(ESME)esme-ethiopia.org/sites/default/files/21st Annual... · Dear ESME Members and all stakeholders, I would like first to convey my warmest greetings to you all. On the occasion

(ESME) Journal of the 21st Annual Conference

Theme of the Year:

"Development of Railway Technology in Ethiopia"

May 7, 2017

The Journal is Published by the Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineering (ESME) P. O. Box: 17626, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Tel: +251 11 629 34 80

Fax: +251 11 629 25 16

E-mail: [email protected] www.esme-ethiopia.org

Copyright: Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineers (ESME), 2017

ESME Publication Council

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in a retrieval system or

transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, Mechanical, photocopying, recording,

or otherwise, without prior written permission from the Society.

The views expressed in the various articles in this publication are those of

the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the author’s organization

or ESME.

Journal of the 21st Annual Conference May, 2017

Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineers (ESME) (i)

http://www.esme.org.et

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank all Executive Committee members, the Board, all those, without whose commitment

and support, this 21st Annual Conference would not have been possible.

Special thanks and gratitude are due to this year’s Sponsors and Advertisers whose generous support has

made the Conference possible.

HONORABLE SPONSOR ADDIS ABABA LIGHT RAIL TRANSIT SERVICE

SILVER SPONSORS

YASART ENGINEERING PLC

NATIONAL OIL ETHIOPIA PLC

METALS INDESTRY DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE

MY WISH ENTERPRISE PLC

SINTEC ETHIOPIA PLC

THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA

MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

NATIONAL CEMENT

INFINITY ENGINEERING PLC

BRONZE SPONSORS

BISELEX ETHIOPIA PLC

NATIONAL ALCOHOL & LIQUOR FACTORY

AMIO ENGINEERING PLC.

ETHIOPIAN INSURANCE CORPORATION

ACME ENGINEERING AND TRADING PLC

TIMEX TRADING PLC

FORTSCHRITT ELECTRO-MECHANICAL SERVICES PLC

Last but not least, my sincere thanks go to all of those who sacrificed their precious time to come and

participate in the Conference.

Thank you,

Alemayhu Negash

President

May, 2017

Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineers (ESME) (ii)


Table of Contents

ESME’s President Message

vii

Optimization of Green Sand Moulding by Taguchi Method Of

Parameter Design

Mohammed Awol

1 - 8

The Roles and Challenges of Mechanical Engineers in Consulting

Manufacturing Industries

Solomon Mulugeta Yigletu

10 - 23

Effects of Machine Arrangement on Performance of Sewing Lines of

Garment Production

Abebayehu Abdela

24 - 30

Design and Fabrication of Automatic Bottle Filling And Capping

Machine Using PLC

Kamilkerala, Dr. C.Jegadheesan

32 - 37

Design of Small scale Combine Harvester

Abdurhaman Teyib, Abubeker Temam, Yeshineh Jejaw

38 - 44

Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineers (ESME) (iii)


Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineers (ESME) (iv)

Current Board and Council Members

Ato Alemayehu Negash

President

Ato Arefayne Tadesse

V. President and Engineering Council

Chairman

Ato Wubishet Getachew

Secretary

Ato Muaz Bediru

Controller and Education Training and Outreach

Council Chairman

Dr. Tesfaye Dama

Board Member

and Policy Council

Chairman

Ato Shewaferaw Girma

Board Member W/ro Samerawit

Abubeker

Board Member

Ato Derje Kassa

Board Member and

Institutional member

Representative

Ato Muktar Abdurahim

Board Member

Ato Solomon G/Egziabher

Auditor

Ato Yeheyis Assefa

Board Member and Publication Council

Chairman

Ato Feleke Dejene

Board Member and Members’ Affairs Council Chairman


Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineers (ESME) (v)

Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineers (ESME) (vi)

Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineers (ESME) - vii-

Message of the President

Dear ESME Members and all stakeholders,

I would like first to convey my warmest greetings to you all.

On the occasion of the 21st ESME Annual Conference - Technical Session, it is a pleasure and an opportu-

nity to have the theme of the year ”Development of Railway Technology in Ethiopia”.

Within the framework of the Climate Resilient Green Economy transport strategy it was a prudent move by

the Council of Ministers to establish the Ethiopian Railway Corporation (ERC) with a mandate to develop

an integrated and high-capacity railway providing competitive and affordable passenger and freight trans-

port services. Ethiopia's bold vision for railway transport has begun to become a reality and this will reduce

overall transport costs, it will also initiate a change in the transport landscape from a road-based system to a

truly intermodal freight and passenger transport network.

Our national and eventually regional rail network needs to embrace a comprehensive path for technology

transfer, improve local technical skills as well as maintain skilled human resource to ensure sustainability.

As the national railway development plan is one best showcase of the art and science of mechanical engi-

neering it will provide professionals expertise in design and construction, signaling, communication, opera-

tion and maintenance.

I hope the deliberations in this particular ESME technical session will provide a valuable knowledge ex-

change platform to contribute to the beginning of railway industry and members and professionals will de-

velop successful networks. A comprehensive path for technology transfer to improve local technical skills

as well as maintain skilled human resources will be deliberated.

Ever grateful to our honorable sponsors who made it possible to organize this conference and with a heart-

felt thanks and appreciation to ESME staff who tirelessly worked to make it a success, I wish us all a fruit-

ful session and a bright new future abounding with lots of clean rail travel.

Alemayehu Negash

President


Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineers (ESME) - viii-

The Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineers

(ESME)

The Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineers (ESME) was initiated at the founding conference held

on April 7 and 8, 1995 at Akaki Spare Parts and Hand Tools S. Co.

