 2006 (Figure 2.4) (MOH,

2014).

There are five species of plasmodia known to infect humans namely: P.

falciparum, P. vivax, P. malariae and P. ovale. P. knowlesi is a simian malaria

parasite and now is known as the fifth plasmodium species can cause malaria to

human (Singh & Daneshvar, 2010; Azidah et al., 2014). P. knowlesi had reported an

increasing order with 41 cases in 2008 to 55 cases in 2009 (Alias et al., 2014).

REFERENCES

A.Vogel. (2016). Strychnos ignatii Berg. Retrieved February 8, 2016, from

https://www.avogel.com/plant-encyclopaedia/strychnos_ignatii.php

Abd Rahman, S. (2012). The Jakun indigenous tribe of Bebar, Pahang, Malaysia.

Interdisciplinary Journal of Research in Business, 2(6), 25-32.

Abd Razak, M. F., Aidoo, K. E., & Candlish, A. G. (2007). Mutagenic and cytotoxic

properties of three herbal plants from Southeast Asia. Tropical

Biomedicine, 24(2), 49-59.

Abdul Latiff, S. (2010). Potensi keusahawanan di kalangan Orang Asli. Prosiding

Persidangan Kebangsaan Ekonomi Malaysia ke V. Bangi: Universiti

Kebangsaan Malaysia. 80-87.

Abdullah, W. O., Unyah, N. Z., Hamat, R. A., Omar, B., Abd Ghani, M. K., Rayani,

M., & Hatam, G. R. (2011). In vitro antiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity

of ten plants used as traditional medicine in Malaysia. Jurnal Sains Kesihatan

Malaysia, 9(2), 5-8.

Achan, J., Talisuna, A. O., Erhart, A., Yeka, A., Tibenderana, J. K., Baliraine, F. N.,

Rosenthal, P. J., & D'Alessandro, U. (2011). Quinine, an old anti-malarial

drug in a modern world: Role in the treatment of malaria. Malaria Journal,

10(144), 1-12.

Adebayo, J. O., & Krettli, A. U. (2011). Potential antimalarials from Nigerian plants:

A review. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 133(2), 289-302.

Ahmad, F.B., & Ismail, G. (2003). Medicinal plants used by Kadazandusun

communities around Crocker Range. Proceedings of the ASEAN Review of

Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC). 1-10.

Al-Adhroey, A. H., Nor, Z. M., Al-Mekhlafi, H. M., & Mahmud, R. (2010).

Ethnobotanical study on some Malaysian anti-malarial plants: A community

based survey. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 132(1), 362-364.

124

Albertus, Dewantara, I., & Herawatiningsih, R. (2015). Jenis dan potensi tumbuhan

obat pada kawasan Hutan Adat Gunung Semarong Kecamatan Tayan Hulu

Kabupaten Sanggau. Jurnal Hutan Lestari, 3(3), 446-455.

Alias, H., Surin, J., Mahmud, R., Shafie, A., Mohd Zin, J., Mohamad Nor, M.,

Ibrahim, A. S., & Rundi, C. (2014). Spatial distribution of malaria in

Peninsular Malaysia from 2000 to 2009. Parasites & Vectors, 7, 1-7.

Armitage, C. J., & Conner, M. (1999). Predictive validity of the theory of planned

behaviour: The role of questionnaire format and social desirability. Journal of

Community & Applied Social Psychology, 9(4), 261-272.

Asase, A., Akwetey, G. A., & Achel, D. G. (2010). Ethnopharmacological use of

herbal remedies for the treatment of malaria in the Dangme West District of

Ghana. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 129(3), 367-376.

Asase, A., Oteng-Yeboah, A. A., Odamtten, G. T., & Simmonds, M. S. J. (2005).

Ethnobotanical study of some Ghanaian anti-malarial plants. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology, 99(2), 273-279.

Ashley, E., McGready, R., Proux, S., & Nosten, F. (2006). Malaria. Travel Medicine

and Infectious Disease, 4(3–4), 159-173.

Asiah, O., Nurhanan, M. Y., & Ilham, M. A. (2007). Determination of bioactive

peptide (4.3 kDa) as an aphrodisiac marker in six Malaysian plants. Journal

of Tropical Forest Science, 19(1), 61-63.

Asmah, O. (1983). The Malay People of Malaysia and Their Languages. Kuala

Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka.

Autsavakitipong, T., Khonsung, P., Panthong, A., Chiranthanut, N., Kunanusorn, P.,

Nuntasaen, N., Jaipetch, T., Bunteang, S., & Reutrakul, V. (2015).

Preliminary evaluation of the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of

Tacca integrifolia in rodents. International Journal of Applied Research in

Natural Products, 8(1), 20-25.

Azidah, A. K., Mohd Faizal, M. A., Lili, H. Y., & Zeehaida, M. (2014). Severe

Plasmodium knowlesi infection with multiorgan involvement in north east

peninsular Malaysia. Tropical Biomedicine, 31(1), 31-35.

Azliza, M. A., Ong, H. C., Vikineswary, S., Noorlidah, A., & Haron, N. W. (2012).

Ethno-medicinal resources used by the Temuan in Ulu Kuang Village. Ethno

Medicine, 6(1), 17-22.

125

Barreiro, E. J., Fraga, C. A. M., & Lima, L. M. (2012). Natural products as lead

compounds in medicinal chemistry. in Cechinel-Filho, V. (Ed.). Plant

Bioactives and Drug Discovery: Principles, Practice, and Perspectives. 81-

126.

Baruah, S., Borthakur, S. K., Gogoi, P., & Ahmed, M. (2013). Ethnomedicinal plants

used by Adi-Minyong tribe of Arunachal Pradesh, Eastern Himalaya. Indian

Journal of Natural Products and Resources, 4(3), 278-282.

Barukial, J., & Sarmah, J. N. (2011). Ethnomedicinal plants used by the people of

Golaghat district, Assam, India. International Journal of Medicinal and

Aromatic Plants, 1(3), 203-211.

Basir, R., Chan, K. L., Yam, M. F., Othman, F., Abdullah, W. O., Mohd Moklas, M.

A., Rahim, A. S. A., Ismail, I. S., Hidayat, M. T., Taib, C. N. M., & Mahmud,

R. (2012). Antimalarial activity of selected Malaysian medicinal

plants. Phytopharmacology, 3(1), 82-92.

Batista, R., De Jesus Silva Júnior, A., & De Oliveira, A. B. (2009). Plant-derived

antimalarial agents: New leads and efficient phytomedicines. Part II. Non-

alkaloidal natural products. Molecules, 14(8), 3037-3072.