It is a non-governmental and non-profit, professional association. Its members are professional and

qualified mechanical engineers and other individuals who work in the areas of mechanical engi-

neering and allied professions.

ESME was registered on August 1995 with the Ministry of Justice and recently with the Charities and

Societies Agency (CSA) fulfilling the requirements thereof.

The total number of registered members as of August, 2015 is 1,283. It has also 43 active institutional

members.

Members of the Society enjoy a number of privileges among which are the following:

Participation in the different activities of the Society thereby expanding their professional hori-

zon;

Right to elect the Society‘s officers and be elected as an officer.

Have the opportunity to publish technical papers in the Society‘s bulletins and journals and/or

present the same at the Society‘s conferences, workshops, etc

Benefit from the Societies‘ activities such as: workshops, seminars, conferences, panel discus-

sions, technical trainings, study tours, periodic publications, etc.

Practice the profession by getting involved in the professional services delivered by ESME.

Be governed by the Codes of Ethics of the Society and get professional recognition by employ-

ers, certifiers, etc.

ESME‘s organizational structure includes a General Assembly, a Board of Directors, an Executive

Committee and a full time Secretariat. The General Assembly has full authority over the Society,

while the Board of Directors, elected every two years, is delegated by the General Assembly to over-

see the activities of the Society and decide on issues that do not require the intervention of the General

Assembly. Executive Committee members are also elected every two years and are responsible for the

management of the day to day activities of the Society, supported by a full time Secretariat, consisting

of an Executive manager & one support staff as well as the five Councils expected to actively partici-

pate in the execution of the Society‘s objectives.


Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineers (ESME) (ix)


AMIO Multi Crop Thresher AMIO Maize Sheller AMIO Essential Oil Extractor AMIO Rope Washer Pump

AMIO Multi Crop Planter Industrial & Agricultural Machineries Manufacturing

Surface Pump

AMIO Engineering AMIO Treadle Pump

AMIO Plastic Molds

Submersible Pump

Oil Processing

Walking Tractor

Milk Processing

Combiner Harvester

Tel: - 0114 – 16 82 66,0114 – 16 50 03 Mob: - +251 911 22 26 41 +251 911 22 80 93 P.O.BOX: 25946

E-mail: [email protected] , [email protected] Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Address :-Kera Gofa Mazoriya Filliya Building 3rd floor

mailto:[email protected]


Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineers (ESME) (x)

I. INTRODUCTION

Rail transport is of great importance to run the economic

system of every country. The inefficiency of rail trans-

port indirectly affects the efficiency and functioning of

the entire economic system of a country. The bogie of

railway vehicle is the primary structures, which support

the weight of car body and passengers, and under the

repeated external loading between rail and wheel.

Therefore, in order to have adequate strength and stiff-

ness against the external loading, bogie frames shall be

made of solid steel or welded structures based on quali-

tative metal materials. [1]

A bogie frame of railway vehicles plays an important

role in sustaining the static load from the dead weight of

a car body. Quasi-static loads occur periodically during

curving and braking operations, and cyclic dynamic

loads will be produced by an irregular rail surface and

relative movement of the attached equipment. Since

most of the structures of the bogie frame are welded,

hence, it is very susceptible to the fatigue failure under

such loads. To the best effect a fatigue durability analy-

sis of the bogie frame to ensure the required fatigue

strength of its welded structures is a relevant issue. [1]

1. FINITE ELEMENT MODELING

Finite element method modeling of the bogie frame

For the finite element analysis the researcher has se-

lected the motor bogie frame between the two kinds of

AALRT bogie frames. That is motor bogie frame and

trailer bogie frame. [3]

1.1 Fatigue Simulation Process using fatigue Simula-

tion program, FEMFAT

A simulation tool for fatigue assessment is FEMFAT,

developed by the Austrian company Magna Steyr. It is a

well-established software used by various companies in

the automotive and engineering industry. It carries out

fatigue assessment based on the results of finite element

analyses. The software consists of different modules.

Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineers (ESME) -1-

Fatigue durability Analysis for welded bogie

frame of AALRT By Ruhama Minwuyelet

Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, School of Multidisciplinary Engineering,

Graduate Programin Railway Engineering Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, [email protected]

(Graduate Student in Mechanical Engineering (Rolling Stock) Program)

Abstract - This research paper forwards the fatigue durability analysis for the welded bogie frame of AALRT. The

purpose of the research is to observe the fatigue life of the welded bogie frame and to protect it from failure. In the

analysis of the research a three-dimensional finite element model of the bogie frame has been used to investigate the

effect of the applied loading force on the frame surface area and observing the effects at the welded joints. On the

bases of the model analysis the following results have been achieved. Output results without Sensitivity Factors: –

maximum and minimum log10 damage values are 30 and -7.09 respectively, maximum and minimum log10 endur-

ance safety factors are 1 and -5.11 respectively, maximum and minimum fatigue limits are 282 N/mm2 and 255 N/

mm2 respectively, and fatigue life is 2e^6. Output results with the small weld seam sensitivity Factor: – maximum

and minimum log10 damage values are 30 and -20 respectively, maximum and minimum log10 endurance safety

factors are 1 and -5.11 respectively, maximum and minimum fatigue limits are 282 N/mm2 and 0 N/mm2 respec-

tively, and fatigue life is 2e^6. Hence it is possible to conclude that the maximum damage result, which is 30 in

number is much exaggerated result, it is because the weld quality that the researcher has been taken is poor.

Whereas the fatigue limit at each analytical outputs has been proved to be the recommended value. The endurance

safety factor is below the anticipated value. Therefore a special attention should be given to the welded joints. Based

on sensitivity seam thickness results, it is possible to conclude that welded connections are almost nearer to failure

because they are highly exposed to residual stress. The study is significant and applicable as it introduces new

knowledge on fatigue life analysis of welded bogie frame in the minds of the beneficiaries of the study particularly to

those who are working in Railway Corporation.

Keywords: FEMFAT, Fatigue Life, Weld seam, Bogie Frame



Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineers (ESME) -2 -

The FEMFAT MAX module is used for analyzing com-

ponents subjected to multi-axial loadings and it allows a

superposition of multiple stress states. All analysis

within this Thesis were carried out with FEMFAT MAX

version 5.0. In the following section the simulation

process for fatigue assessment of the bogie frame is out-

lined. FEMFAT WELD sensitivity analysis helps as-

sessing the influence of variation in weld geometry pa-

rameters on fatigue results. [2]

Weld parameters:-

Degree of weld penetration- η

Seam thickness-a

Seam inclination angle-α

Weld Gap

1.2 Joint Types for Sensitivity Analysis

There are different types of weld joints such as: - T-

Joint 45 0, T-Joint 90 0, Y-Joint, Butt Joint and Overlap

Joint. In her fatigue analysis of the bogie frame the re-

searcher has taken the welding type of T-Joint 90 0. The

welding type is demonstrated in the following table. [2]

TABLE 1

Weld Qualities for welding Parameters of T- Joint 90 0 [5]

Among the lables that justify different qualities of weld-

ing paramaters the researcher has choosen the poor

quality in order to get the output results at the worest

condition and to check the consquences of poor welding

performances.

FIGURES

1.1 Modeling using CATIA

Fig.1. - Modeling of the bogie frame and connecting by seam

welding using CATIA

1.2 Geometry of bogie frame using ANSYS work bench

for Exceptional loads

Fig.2. - Geometry of the bogie frame and applied forces on

the frame


Good

Quality

Standard

Quality

Poor

Quality

Weld Climb Angle α 1100 1000 900

Weld Thickness a 15 mm 10 mm 7 mm

Gap Dimension 0 mm 1.67 mm 5 mm

Degree of penetration

η

100% 50% 0%


1.3 ANSYS Results

Static analysis results for the bogie frame

Fig.3. - Static structure analysis deformation and Equivalent

(von - Mises) Stress results

1.4 FEMFAT WELD Pre-Processing

Fig.4 . - Input files in FEMFAT

1.5 FEMFAT WELD Post-Processing

RESULTS with FEMFAT WELD Module

Without Sensitivity Factor

Fig.5. - Local S-N curve Without Sensitivity Factor




Fig. 7. - Damage value without any sensitivity factor

Fig.6 . - Fatigue Limit without any sensitivity factor

Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineers (ESME) - 5 -


Fig.10. - Fatigue limit at small seam thickness sensitivity

Fig. 11. - Damage value at small seam thickness sensitivity

Fig.8. -Endurance Safety Factor without any sensitivity factor

1.6 RESULTS with FEMFAT WELD Module sensitivity

seam thickness

Fig. 9. - Local S-N curve at small seam thickness

sensitivity



III. DISCUSSION This paper focuses on assessing the bogie frame fatigue

life at its welded joints, by employing the sensitivity

effect of different weld geometry parameters.: - seam

thickness, inclination angle, penetration degree and

weld gap, but the presenter has selected weld seam

thickness parameter in her thesis because all weld pa-

rameters have similar output values. The output results

that have been obtained during the analysis of the re-

search shall be demonstrated in the following para-

graph.The maximum damage result which is 30 in num-

ber is much exaggerated; it is because the weld quality

that the researcher has taken is poor. Whereas the fa-

tigue limit at each analytical outputs has been proved to

be the recommended value which is 282 N/mm2. The

endurance safety factor has a maximum value of 1 and a

minimum value of -5.11. At the welded joint which is

the critical point of the frame has a value of safety fac-

tor -5.11 which is below the anticipated value. There-

fore the welded joints need better treatment. The maxi-

mum damage, fatigue limit and endurance safety factor

values are similar to that of the output results without

Sensitivity Factor, on the other hand the minimum dam-

age and fatigue limit are different, which means they

have got less value. This is because small seam thick-

ness minimizes the welding quality and its safety.

As it is mentioned earlier in the abstract attached the

purpose of this study is analyzing the fatigue durability

of the welded bogie frame of AALRT. In the current

simulation processes the FEMFAT software is used to

evaluate the fatigue life of the component. The multi-

axiality of the stress state needs to be taken into account

for the case of failure in order to obtain reliable results.

The researcher has conducted the analysis on welded

bogie frame model. From the post processing of FEM-

FAT different results have been found such as S-N

curve with endurance and cycle limits, fatigue limit,

damage and safety factor in different weld geometry

parameters . Those results show that seam welded joints

are highly sensitive area to failure and leads to a mini-

mum component`s fatigue life. Hence it is essential to

present different results as an output to predict accurate

seam weld life. The maximum damage result which is

30 in number is much exaggerated result comparing to

that of the reviewed research papers; it is because the

weld quality that the researcher has been taken is poor.

Whereas the fatigue limit at each analytical outputs has

been proved to be the recommended value. The endur-

ance safety factor has a maximum value of 1 and a

Fig.12. - Log 10 Endurance safety factor at small seam thick-

ness sensitivity




minimum value -5.11 at the welded joint, which is be-

low the anticipated value. Therefore a special attention

should be given to the welded joints. Based on sensitiv-

ity seam thickness results, it is possible to conclude that

welded connections are almost nearer to failure because

they are highly exposed to residual stress.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author would like to acknowledge her advisor Dr.