Beniddir, M., Litaudon, M., Rasoanaivo, P., Grellier, P., & Guéritte, F. (2011). From

structural studies of natural products to the discovery of a selective

antiplasmodial derivative: A serendipity story. Planta Medica, 77(12), PL31.

Bourdy, G., Oporto, P., Gimenez, A., & Deharo, E. (2004). A search for natural

bioactive compounds in Bolivia through a multidisciplinary approach: Part

VI. Evaluation of the antimalarial activity of plants used by Isoceño-Guaranı́

Indians. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 93(2), 269-277.

Bourgaud, F., Gravot, A., Milesi, S., & Gontier, E. (2001). Production of plant

secondary metabolites: A historical perspective. Plant Science, 161(5), 839-

851.

Brahmachari, G. (2009). Mother nature - An inexhaustible source of drugs and

lead molecules. in Brahmachari, G. (Ed.). Natural Products: Chemistry,

Biochemistry and Pharmacology. United Kingdom: Alpha Science

International Limited. 1-20.

Bremer, B., & Eriksson, T. (2009). Time tree of Rubiaceae: Phylogeny and dating

the family, subfamilies, and tribes. International Journal of Plant Sciences,

170(6), 766-793.

126

Bruce, N. C. (2008). Alkaloids. in Rehm, H. J., & Reed, G. (Eds.). Biotechnology

Set, Second Edition. Weinheim: Wiley. 327-361.

Burkill, I. H. (1966). A Dictionary of Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula. 2nd

ed. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative of Malaysia.

Butler, R., A. (2013). Malaysia has the world’s highest deforestation rate, reveals

Google forest map. Mongabay

Cartea, M. E., Francisco, M., Soengas, P., & Velasco, P. (2011). Phenolic

compounds in Brassica vegetables. Molecules, 16(1), 251-280.

Christensen, H. (2002). Ethnobotany of the Iban and the Kelabit. Sarawak: Forest

Department Sarawak.

Chuakul, W., Soonthornchareonnon, N., Boonjaras, T., & Boonpleng, A. (2004).

Survey on medicinal plants in Southern Thailand. Thai Journal of

Phytopharmacy, 11(2), 29-52.

Chukwujekwu, J. C., Smith, P., Coombes, P. H., Mulholland, D. A., & Van Staden,

J. (2005). Antiplasmodial diterpenoid from the leaves of Hyptis

suaveolens. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 102(2), 295-297.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). (2015). Introduction. Retrieved

December 17, 2015, from https://www.cbd.int/traditional/intro.shtml

Cowan, M. M. (1999). Plant products as antimicrobial agents. Clinical Microbiology

Reviews, 12(4), 564-582.

Croteau, R., Kutchan, T. M., & Lewis, N. G. (2015). Natural products (Secondary

metabolites). in Buchanan, B. B., Gruissem, W., & Jones, R. L. (Eds).

Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Plants. United Kingdom: Wiley

Blackwell. 1250-1319.

Dai, J., & Mumper, R. J. (2010). Plant phenolics: Extraction, analysis and their

antioxidant and anticancer properties. Molecules, 15(10), 7313-7352.

Das, K., Tiwari, R. K. S., & Shrivastava, D. K. (2010). Techniques for evaluation of

medicinal plant products as antimicrobial agents: Current methods and future

trends. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 4(2), 104-111.

De Wilde, W. J. J. O., & Duyfjes, B. E. E. (2001). Taxonomy of Hodgsonia

(Cucurbitaceae), with a note on the ovules and seeds. Blumea, 46(1), 169-

179.

Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. (2013). Kamus Dewan. 4th ed. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan

Bahasa dan Pustaka.

127

Dike, I. P., Obembe, O. O., & Adebiyi, F. E. (2012). Ethnobotanical survey for

potential anti-malarial plants in south-western Nigeria. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology, 144(3), 618-626.

Dons, T., & Soosairaj, S. (2013). Treatment of jaundice by traditional healthcare

system. International Journal of Biology, Pharmacy and Allied Sciences,

2(6), 1373-1378.

Elkhateeb, A., Subeki, Takahashi, K., Matsuura, H., Yamasaki, M., Yamato, O.,

Maede, Y., Katakura, K., Yoshihara, T., & Nabeta, K. (2005). Anti-babesial

ellagic acid rhamnosides from the bark of Elaeocarpus parvifolius.

Phytochemistry, 66(21), 2577-2580.

Endale, M., Ekberg, A., Alao, J. P., Akala, H. M., Ndakala, A., Sunnerhagen, P.,

Erdélyi, M., & Yenesew, A. (2013). Anthraquinones of the roots of Pentas

micrantha. Molecules, 18(1), 311-321.

Eswani, N., Kudus, K. A., Nazre, M., & Noor, A. G. A. (2010). Medicinal plant

diversity and vegetation analysis of logged over hill forest of Tekai

Tembeling Forest Reserve, Jerantut, Pahang. Journal of Agricultural

Science, 2(3), 189-210.

Evans, W. C. (2009). Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy. 16th ed. Amsterdam:

Elsevier.

Fabricant, D. S., & Farnsworth, N. R. (2001). The value of plants used in traditional

medicine for drug discovery. Environmental Health Perspectives, 109(Suppl

1), 69-75.

Fotie, J. (2009). Natural products and protozoan neglected diseases: Malaria,

trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis. in Brahmachari, G. (Ed.). Natural

Products: Chemistry, Biochemistry and Pharmacology. United Kingdom:

Alpha Science International Limited. 137-193.

Frédérich, M., Choi, Y. H., Angenot, L., Harnischfeger, G., Lefeber, A. W., &

Verpoorte, R. (2004). Metabolomic analysis of Strychnos nux-vomica,

Strychnos icaja and Strychnos ignatii extracts by 1H nuclear magnetic

resonance spectrometry and multivariate analysis techniques.

Phytochemistry, 65(13), 1993-2001.

Frederich, M., Hayette, M. P., Tits, M., De Mol, P., & Angenot, L. (1999). In vitro

activities of Strychnos alkaloids and extracts against Plasmodium

falciparum. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 43(9), 2328-2331.

128

Frédérich, M., Jacquier, M. J., Thépenier, P., De Mol, P., Tits, M., Philippe, G.,

Delaude, C., Angenot, L., & Zèches-Hanrot, M. (2002). Antiplasmodial

activity of alkaloids from various Strychnos species. Journal of Natural

Products, 65(10), 1381-1386.

Gehling, M., Köpcke, B., Küper, T., Reinhardt, K., Reinemer, P., George, A.,

Chinnappan, S., & Akir, M. H. M. (2015). Extract Formulations of

Rhodamnia cineria and Uses Thereof. U.S. Patent 14/382, 237.