Daniel Tilahun for his unreserved assistance and re-

source- full advice that encouraged the researcher to

conduct the research successfully and courageously and

his kind support and guidance to publish her work. Also,

the author would like to take this opportunity to thank

ESME for encouraging and providing this opportunity to

publish her own work.

REFERENCE

1. K.W. Jeona, K.B. Shinb* and J.S. Kimc,a ; A study

on fatigue life and strength of a FRP composite bo-

gie frame for urban subway trains.

Daejeon, Korea, Load Test Method of Vehicle Body

and Bogie Frame for Korean Maglev Vehicle the

21st International Conference on Magnetically Levi-

tated Systems and Linear Drives, October 10-13,

2011, Daejeon, Korea.

2. HARTWIG PÖRTNER Multi-axial Fatigue Models

for Composite Lightweight StructuresMaster‘s Thesis

in Applied Mechanics Chalmers University of Tech-

nologyGöteborg, Sweden 2013.

―Fatigue Assessment with FEMFAT WELD Including

Sensitivity Analysis‖ 5th FEMFAT User meeting

USA, Nov 8th 2012 2

3. Technical specifications of LRT project documents for

Addis Ababa Ethiopia; China Railway Group

(CRECG) Project Manager Office for Light Rail Pro-

ject of Ethiopia July 2013.





1. INTRODUCTION

Maintenance with multi-directional activities, resources,

measurement and management has been important to

rail transport operation organizations. Maintenance ex-

ists because we have physical assets which deteriorate

[1]. However, in recent years the need to manage the

multiple factor of maintenance more effectively has

gained important attention due to changing operational

technologies and the changing organizational role of

maintenance. In the case of light rail transport organiza-

tion, maintenance has a broader perspective. In such

organizations, the scope of maintenance has shifted

from a narrowly-defined operational perspective to an

organizational strategic perspective. The main chal-

lenges faced by organizations today are choosing the

most efficient and effective strategies to enhance and

continually improve operational capabilities, reduce

maintenance costs and to achieve competitiveness in the

industry [2]. Implementation of efficient maintenance

system early on the initial establishment of a business

organization has good opportunity if it is carefully stud-

ied and designed with overall objective of an organiza-

tion.

[3] Showed that most Swedish firms, i.e. about 81%, use

the accumulated knowledge and experience within the

company as a method for maintenance selection. Be-

sides, about 31% use a method based on modeling the

time to failure and optimization. About 10% use failure

mode effect and criticality analysis (FMECA) and deci-

sion trees and only 2% use multiple criterion decision

making (MCDM). On problem investigation phase of

this research, it is observed that most of Ethiopian or-

ganizations also use their own experience or the overall

government policies as their maintenance strategy.

Therefore, there should be a need to develop effective

maintenance strategy, which can achieve the overall

goals of the maintenance activity in a cost effective way.

This research tries to use one of MCDM approaches,

AHP as a method for selection of maintenance strategy.

2. REVIEW OF MAINTENANCE FACTORS,

STRATEGY AND AHP ALGORITHM

2.1 Maintenance factors

Usually maintenance strategy consists of various critical

success factors that are necessary to achieve the overall

Selection of Maintenance Strategy by AHP Algorithm for

Light Rail Transit System MulukenAssefa1, Daniel Tilahun2

1 Schoolof Industrial and Mechanical Engineering, Addis Ababa University Institute of Technology (AAIT),

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,[email protected]

2 School of Industrial and Mechanical Engineering, Addis Ababa University Institute of Technology (AAIT).

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Abstract-The main objective of this research is identifying key maintenance factors and modeling maintenance

strategy by Analytic Hierarchy Process to select the possible priorities of maintenance strategy by using ex-

pert decision software. Selection of efficient maintenance strategy can be achieved by pair wise comparison of

identified functions. This qualitative survey assessed the opinion of 14 maintenance engineers and technicians,

among them 7 experts work in METEC locomotive assembly division. The research method comprises identi-

fication of maintenance factors and selection of possible maintenance strategies for Light Rail Transit system.

The analysis shows that Safety (38.2%) becomes the most critical factor on selection of maintenance strategy.

Value adding activities (20%), implementation cost (13.2%), support system integration (11.5%), implementa-

tion capability (8.2%), stock & material management (5%) and performance measurement (3.9%) are the

successive priority factors on implementation of maintenance strategy. The five strategies, Corrective Mainte-

nance, Preventive Maintenance, Condition Based Maintenance, Reliability Center Maintenance and Total

Productive Maintenance are identified as a possible maintenance strategies. The analysis discovered that Total

productive maintenance is the most suitable strategy to be implemented for Light Rail Transit system and

Corrective maintenance is the least to follow. Finally sensitivity and sanity is checked for the analysis.

Keywords - Maintenance Strategy, Light Rail Transit (LRT), Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), Maintenance factors




goals for maintenance. There should be methods for es-

tablishing the relationship between the operational reli-

ability, the condition of the railway vehicle, track related

infrastructure, maintenance work carried out and meas-

uring the performance of maintenance strategy. Identifi-

cation of maintenance key criteria is the most important

stage in the formulation of AHP model. To achieve this

task the research tried to identify 42 key maintenance

factors and 25 factors selected through first level ques-

tioner by factor analysis. The selected factors grouped as

7 maintenance factors. These are safety, implementation

cost, added value, implementation capability, perform-

ance benchmarking, stock and material management and

support system integration.

I. Safety

According to [4] the safety management system must

include systems and procedures for the review of the

management system at specified periods. Safety poli-

cies, procedures and guidelines maintains healthy work-

ing environment. Interruptions in operations due to fail-

ure may form a source of hazard to passengers, train

operators, workers and the nearby system. The mainte-

nance management system should be fully integrated

with safety management system; therefore this research

outlined passenger safety, worker safety & system

safety as main factors to implement efficient and effec-

tive maintenance strategy. The higher the strategy en-

sures safety the higher the rank.

II. Implementation Cost

Maintenance cost usually consists of Direct costs; man-

power, spare parts, tools, transportation, training and

methods. There are also Indirect costs which are all the

costs that may arise due to planned and unplanned main-

tenance actions, e.g., lost operations costs, accidents.

Those are not the only costs in maintenance organiza-

tion. Approaching specific maintenance strategy will

cost significant amount of investment. This research

categorizes maintenance strategy implementation cost as

hardware cost, software cost, operation and maintenance

cost of the system and training & development of per-

sonnel to use special tools and methods to perform the

maintenance activities. The lower implementation cost

of the strategy the higher the rank.

III. Value Added

The customer requirement of light rail transit system is

realizing dependable passenger transport. Their satisfac-

tion is measured by factors like reliability, availability

and quality of service. In addition to providing mass

transit transport for the population the ultimate goal of

transport operation like light rail transit is gaining rea-

sonable profit in order to cover the high cost of train and

infrastructure operation and maintenance management.

Proven quality combined with value adding mainte-

nance strategy concepts makes the operator meet the

highest standards in terms profit oriented business strat-

egy. The higher the strategy ensures value adding fac-

tors the higher the rank.

IV. Implementation Capability

Once the maintenance strategy is selected the detail fea-

sibility study should be checked. One factor of feasibil-

ity study is the firms‘ implementation capability. The

first indicator will be financial capability to invest on

selected strategy. For example strategies like CBM need

high investment on initial cost their financial profit will

be known at overall life cycle profit. The availability of

technology with personal capability combined with hu-

man and managerial willingness to implement is the

main factors of efficient maintenance strategy. The

higher the organization has implementation capability

the higher the rank.

V. Maintenance Performance measure

Maintenance performance measurement enables a solid

basis for establishing where maintenance related im-

provements are most appropriate at any given time [5].

Performance measures can be classified in a number of

ways. Maintenance Performance measurement system

can be used for strategic and day-to-day operations of

the organization, control implementations of improve-

ments and monitoring of the cost centers. The research

categorizes the maintenance performance factors based

on [6] finding. The maintenance performance indicators

are equipment performance measure, maintenance cost

performance measure and maintenance process meas-

ures. The higher the strategy measures the performance

the higher the rank.

VI. Stock & Material Management

If there is maintenance there is also repair and replace-

ment of parts. The parts and consumables are either pur-

chased with the train or to be purchased when the dam-

age occur that is depending on the firm‘s maintenance

philosophy. Stock keeping and material management

have significant contribution to the firm‘s business proc-

ess but it needs high investment and man power. To



have optimized spare part, material procurement and

stock keeping should be integrated with in maintenance

strategy formulation. Part availability, purchase plan-

ning and inventory control considered as stock and ma-

terial management factors the higher the strategy suit-

able for material management the higher the rank.

VII. Support System Integration

In light rail transit maintenance and repair organization

the main function next to transport operation is mainte-

nance department but that doesn‘t mean that it is the

only department in the organization. There are supports

functions like finance, procurement and material man-

agement, human resource management, marketing,

sales, Information technology, research & development

and engineering & technical support. If the competence

of the strategy to integrate the maintenance support de-

partment such as operation, procurement & material

management, Engineering and technical support & IT is

high the selection rank become high.

2.2. Maintenance strategy

Maintenance strategy is a Management method used in

order to achieve the maintenance objectives. [7] Mainte-

nance Objectives are the targets assigned to or accepted

by the management and organization. The content in the

maintenance strategy is a mix of techniques and/or poli-

cies which depends on factors such as the nature of the

plant, maintenance goals or equipment that will be

maintained, work environment and work flow pat-

terns [2].A number of maintenance strategies and con-

cepts have been suggested by intellectuals or imple-

mented by an organization internationally. Five of the

maintenance strategies selected for this research and

LRT operator experiences. The candidate strategies ex-

plained as follows:-

Corrective Maintenance is also referred as, failure

based maintenance, breakdown maintenance or run to

failure strategy[8]. It is the original maintenance strat-

egy appeared in industry [9]. In this strategy an item is

allowed to fail before maintenance is executed. This

strategy is appropriate when the consequence of failure

is small. It can be used where the failure of equip-

ment do not have a greater impact on availability or

service for productive use of an organization.

Condition Based Maintenance is a planned maintenance

approach where failure or break down of rolling stock

and infrastructure is avoided by using pre- diagnostics

tools.. Basically, this approach tries to forecast or

predict the wear and tear or life of equipment by

using different methods and accordingly recommends a

corrective action. This form of maintenance strategy as

defined by [10] maintenance is performed with the as-

sistance of diagnostic tools, on a timely schedule; daily,

weekly, or monthly. The diagnostics equipment meas-

ures physical conditions such as temperature, vibration,

noise, corrosion, and other revealing signs, which may

lead to premature equipment failure [10]. This kind of

strategy needs high technology, sophisticated sensors

and diagnosis tools.