Giday, M., Asfaw, Z., Elmqvist, T., & Woldu, Z. (2003). An ethnobotanical study of

medicinal plants used by the Zay people in Ethiopia. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology, 85(1), 43-52.

Gimlette, J. D., & Thomson, H. W. (1939). A Dictionary of Malayan Medicine. New

York: Oxford University Press.

Gokani, T. (2014). Ayurveda - The science of healing. Headache: The Journal of

Head and Face Pain, 54(6), 1103-1106.

Goun, E., Cunningham, G., Chu, D., Nguyen, C., & Miles, D. (2003). Antibacterial

and antifungal activity of Indonesian ethnomedical plants. Fitoterapia, 74(6),

592-596.

Greenwood, B. M., Bojang, K., Whitty, C. J. M., & Targett, G. A. T. (2005).

Malaria. The Lancet, 365(9469), 1487-1498.

Greenwood, B. M., Fidock, D. A., Kyle, D. E., Kappe, S. H. I., Alonso, P. L.,

Collins, F. H., & Duffy, P. E. (2008). Malaria: Progress, perils, and prospects

for eradication. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 118(4), 1266-1276.

Grosvenor, P. W., Gothard, P. K., McWilliam, N. C., Supriono, A., & Gray, D. O.

(1995). Medicinal plants from Riau Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. Part 1:

Uses. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 45(2), 75-95.

Harborne, J. B. (1998). Phytochemical Methods: A guide to modern techniques of

plant analysis. 3rd ed. London: Chapman & Hall.

Heilmann, J., Shwe, H. H., Aye, M., Sein, M. M., Kreitmeier, P., & Reiser, O.

(2006). New furostanol glycosides from the rhizomes of Tacca

integrifolia. Planta Medica, 72(11), P_343.

Hildreth, J., Hrabeta-Robinson, E., Applequist, W., Betz, J., & Miller, J. (2007).

Standard operating procedure for the collection and preparation of voucher

plant specimens for use in the nutraceutical industry. Analytical and

bioanalytical chemistry, 389(1), 13-17.

129

Hoogland, R. D. (1953). The genus Tetracera (Dilleniaceae) in the Eastern Old

World. Reinwardtia, 2(2), 185-224.

Hout, S., Chea, A., Bun, S. S., Elias, R., Gasquet, M., Timon-David, P., Balansard,

G., & Azas, N. (2006). Screening of selected indigenous plants of Cambodia

for antiplasmodial activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 107(1), 12-18.

Ibrahim, F. H., & Hamzah, N. (1999). The use of medicinal plant species by the

Temuan tribe of Ayer Hitam Forest, Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia.

Pertanika Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science, 22(2), 85-94.

Ibrahim, J. (2005). Five decades of medicinal plants research in Malaysia: Scientific

interests and advances. Proceedings of the Seminar on Medicinal and

Aromatic Plants. Kepong: Forest Research Institute Malaysia. 1-23.

Idowu, O. A., Soniran, O. T., Ajana, O., & Aworinde, D. O. (2010). Ethnobotanical

survey of antimalarial plants used in Ogun State, Southwest Nigeria. African

Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 4(2), 055-060.

Ismail, I., Linatoc, A. C., Mohamed, M., & Tokiman, L. (2015). Documentation of

medicinal plants traditionally used by the Jakun people of Endau-Rompin

(Peta) for treatments of malaria-like symptoms. Jurnal Teknologi, 77(31), 63-

69.

Ismail, N. H. (2014). Unveiling Secrets of Nature. Selangor: UiTM Press.

Ismail, N. H., Alias, A., & Osman, C. P. (2012). Alkaloids and Anthraquinones from

Malaysian Flora. Malaysia: INTECH Open Access Publisher.

Iyamah, P. C., & Idu, M. (2015). Ethnomedicinal survey of plants used in the

treatment of malaria in Southern Nigeria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology,

173, 287-302.

Jabatan Kemajuan Orang Asli. (2013). Suku Kaum/Bangsa. Retrieved Disember 21,

2013, from http://www.jakoa.gov.my/orang-asli/info-orang-asli/suku-

kaumbangsa/

Jabatan Kemajuan Orang Asli. (2014). Maklumat Demografi Orang Asli 2013.

Jamiran, M. N. S. (2015). Sosioekonomi Orang Asli Jakun di Kampung Peta.

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia: Master’s Thesis.

Jamiran, M. N. S., Seow, T. W., & Mohamed, M. (2013). Orang Asli dan

persekitarannya: Kajian kes di Kampung Peta. Prosiding Persidangan

Penyelidikan dan Inovasi Kali ke-2. Pulau Pinang. 210-218.

130

Janneck, L., Koyfman, A., & Takayesu, J. K. (2011). Clinical review of malaria for

the emergency physician. African Journal of Emergency Medicine, 1(3), 126-

130.

Jiang, J., Yang, H., Wang, Y., & Chen, Y. (2014). Phytochemical and

pharmacological studies of the genus Tacca: A review. Tropical Journal of

Pharmaceutical Research, 13(4), 635-648.

Jonville, M. C., Kodja, H., Humeau, L., Fournel, J., De Mol, P., Cao, M., Angenot,

L., & Frédérich, M. (2008). Screening of medicinal plants from Reunion

Island for antimalarial and cytotoxic activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology,

120(3), 382-386.

Kagyung, R., Gajurel, P. R., Rethy, P., & Singh, B. (2010). Ethnomedicinal plants

used for gastro-intestinal diseases by Adi tribes of Dehang-Debang Biosphere

Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional

Knowledge, 9(3), 496-501.

Kamal, N., Clements, C., Gray, A. I., & Edrada-Ebel, R. (2016). Anti-infective

activities of secondary metabolites from Vitex pinnata. Journal of Applied

Pharmaceutical Science, 6(1), 102-106.

Kamaraj, C., Kaushik, N. K., Rahuman, A. A., Mohanakrishnan, D., Bagavan, A.,

Elango, G., Zahir, A. A., Santhoshkumar, T., Marimuthu, S., Jayaseelan, C.,

Kirthi, A. V., Rajakumar, G., Velayutham, K., & Sahal, D. (2012).

Antimalarial activities of medicinal plants traditionally used in the villages of

Dharmapuri regions of South India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 141(3),

796-802.

Kamarudin, K. H., & Ngah, I. (2007). Pembangunan Mapan Orang Asli. Skudai:

Penerbit UTM Press.

Kanokmedhakul, S., Kanokmedhakul, K., Yodbuddee, D., & Phonkerd, N. (2003).

New antimalarial bis-dehydroaporphine alkaloids from Polyalthia

debilis. Journal of Natural Products, 66(5), 616-619.

Kantamreddi, V. S. S., Parida, S., Kommula, S. M., & Wright, C. W. (2009).

Phytotherapy used in Orissa state, India for treating malaria. Phytotherapy

Research, 23(11), 1638-1641.

Kaou, A. M., Mahiou-Leddet, V., Hutter, S., Aïnouddine, S., Hassani, S., Yahaya, I.,

Azas, N., & Ollivier, E. (2008). Antimalarial activity of crude extracts from

nine African medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 116(1), 74-83.

131

Kappers, I. F., Aharoni, A., Van Herpen, T. W. J. M., Luckerhoff, L. L. P., Dicke,

M., & Bouwmeester, H. J. (2005). Genetic engineering of terpenoid

metabolism attracts bodyguards to Arabidopsis. Science, 309(5743), 2070-

2072.

Karunamoorthi, K., & Tsehaye, E. (2012). Ethnomedicinal knowledge, belief and

self-reported practice of local inhabitants on traditional antimalarial plants

and phytotherapy. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 141(1), 143-150.

Kayani, S. A., Masood, A., Achakzai, A. K. K., & Anbreen, S. (2007). Distribution

of secondary metabolites in plants of Quetta-Balochistan. Pakistan Journal of

Botany, 39(4), 1173-1179.

Kichu, M., Malewska, T., Akter, K., Imchen, I., Harrington, D., Kohen, J.,

Vemulpad, S. R., & Jamie, J. F. (2015). An ethnobotanical study of medicinal

plants of Chungtia village, Nagaland, India. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology, 166, 5-17.

Kitjaroennirut, N., Jansakul, C., & Sawangchote, P. (2005). Cardiovascular effects of

Tacca integrifolia Ker-Gawl. extract in rats. Songklanakarin Journal of

Science and Technology, 27(2), 281-289.

Kui, H. C. (2007). Studies on Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees (HDM 15) A

Medicinal Native Plant of Brunei Darussalam. University of the Royal

Melbourne Institute of Technology: Ph.D. Thesis.

Kulip, J. (2003). An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal and other useful plants of

Muruts in Sabah, Malaysia. Telopea, 10(1), 81-98.

Kulip, J. (2009). Medicinal plants of Sabah, Malaysia: Potential for

agroforestry. JIRCAS Working Report, 60, 47-48.

Kwon, H. S., Park, J. A., Kim, J. H., & You, J. C. (2012). Identification of anti-HIV

and anti-reverse transcriptase activity from Tetracera scandens. BMB

Reports, 45(3), 165-170.

Lalfakzuala, R., Lalramnghinglova, H., & Kayang, H. (2007). Ethnobotanical usages

of plants in western Mizoram. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 6(3),

486-493.

Lee, S. S., Chang, Y. S., & Noraswati, M. N. R. (2009). Utilization of macrofungi by

some indigenous communities for food and medicine in Peninsular

Malaysia. Forest Ecology and Management, 257(10), 2062-2065.

132

Leonti, M. (2011). The future is written: Impact of scripts on the cognition, selection,

knowledge and transmission of medicinal plant use and its implications for

ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology. Journal of Ethnopharmacology,

134(3), 542-555.

Lim, E. K., & Bowles, D. (2012). Plant production systems for bioactive small

molecules. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 23(2), 271-277.

Lim, H. F., Norini, H., Norshakila, Y., & Intan Nurulhani, B. (2010). FRIM Reports:

Forest Traditional Knowledge Research and Development in Peninsular

Malaysia. Forest Research Institute Malaysia. No. 92.

Lin, K. W. (2005). Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Jah Hut

peoples in Malaysia. Indian Journal of Medical Sciences, 59(4), 156-161.

Ling, S. K., Komorita, A., Tanaka, T., Fujioka, T., Mihashi, K., & Kouno, I. (2002).

Iridoids and anthraquinones from the Malaysian medicinal plant, Saprosma

scortechinii (Rubiaceae). Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 50(8),

1035-1040.

Lao, L., Xu, L., & Xu, S. (2012). Traditional chinese medicine. in Längler, A.,

Mansky, P. J., & Seifert, G. (Eds). Integrative Pediatric Oncology. New

York: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 125-135.

Lock, O., Castillo, P., Doroteo, V., & Rojas, R. (2005). Antioxidant activity in vitro

of selected Peruvian medicinal plants. Acta Horticulturae, 675, 103-106.

Malaysian Biological Diversity Clearing House Mechanism (CHM). (2014). Flora

Database. Retrieved May 22, 2014, from http://www.chm.frim.gov.my/

Maneenoon, K., Khuniad, C., Teanuan, Y., Saedan, N., Prom-in, S., Rukleng, N.,

Kongpool, W., Pinsook, P., & Wongwiwat, W. (2015). Ethnomedicinal plants

used by traditional healers in Phatthalung Province, Peninsular

Thailand. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 11(1), 1-20.

Maobe, M. A., & Nyarango, R. M. (2013). Fourier transformer infra-red

spectrophotometer analysis of Urtica dioica medicinal herb used for the

treatment of diabetes, malaria and pneumonia in Kisii region, Southwest

Kenya. World Applied Sciences Journal, 21(8), 1128-1135.

Marais, J. P. J., Deavours, B., Dixon, R. A., & Ferreira, D. (2006). The

stereochemistry of flavonoids. in Grotewold, E. (Ed.). The Science of

Flavonoids. New York: Springer. 1-46.

133

Masron, T., Masami, F., & Ismail, N. (2013). Orang Asli in Peninsular Malaysia:

Population, spatial distribution and socio-economic condition. Journal of

Ritsumeikan Social Sciences and Humanities, 6, 75-115.

Mbatchi, S. F., Mbatchi, B., Banzouzi, J. T., Bansimba, T., Ntandou, G. F. N.,

Ouamba, J. -M., Berry, A., & Benoit-Vical, F. (2006). In vitro antiplasmodial

activity of 18 plants used in Congo Brazzaville traditional medicine. Journal

of Ethnopharmacology, 104(1), 168-174.

Medaglia, J. C., Phillips, F. K., & Perron-Welch, F. (Eds.) (2014). Biodiversity

Legislation Study: A Review of Biodiversity Legislation in 8 Countries.

Hamburg: World Future Council.

Meshram, A., & Srivastava, N. (2015). Epipremnum Aureum (Jade Pothos): A

multipurpose plant with its medicinal and pharmacological

properties. Journal of Critical Reviews, 2(2), 21-25.