Preventive Maintenance strategy described by [11], It is

a maintenance strategy that reduces the frequency and

random failure by performing planned repairs, replace-

ment, overhauling, lubricating, cleaning and inspecting

at specific time intervals. The intent of the PM strategy

is to minimize the probability of equipment failure pre-

maturely by conducting maintenance before the failure

of the equipment. In this strategy replacement or repair

at a fixed time after the installation of facility is carried

out which is generally independent of its condition.

The time period used to construct a maintenance sched-

ule can be either calendar time or component running

time.

Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM) is a methodol-

ogy that determines what must be done to ensure that

the asset continues fulfilling its intended functions in its

present operating context [12]. The success of this ap-

proach depends on the availability of failure data, analy-

sis methods and operating experience to achieve its tar-

get. RCM has implementation difficulties due to un-

availability of plant failure data. This maintenance strat-

egy focuses on optimizing preventative and predictive

maintenance, which results in an increase in equipment

effectiveness while minimizing maintenance cost.

Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) the prime objec-

tive of TPM is to maximize equipment effectiveness

and productivity and eliminate all machine losses cre-

ate a sense of ownership in equipment operators through

a program of training and involvement promote continu-

ous improvement through small group activities involv-

ing production, engineering, and maintenance person-

nel[13]. Each enterprise has its own unique definition

and vision for TPM [14]. But in most cases there are

common elements and themes. These are Asset strategy,

Empowerment, Resources Planning, scheduling, Meas-

urement, continuous improvement team, Processes, Sys-

tems and Procedures. This maintenance philosophy re-



quires active participation by all employees in the or-

ganization, including management. This kind of mainte-

nance focuses on increasing the overall equipment effec-

tiveness (OEE). According to [3] OEE is an excellent

indicator of how well TPM is implemented in organiza-

tion.

2.3. AHP Algorithm

The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) methodology,

which was developed by [15], it is a one of MCDM

method and it is powerful tool in solving complex deci-

sion problems. The AHP helps the researchers organize

the critical aspects of a problem into a hierarchical struc-

ture similar to a family tree. By reducing complex deci-

sions to a series of simple comparisons and rankings,

then synthesizing the results, the AHP not only helps the

researchers arrive at the best decision, but also provides

a clear justification for the choices made [16].In the

AHP approach, the decision problem is structured hier-

archically at different levels with each level consisting

of a finite number of decision elements. The upper level

of the hierarchy represents the overall goal, while the

lower level consists of all possible alternatives; one or

more intermediate level embodies the decision criteria

and sub-criteria [17].

In this research AHP is considered as an ideal system-

atic approach for several reasons. First, the AHP consid-

ers both qualitative and quantitative aspects of research

and combines them into a single empirical inquiry [18].

The AHP is able to adopt a qualitative way in building

the decision hierarchy and also uses a quantitative ap-

proach in data collection and analysis to test the attrib-

utes of the models by using a self-completed question-

naire. The AHP has the capability to combine various

types of criteria in a multi-level decision structure to

obtain a single score for each alternative to rank the al-

ternatives among the available multi attribute ap-

proaches [19]. Second, the selection of AHP as a

method of analysis in this study is also determined by

the size of the sample population.

The AHP is an analytical method which permits a small

survey group [20]. It is thus helpful in collecting and

analyzing data from a small group of experts who have

real experience in maintenance management. This ex-

plains why the AHP is appropriate for use as a method

of test. Furthermore, the AHP provides a function of

seeking an expert‘s judgments and provides a consis-

tency check which makes it a reliable way to determine

the priorities of a set of factors, which may then be in-

corporated into other evaluation systems [18]and

[21].By using the AHP approach, different levels of

contribution of the selection factors, criteria and sub

criteria towards selection of maintenance strategy are

identified.

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The overall research mainly includes five tasks. The

main research process is illustrated as follows.

I. Literature review: - The first step of the research is

gathering the maintenance critical factors from dif-

ferent literature and the researcher previous experi-

ence. Then forty two maintenance factors are col-

lected.

II. Factor analysis: - The collected maintenance critical

factors are not equally important for the selection of

maintenance strategy. Therefore the identified factors

refined based on factor analysis with likert scale. For

this survey twelve rolling stock technicians and engi-

neers are participated. As a result 25 critical factors

are selected as main indicators for the selection of the

strategy. Then the 25 sub-criteria further regrouped

by 7 main critical factors.

III. Modeling of maintenance strategy: - AHP Algorithm

is used to structure the decision problem into a hier-

archical model. This involves the decomposition of

the decision problem into elements according to their

common characteristics. In this study, the hierarchies

illustrate the attribute for selecting efficient mainte-

nance strategy selection for LRT system. The top

level is the selection goal (i.e. prioritization of critical

selection criteria for efficient maintenance strategy

selection), and following this are the selection factors

(main criteria) and selection sub-criteria the third

level) and finally the alternative maintenance strat-

egy. Using criteria, sub-criteria and alternatives, a

hierarchical model is constructed to apply AHP algo-

rithms. Then relationship among criteria and sub-

criteria are determined and reflected in the hierarchi-

cal model. Fig.1 below shows the hierarchical struc-

ture of the maintenance strategy selection model,

which includes four levels. The top level of the hier-

archy represents the strategic goal of the model,

while the second level of the hierarchy consists of

seven main maintenance strategy selection criteria,

the third level of the hierarchy contains twenty two

sub criteria to fulfill the strategic goal and the last

hierarchy shows the possible alternative strategies.