Ministry of Health Malaysia. (2014). Management of Malaria in Malaysia. 1st ed.

Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Health Malaysia.

Mohagheghzadeh, A., Faridi, P., Shams-Ardakani, M., & Ghasemi, Y. (2006).

Medicinal smokes. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 108(2), 161-184.

Mohammad, N. S., Milow, P., & Ong, H. C. (2012). Traditional medicinal plants

used by the Kensiu tribe of Lubuk Ulu Legong, Kedah, Malaysia. Ethno

Medicine, 6(3), 149-153.

Moro, C. O., & Basile, G. (2000). Obesity and medicinal plants. Fitoterapia,

71,(Suppl 1), 73-82.

Moshi, M. J., Otieno, D. F., & Weisheit, A. (2012). Ethnomedicine of the Kagera

Region, north western Tanzania. Part 3: Plants used in traditional medicine in

Kikuku village, Muleba District. Journal of Ethnobiology and

Ethnomedicine, 8(1), 1-11.

Muganga, R., Angenot, L., Tits, M., & Frédérich, M. (2010). Antiplasmodial and

cytotoxic activities of Rwandan medicinal plants used in the treatment of

malaria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 128(1), 52-57.

Murtem, G., & Chaudhry, P. (2016). An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants

used by the tribes in Upper Subansiri District of Arunachal Pradesh,

India. American Journal of Ethnomedicine, 3(3), 2348-9502.

134

Musila, M. F., Dossaji, S. F., Nguta, J. M., Lukhoba, C. W., & Munyao, J. M.

(2013). In vivo antimalarial activity, toxicity and phytochemical screening of

selected antimalarial plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 146(2), 557-561.

Nanda, G. C., Satapathy, K. B., & Pathak, N. N. (2002). Medicinal values of some

Vitex species. Proc. of the National Seminar on Plant Resources Utilization

for Backward Area Development. Bhubaneswar: Allied. 106-110.

National Health Service. (2015). Why must some medicines be taken on an empty

stomach? Retrieved December 17, 2015, from

http://www.nhs.uk/chq/pages/861.aspx?categoryid=73&subcategoryid=103

Nguyen-Pouplin, J., Tran, H., Tran, H., Phan, T. A., Dolecek, C., Farrar, J., Tran, T.

H., Caron, P., Bodo, B., & Grellier, P. (2007). Antimalarial and cytotoxic

activities of ethnopharmacologically selected medicinal plants from South

Vietnam. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 109(3), 417-427.

Noedl, H., Attlmayr, B., Wernsdorfer, W. H., Kollaritsch, H., & Miller, R. S. (2004).

A histidine-rich protein 2–based malaria drug sensitivity assay for field

use. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 71(6), 711-

714.

Noedl, H., Bronnert, J., Yingyuen, K., Attlmayr, B., Kollaritsch, H., & Fukuda, M.

(2005). Simple histidine-rich protein 2 double-site sandwich enzyme-linked

immunosorbent assay for use in malaria drug sensitivity

testing. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 49(8), 3575-3577.

Noedl, H., Wernsdorfer, W. H., Miller, R. S., & Wongsrichanalai, C. (2002).

Histidine-rich protein II: A novel approach to malaria drug sensitivity

testing. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 46(6), 1658-1664.

Nogueira, C. R., & Lopes, L. M. X. (2011). Antiplasmodial natural products.

Molecules, 16(3), 2146-2190.

Noor Rain, A., Khozirah, S., Mohd Ridzuan, M. A. R., Ong, B. K., Rohaya, C.,

Rosilawati, M., Hamdino, I., Badrul A., & Zakiah, I. (2007). Antiplasmodial

properties of some Malaysian medicinal plants. Tropical Biomedicine, 24(1),

29-35.

Nor, H. M. (1998). Warga Pribumi Menghadapi Cabaran Pembangunan. Bangi:

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Nyiligira, E., Viljoen, A. M., Van Heerden, F. R., Van Zyl, R. L., Van Vuuren, S. F.,

& Steenkamp, P. A. (2008). Phytochemistry and in vitro pharmacological

135

activities of South African Vitex (Verbenaceae) species. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology, 119(3), 680-685.

O'Hara, M., Kiefer, D., Farrell, K., & Kemper, K. (1998). A review of 12 commonly

used medicinal herbs. Archives of Family Medicine, 7(6), 523-536.

Olasehinde, G. I., Ojurongbe, O., Adeyeba, A. O., Fagade, O. E., Valecha, N.,

Ayanda, I. O., Ajayi, A. A., & Egwari, L. O. (2014). In vitro studies on the

sensitivity pattern of Plasmodium falciparum to anti-malarial drugs and local

herbal extracts. Malaria Journal, 13(1), 63-69.

Oliveira, A. B., Dolabela, M. F., Braga, F. C., Jácome, R. L. R. P., Varotti, F. P., &

Póvoa, M. M. (2009). Plant-derived antimalarial agents: New leads and

efficient phythomedicines. Part I. Alkaloids. Anais da Academia Brasileira

de Ciencias, 81(4), 715-740.

Olorunnisola, O. S., Adetutu, A., Balogun, E. A., & Afolayan, A. J. (2013).

Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in the treatment of malarial in

Ogbomoso, Southwest Nigeria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 150(1), 71-

78.

Oluwole, F. S., Ayo, J. A., Omolaso, B. O., Emikpe, B. O., & Adesanwo, J. K.

(2008). Methanolic extract of Tetracera potatoria, an antiulcer agent

increases gastric mucus secretion and endogenous antioxidants. Nigerian

Journal of Physiological Sciences, 23(1-2), 79-83.

Omar, A. H. (1983). The Malay peoples of Malaysia and their languages. Kuala

Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Omar, M. Z., Asnam, N. A., Zulkifli, H. B., Hamid, A. N. A., Abu Samah, Z.,

Talha, A. H., Haron, H. N., Huda, N., Salleh, H. M., & Mabot, A. (2008).

Khazanah Endau Rompin Herba. 2nd ed. Johor: Perbadanan Bioteknologi dan

Biodiversiti Negeri Johor.

Omar, M. Z., Ghazali, N. H. M., Asnam, N. A., Hamid, A. N. A., Abu Samah, Z.,

Talha, A. H., Haron, H. N., Nurul Huda, & Salleh, H. M. (2007). Khazanah

Endau Rompin Herba. 1st ed. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publications &

Distributors Sdn Bhd.

Ong, H. C., & Nordiana, M. (1999). Malay ethno-medico botany in Machang,

Kelantan, Malaysia. Fitoterapia, 70(5), 502-513.

Ong, H. C., & Norzalina, J. (1999). Malay herbal medicine in Gemencheh, Negri

Sembilan, Malaysia. Fitoterapia, 70(1), 10-14.

136

Ong, H. C., Ahmad, N., & Milow, P. (2011). Traditional medicinal plants used by

the Temuan villagers in Kampung Tering, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. Ethno

Medicine, 5(3), 169-73.

Ong, H. C., Chua, S., & Milow, P. (2011). Ethno-medicinal plants used by the

Temuan villagers in Kampung Jeram Kedah, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia.

Ethno Medicine, 5(2), 95-100.

Ong, H. C., Faezah, A. W., & Milow, P. (2012). Medicinal plants used by the Jah

Hut Orang Asli at Kampung Pos Penderas, Pahang, Malaysia. Ethno

Medicine, 6(1), 11-15.

Ong, H. C., Lina, E., & Milow, P. (2012). Traditional knowledge and usage of

medicinal plants among the Semai Orang Asli at Kampung Batu 16, Tapah,

Perak, Malaysia. Ethno Medicine, 6(3), 207-211.

Osman, C. P., Ismail, N. H., Ahmad, R., Ahmat, N., Awang, K., & Jaafar, F. M.

(2010). Anthraquinones with antiplasmodial activity from the roots of

Rennellia elliptica Korth. (Rubiaceae). Molecules, 15(10), 7218-7226.

Padayachee, T., & Odhav, B. (2001). Anti-amoebic activity of plant compounds from

Virgilia oroboides and Chlorophora excelsa. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology, 78(1), 59-66.

Paniker, C. K. J. (2007). Textbook of Medical Parasitology. 6th ed. New Delhi:

Jaypee.

Panyaphu, K., Van On, T., Sirisa-ard, P., Srisa-nga, P., ChansaKaow, S., &

Nathakarnkitkul, S. (2011). Medicinal plants of the Mien (Yao) in Northern

Thailand and their potential value in the primary healthcare of postpartum

women. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 135(2), 226-237.

Patel, D. K., Patel, K., Duraiswamy, B., & Dhanabal, S. P. (2012). Phytochemical

analysis and standardization of Strychnos nux-vomica extract through HPTLC

techniques. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease, 2, S56-S60.

Perme, N., Choudhury, S. N., Choudhury, R., Natung, T., & De, B. (2015).

Medicinal plants in traditional use at Arunachal Pradesh, India. International

Journal of Phytopharmacy, 5(5), 086-098.

Philippe, G., Angenot, L., De Mol, P., Goffin, E., Hayette, M. P., Tits, M., &

Frédérich, M. (2005). In vitro screening of some Strychnos species for

antiplasmodial activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 97(3), 535-539.

137

Philippe, G., Angenot, L., Tits, M., & Frédérich, M. (2004). About the toxicity of

some Strychnos species and their alkaloids. Toxicon, 44(4), 405-416.

Pierre, S., Toua, V., Tchobsala, Fernand-N, T. F., Alexandre-Michel, N. N., & Jean,

M. (2011). Medicinal plants used in traditional treatment of malaria in

Cameroon. Journal of Ecology and the Natural Environment, 3(3), 104-117.

Plants Rescue. (2016). Tacca integrifolia. Retrieved February 8, 2016, from

http://www.plantsrescue.com/tag/tacca-cristata/

Puff, C., & Chamchumroon, V. (2003). Non-indigenous Rubiaceae grown in

Thailand. Thai Forest Bulletin, 31, 75-94.

Rahmatullah, M., Hossan, M. S., Hanif, A., Roy, P., Jahan, R., Khan, M.,

Chowdhury, M. H., & Rahman, T. (2009). Ethnomedicinal applications of

plants by the traditional healers of the Marma Tribe of Naikhongchhari,

Bandarban District, Bangladesh. Advances in Natural and Applied

Sciences, 3(3), 392-401.

Rahmatullah, M., Hossan, S., Khatun, A., Seraj, S., & Jahan, R. (2012). Medicinal

plants used by various tribes of Bangladesh for treatment of malaria. Malaria

Research and treatment, 2012, 1-5.

Rasoanaivo, P., Ramanitrahasimbola, D., Rafatro, H., Rakotondramanana, D.,

Robijaona, B., Rakotozafy, A., Ratsimamanga-Urverg, S., Labaied, M.,

Grellier, P., Allorge, L., Mambu, L., & Frappier, F. (2004). Screening

extracts of Madagascan plants in search of antiplasmodial compounds.

Phytotherapy Research, 18(9), 742-747.

Rasoanaivo, P., Wright, C. W., Willcox, M. L., & Gilbert, B. (2011). Whole plant

extracts versus single compounds for the treatment of malaria: Synergy and

positive interactions. Malaria Journal, 10(Suppl 1), 1-12.

Razak, M. R. M. A., Afzan, A., Ali, R., Jalaluddin, N. F. A., Wasiman, M. I., Zahari,

S. H. S., Abdullah, N. R., & Ismail, Z. (2014). Effect of selected local

medicinal plants on the asexual blood stage of chloroquine resistant

Plasmodium falciparum. BMC Complementary and Alternative

Medicine, 14(1), 1-13.

Reddy, B. S., Sujith, T., Kumar, M. S., Babu, A. N., Rao, N. R., & Manjunathan, J.

(2012). Malarial drugs got resistance. International Journal of

Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Research, 3(4), 213-215.

138

Ríos, J. L. (2011). Ethnomedicinal Plants: Progress and the Future of Drug

Development. in Rai, M., Acharya, D., Ríos, J. L. (Eds.). Ethnomedicinal

Plants Revitalization of Traditional Knowledge of Herbs. Etats-Unis: Science

Publishers, 1-24.

Rizwana, J. N., Nazlina, I., Razehar, A. R. M., Noraziah, A. Z. S., Ling, C. Y.,

Muzaimah, S. A. S., Farina, A. H., Yaacob, W. A., Ahmad, I. B., & Din, L.

B. (2010). A survey on phytochemical and bioactivity of plant extracts from

Malaysian forest reserves. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 4(3), 203-

210.

Rohani, A., Aziz, I., Zurainee, M. N., Rohana, S. H., Zamree, I., & Lee, H. L. (2014).

Current insecticide susceptibility status of Malaysian Anopheles maculatus

Theobald to malathion, permethrin, DDT and deltamethrin. Tropical

Biomedicine, 31(1), 159-165.

Sabran, S. F., Mohamed, M., & Abu Bakar, M. F. (2016). Ethnomedical knowledge

of plants used for the treatment of tuberculosis in Johor, Malaysia. Evidence-

Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2016, 1-12.