Fig.1. - AHP model for selection of maintenance strategy

IV. Analysis and data collection

After formation of relationship modeling by AHP

algorithm the next step is the collection of data by

using AHP questioner the combined rating of all

experts‘ opinion on selection of maintenance strat-

egy transferred in expert decision software and ana-

lyzed. Each set of pair wise comparisons was

checked for consistency and revised if necessary

until the maximum inconsistency was below ten per-

cent, which is considered the minimum standard

level [15]. The results were synthesized throughout

the model to yield the overall priorities of the strate-

gic alternatives.

V. Result and discussion

Quantitative data obtained from qualitative expert

judgment by using super decision software.

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Result

After collection of data by using AHP questioner the

combined rating of all experts‘ opinion transferred in

expert decision software and analyzed. Each set of pair

wise comparisons was checked for consistency and

revised if necessary until the maximum inconsistency

was below ten percent, which is considered the mini-

mum standard level [15]. The results were synthesized

throughout the model to yield the overall priorities of

the strategic alternatives. The result is demonstrated on

fig.2TPM is the most suitable maintenance strategy to

be implemented on light rail transit system. CM is the

list preferable maintenance strategy to be implemented

in light rail transit.

Fig.2. - The priority of alternative maintenance strategy.

According to the analysis 35.1% priority is given to

TPM strategy due to its involvement of the overall em-

ployee participation on maintenance. Moreover it is a

strategy which insures OEE through continuous im-

provement. Learning and team building are the core task

of this strategy. The strategy doesn‘t need expensive

initial investment rather most of the investment is in

work process and employees way of thinking. The least

selected strategy is CM 9.26%; CM lacks most of the

modern maintenance strategy.

Fig.3. - Priority of maintenance factors (main criteria)

Based on the result of the analysis the experts give a

higher value for safety 38% and the lowest value is per-

formance measurement 3.8%. Value adding activities

become the second perferable criteria 20% . Implemen-

tation cost 13.2% ,the power of the strategy to integrate

with the different system 11.5%, an organization imple-

mentation capablity 8.2%, the effectiveness in stock

&material management 5% have a significant impact

on selection of maintenance strategy.


Fig.8. - Performance measurement sub-criteria‘s priority

Fig.9.- Stock and material control sub- criteria‘s priority

Fig.10. - Support system integration sub-criteria‘s priority

4.2. Sensitivity analysis

Sensitivity analysis was carried out by varying the

weights of the criteria and sub-criteria to determine the

stability of the decision reached by using the decision

model proposed in this study. Sensitivity is performed

Fig.4. - Safety sub-criteria‘s priority

Fig.5. - Value added sub-criteria priority

Fig.6. - Implementation sub-criteria priority

Fig.7. - Implementation capability criteria priority



Fig.12. - Sensitivity graph with implementation cost priority

set to 0.70

The same procedure as the previous by changing the

priority of the performance measurement indicated by

the vertical line, is set to its original priority of 0.50 in

fig 13 priorities of the alternatives are then read from

the y-axis at the points where the vertical line crosses

the alternatives‘ lines. In fig 14 the priority of the per-

formance benchmarking indicated by the vertical line is

set to 0.9 the rank and values of alternative changed and

shown on table 2.

Fig13. - Sensitivity graph with performance benchmarking

priority set to 0.50

Fig.14. - Sensitivity graph with performance benchmarking

priority set to 0.902

by selecting a criterion (or sub-criterion) and changing

its priority, redistributing the change among the other

criteria (sub-criteria), and recalculating the priorities of

the alternatives to observe if any change occurred in

their ranking. A graphical representation of sensitivity

for the implementation cost criterion is shown in Fig

11and Fig 12 .Criterion priorities are read from the x-

axis; the alternatives‘ priorities are read from the y-axis.

In fig 11 the priority of the implementation cost indi-

cated by the vertical line, is set to its original priority of

0.50. Sensitivity is performed by varying the priority of

the implementation cost criterion by moving the vertical

line and determining the corresponding alternative pri-

orities. In Figure 12, it has been moved to the right to a

priority of about 0.70 and the order of the alternatives

has changed and shown on table 1.

Fig.11.Sensitivity graph with implementation cost priority set to 0.50

TABLE I

ALTERNATIVE RANKING WITH IMPLEMENTATION

COST PRIORITY CHANGE FROM 0.5 TO 0.7



Alternative strategy

Sensitiv-

ity=0.5 Sensitivity=0.7 Rank

0.5 Rank

at

0.7 RCM 0.180 0.155 3 3

TPM 0.261 0.214 1 2

CBM 0.150 0.115 5 5

CM 0.251 0.333 2 1

PM 0.165 0.183 4 4



TABLE II

ALTERNATIVE RANKING WITH PERFORMANCE

BENCHMARKING PRIORITY CHANGE FROM 0.7 TO

0.902

Performing sensitivity on the criteria of safety, imple-

mentation capability, value added, part & material con-

trol and support system integration do not affect the first

ranked alternative, but in some cases RCM and CBM

switched. Similarly, sensitivity analyses of the sub-

criteria was also conducted and showed that the priori-

ties of the first alternative will not change.

5. CONCLUSION

In this paper maintenance strategy selection procedure

for LRT system is illustrated by AHP algorithm. Super

decision software is used for analysis. .Five alternative

maintenance strategies are considered seven main deci-

sion criteria and twenty-five sub criteria have been de-

termined. The criteria and alternatives structured by

AHP algorithm. The expert decision software estimates

the weights (priorities) of decision criteria using pair

wise comparison method. The result indicated that

safety is number one priority from maintenance strategic

factors followed by value adding factors. In addition, the

survey indicated that Total Productive Maintenance is

the most suitable strategy to be implemented for LRT

system and corrective maintenance is the least one.