Saifi, M. A., Beg, T., Harrath, A. H., Altayalan, F. S. H., & Al Quraishy, S. (2013).

Antimalarial drugs: Mode of action and status of resistance. African Journal

of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 7(5), 148-156.

Salleh, K. M., & Latiff, A. (2002). Tumbuhan Ubatan Malaysia. Bangi: Universiti

Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Sam, S. A. M., Seow, T. W., & Mohamed, M. (2013). Budaya hidup Orang Asli

Jakun di Kampung Peta. Prosiding Persidangan Penyelidikan dan Inovasi

Kali ke-2. Pulau Pinang. 265-273.

Samaha, A. N., & Robinson, T. E. (2005). Why does the rapid delivery of drugs to

the brain promote addiction? Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 26(2), 82-

87.

Samuel, A. J. S. J., Kalusalingam, A., Chellappan, D. K., Gopinath, R., Radhamani,

S., Husain, H. A., Muruganadham, V., & Promwichit, P. (2010).

Ethnomedical survey of plants used by the Orang Asli in Kampung Bawong,

Perak, West Malaysia. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 6(5), 1-

6.

139

Sanders, K. C., Rundi, C., Jelip, J., Rashman, Y., Gueye, C. S., & Gosling, R. D.

(2014). Eliminating malaria in Malaysia: The role of partnerships between the

public and commercial sectors in Sabah. Malaria Journal, 13(1), 1-12.

Seow, T. W., Mohamed, M., Jamiran, M. N. S., Abidin, Z. Z. Z., Sam, S. A. M., &

Sanmargaraja, S. (2013). Kajian awalan terhadap persekitaran masyarakat

Orang Asli Jakun di Kampung Peta. Prosiding Seminar Serantau ke-2

Pengurusan Persekitaran di Alam Melayu. Riau. 327-336.

Sha'a, K. K., Oguche, S., Watila, I. M., & Ikpa, T. F. (2011). In vitro antimalarial

activity of the extracts of Vernonia amygdalina commonly used in traditional

medicine in Nigeria. Science World Journal, 6(2), 5-9.

Shankar, R., & Devalla, R. B. (2012). Conservation of folk healing practices and

commercial medicinal plants with special reference to Nagaland.

International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation, 4(3), 155-163.

Singh, B., & Daneshvar, C. (2010). Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in Malaysia.

Medical Journal of Malaysia, 65(3), 224-230.

Singh, D. N., Verma, N., Raghuwanshi, S., Shukla, P. K., & Kulshreshtha, D. K.

(2006). Antifungal anthraquinones from Saprosma fragrans. Bioorganic &

Medicinal Chemistry Letters, 16(17), 4512-4514.

Spangenberg, B., Poole, C. F., & Weins, C. (2011). Quantitative Thin-Layer

Chromatography: A Practical Survey. London: Springer.

Srivastava, A., Patel, S. P., Mishra, R. K., Vashistha, R. K., Singh, A., & Puskar, A.

K. (2012). Ethnomedicinal importance of the plants of Amarkantak region,

Madhya Pradesh, India. International Journal of Medicinal Aroma

Plants, 2(1), 53-59.

Srivastava, R. C., Singh, R. K., & Mukherjee, T. K. (2010). Indigenous biodiversity

of Apatani plateau: Learning on biocultural knowledge of Apatani tribe of

Arunachal Pradesh for sustainable livelihoods. Indian Journal of Traditional

Knowledge, 9(3), 432-442.

Sriwilaijaroen, N., Kondo, S., Nanthasri, P., Auparakkitanon, S., Suzuki, Y., &

Wilairat, P. (2010). Antiplasmodial effects of Brucea javanica (L.) Merr. and

Eurycoma longifolia Jack extracts and their combination with chloroquine

and quinine on Plasmodium falciparum in culture. Tropical Medicine and

Health, 38(2), 61-68.

140

Stangeland, T., Alele, P. E., Katuura, E., & Lye, K. A. (2011). Plants used to treat

malaria in Nyakayojo sub-county, western Uganda. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology, 137(1), 154-166.

Subeki, S. (2008). Potency of the Indonesian medicinal plants as antimalarial

drugs. Jurnal Teknologi dan Industri Hasil Pertanian, 13(1), 25-30.

Suratman. (2008). The Indonesian species of Rennellia Korth. (Rubiaceae).

Biodiversitas, 9(4), 259-263.

Tabuti, J. R. (2008). Herbal medicines used in the treatment of malaria in Budiope

county, Uganda. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 116(1), 33-42.

Taylor, C. E., & Wong, K. M. (1987). Some aspects of herbal medicine among the

Orang Hulu community of Kampung Peta, Johore, Malaysia. Malayan Nature

Journal, 41, 317-328.

Tona, L., Cimanga, R. K., Mesia, K., Musuamba, C. T., De Bruyne, T., Apers, S.,

Hernans, N., Van Miert, S., Pieters, L., Totté, J., & Vlietinck, A. J. (2004). In

vitro antiplasmodial activity of extracts and fractions from seven medicinal

plants used in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology, 93(1), 27-32.

Traoré, M. S., Baldé, M. A., Camara, A., Baldé, E. S., Diané, S., Diallo, M. S. T.,

Keita, A., Cos, P., Maes, L., Pieters, L., & Baldé, A. M. (2015). The malaria

co-infection challenge: An investigation into the antimicrobial activity of

selected Guinean medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 174, 576-

581.

Traoré, M. S., Baldé, M. A., Diallo, M. S. T., Baldé, E. S., Diané, S., Camara, A.,

Diallo, A., Balde, A., Keita, A., Keita, S. M., Oularé, K., Magassouba, F. B.,

Diakité, I., Diallo, A., Pieters, L., & Baldé, A. M. (2013). Ethnobotanical

survey on medicinal plants used by Guinean traditional healers in the

treatment of malaria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 150(3), 1145-1153.

Tsabang, N., Fokou, P. V. T., Tchokouaha, L. R. Y., Noguem, B., Bakarnga-Via, I.,

Nguepi, M. S. D., Nkongmeneck, B. A., & Boyom, F. F. (2012).

Ethnopharmacological survey of Annonaceae medicinal plants used to treat

malaria in four areas of Cameroon. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 139(1),

171-180.

Umar, A., Ahmed, Q. U., Muhammad, B. Y., Dogarai, B. B. S., & Mat Soad, S. Z.

(2010). Anti-hyperglycemic activity of the leaves of Tetracera scandens

141

Linn. Merr. (Dilleniaceae) in alloxan induced diabetic rats. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology, 131(1), 140-145.

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. (2014). Traditional

Knowledge. Retrieved March 20, 2014, from

http://www.unccd.int/cop/officialdocs/cop7/pdf/cst5eng.pdf

Virtual Medical Centre. (2012). Medicine or Drug Overdose. Retrieved December

21, 2015, from http://www.myvmc.com/lifestyles/medicine-or-drug-

overdose/

Vythilingam, I. (2012). Plasmodium knowlesi and Wuchereria bancrofti: Their

vectors and challenges for the future. in Bueno-Marí, R., & Jiménez-Pedró,

R. (Eds.). Global Change and Human Vulnerability to Vector-borne

Diseases. Lausanne: Frontiers. 54-62.

Wahyuni, T. S., Ekasari, W., Widyawaruyanti, A., Hirasawa, Y., Morita, H., & Zaini,

N. C. (2009). Artopeden A, a new antiplasmodial isoprenylated flavone from

Artocarpus champeden. Heterocycles, 79(1), 1121-1126.

Wangchuk, P., Bremner, J. B., Samten, Rattanajak, R., & Kamchonwongpaisan, S.

(2010). Antiplasmodial agents from the Bhutanese medicinal plant Corydalis

calliantha. Phytotherapy Research, 24(4), 481-485.

Wangchuk, P., Keller, P. A., Pyne, S. G., Taweechotipatr, M., Tonsomboon, A.,

Rattanajak, R., & Kamchonwongpaisan, S. (2011). Evaluation of an

ethnopharmacologically selected Bhutanese medicinal plants for their major

classes of phytochemicals and biological activities. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology, 137(1), 730-742.

Weiss, C. R., Moideen, S. V. K., Croft, S. L., & Houghton, P. J. (2000). Activity of

extracts and isolated naphthoquinones from Kigelia pinnata against

Plasmodium falciparum. Journal of Natural Products, 63(9), 1306-1309.

White, N. J. (2008). Qinghaosu (Artemisinin): The price of success. Science,

320(5874), 330-334.

White, N. J., Pukrittayakamee, S., Hien, T. T., Faiz, M. A., Mokuolu, O. A., &

Dondorp, A. M. (2014). Malaria. The Lancet, 383(9918), 723-735.

Wiart, C., Mogana, S., Khalifah, S., Mahan, M., Ismail, S., Buckle, M., Narayana, A.

K., & Sulaiman, M. (2004). Antimicrobial screening of plants used for

traditional medicine in the state of Perak, Peninsular Malaysia.

Fitoterapia, 75(1), 68-73.

142

Wiesman, Z., & Chapagain, B. P. (2009). Balanites Aegyptiaca Saponins: Chemistry

and Applications. in Brahmachari, G. (Ed.). Natural Products: Chemistry,

Biochemistry and Pharmacology. United Kingdom: Alpha Science

International Limited. 194-219

Wondimu, T., Asfaw, Z., & Kelbessa, E. (2007). Ethnobotanical study of medicinal

plants around ‘Dheeraa’ town, Arsi Zone, Ethiopia. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology, 112(1), 152-161.

Wong, K. M., Saw, L. G., & Kochummen, K. M. (1987). Some new and interesting

plant species from Ulu Endau, Johore, Malaysia. Malayan Nature Journal,

41, 267-273.

Woodson, R. E., Schery, R. W., & Dwyer, J. D. (1980). Flora of Panama. Part IX.

Family 179. Rubiaceae--Part 1. Annals of the Missouri Botanical

Garden, 67(1), 1-256.

World Health Organization. (2006). Guidelines for the Treatment of Malaria. 1st ed.

Switzerland: World Health Organization.

World Health Organization. (2013). Traditional medicine. Retrieved December 16,

2013 from http://www.who.int/topics/traditional_medicine/en/

World Health Organization. (2014). Malaria. Retrieved March 21, 2014, from

http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/

World Health Organization. (2015a). Fact Sheet: World Malaria Report 2015.

Retrieved February 22, 2016, from http://www.who.int/malaria/media/world-

malaria-report-2015/en/

World Health Organization. (2015b). Guidelines for the Treatment of Malaria. 3rd ed.

Switzerland: World Health Organization.

World Health Organization. (2016). Malaria. Retrieved May 29, 2016, from

http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/

World Wildlife Fund. (2015). Forests. Retrieved January 20, 2015, from

http://www.wwf.org.my/about_wwf/what_we_do/forests_main/

Yenesew, A., Induli, M., Derese, S., Midiwo, J. O., Heydenreich, M., Peter, M. G.,

Akala, H., Wangui, J., Liyala, P., & Waters, N. C. (2004). Anti-plasmodial

flavonoids from the stem bark of Erythrina abyssinica. Phytochemistry,

65(22), 3029-3032.

Yenjai, C., Prasanphen, K., Daodee, S., Wongpanich, V., & Kittakoop, P. (2004).

Bioactive flavonoids from Kaempferia parviflora. Fitoterapia, 75(1), 89-92.

143

Yetein, M. H., Houessou, L. G., Lougbégnon, T. O., Teka, O., & Tente, B. (2013).

Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used for the treatment of malaria in

plateau of Allada, Benin (West Africa). Journal of Ethnopharmacology,

146(1), 154-163.

Yokosuka, A., Mimaki, Y., Sakagami, H., & Sashida, Y. (2002). New

diarylheptanoids and diarylheptanoid glucosides from the rhizomes of Tacca

chantrieri and their cytotoxic activity. Journal of Natural Products, 65(3),

283-289.

Yusoff, M. M., Ahmad, F. B., & Pasok, G. (2003). Traditional medicinal plants of

the Dusun Tobilung of Kampong Toburon. Kudat, Sabah, Malaysia BRB, 34,

120-128.

Zainon, A. S. (2004). Tumbuhan penawar pelbagai penyakit: Tongkat Ali, Kacip

Fatimah dan Pegaga. Proceedings of the Seminar on Medicinal Plants.

Kepong: Forest Research Institute Malaysia.

Zheng, X. L., Wei, J. H., Sun, W., Li, R. T., Liu, S. B., & Dai, H. F. (2013).

Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants around Limu Mountains of Hainan

Island, China. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 148(3), 964-974.

Zirihi, G. N., Mambu, L., Guédé-Guina, F., Bodo, B., & Grellier, P. (2005). In vitro

antiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of 33 West African plants used for

treatment of malaria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 98(3), 281-285.

Zwenger, S., & Basu, C. (2008). Plant terpenoids: Applications and future potentials.

Biotechnology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 3(1), 1-7.