REFERENCES

[1.] Moubray(1991), Reliability Centered Maintenance,

Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, UK.

[2.] Terry wireman (2005), Industrial Press, Inc., Devel-

oping Performance Indicators for Managing Mainte-

nance, New York.

[3.] ImadAlsyouf, växjö (2004), Cost effective Mainte-

nance for Competitive Advantages University Press,

Sweden.

[4.] National Rail Safety Guideline (2008), National

Transport Commission, Australia.

[5.] Adyta Parida and UdayKumar(2009), Mainte-

nance Productivity and Performance Measure-

ment.

[6.] Albert H.C. Tsang (2000), Maintenance Perform-

ance Management in Capital Intensive Organiza-

tions, University of Toronto.

[7.] Alsyouf, I. (2007),The Role of Maintenance in

Improving Companies Productivity and Profitabil-

ity. International Journal of Production Econom-

ics.

[8.] A.D. Telang and AMIT Telang (2010), Compre-

hensive Maintenance Management.

[9.] Waeyenbergh, G. and Pintelon, L. (2002), A

Framework for Maintenance Concept Develop-

ment. International Journal of Production Eco-

nomics.

[10.] Sharma, R. K., Kumar, D., and Kumar, P. (2005),

FLM to Select Suitable Maintenance Strategies in

Process Industries Using ISO Model. Journal of

Quality in Maintenance.

[11.] Kamran Moghaddam, Tehran (2003), Preventive

Maintenance and Replacement Scheduling Mod-

els and Algorithms.

[12.] John Moubray (2000),The Case Against Stream-

lined RCM.

[13.] Nakajima, S (1988), Introduction to TPM, Pro-

ductivity Press, Cambrige, MA.

[14.] John D. Campbell (1995), Outsourcing in Mainte-

nance Management. Vol. 1 Issue 3. MCB UP Ltd.

[15.] Saaty, T.L. (1980), Analytic Hierarchy Process:

Planning, Priority Setting, Resource Allocation.

New York: McGraw-Hill.

[16.] Chin et al.,Chin K.S.,S. Chiu,V.M.R. Tummala

(1999), An Evaluation of Success Factors Using

AHP to Implement ISO 14001 based EMS,

[17.] Fariborz Y Patrovi (1994), Determining What to

Benchmark,Vol. 14 Issue: 6. MCB UP Ltd.

[18.] Eddie W.L. Cheng, Heng Li, (2001), Analytical

Hierarchy Process, Vol. 5 Issue 3. MCB UP Ltd.

[19.] Yudakul (2004), Selection of Computer-Integrated

Manufacturing Technologies using a Combined

Analytic Hierarchy Process and Goal Program-

ming Model. Robotic and Computer-Integrated

Manufacturing.

[20.] Eddie W.L. Cheng, Heng Li, Danny C.K. Ho.

(2002), Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), Vol.

6 Issue 4. MCB UP Ltd.

[21.] Ling Wanga, Jian Chua, Jun Wub (2007), Selec-

tion of Optimum Maintenance Strategies Based on

a Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process. International

Journal of Production Economics, 2007.

Alterna-

tive strat-

egy

Sensitiv-

ity=0.5 Sensitiv-

ity=0.9 Ran

k 0.5 Rank

at 0.9

RCM 0.283 0.331 2 1

TPM 0.332 0.315 1 2

CBM 0.208 0.200 3 3

CM 0.068 0.048 5 5

PM 0.110 0.180 4 4




Identification of the Best Material Combination between Wheel and Rail of Railway Vehicle with Minimum Wear Rate

Natnael Tesfamichael1, Habtamu Tkubet2

1 School of Industrial and Mechanical Engineering, Addis Ababa University Institute of Technology (AAIT),

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, P.O. Box 31715, [email protected] 2 School of Industrial and Mechanical Engineering, Addis Ababa University Institute of Technology (AAIT).

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, [email protected]

Abstract — Wear is a natural phenomenon that exists when two bodies, which are in contact, perform a relative mo-

tion; this is also true for the wheel and rail of a railway vehicle. This wear is mainly dependent on the type of mate-

rial they are made of. There is a tolerable level of wear that is safe to the railway operation. Once this critical wear

level is reached, it is mandatory to re-profile the wheel, grind the rail. However, after some time it will be worn out to

the level it can no more be used and the whole system must be replaced with a new one. This indicates that there is a

need to focus on the wear properties of wheel and rail materials in order to secure a safe and sustainable railway op-

eration.

This research tries to set new combinations (pairs) of wheel and rail materials, simulate them for wear performance

using a multi body simulation software (SIMPACK). An important criteria for the comparison is the hardness and

strength of the wheel/rail materials. Then compare the wear rate of the different combination and identify for the

best material combination with the minimum wear rate. Based on the simulation it is found that a softer wheel mate-

rial rolling on a relatively harder rail material has a minimum wear rate. But increasing the hardness of both wheel

and rails will not secure better wear performance. Safety is also considered in this research using the derailment coef-

ficient parameter. Based on the minimum derailment coefficient value among the combinations those with better

wear performance showed a better safety.

Key words - Wheel/ rail materials, hardness, material combination, wear rate.

1. INTRODUCTION Wear is a natural phenomenon that exists when two bodies,

which are in contact, perform a relative motion; this is also

true for the wheel and rail of a railway vehicle. This wear is

mainly dependent on the type of material they are made of.

There is a tolerable level of wear that is safe to the railway

operation. Once this critical wear level is reached, it is man-

datory to re-profile the wheel, grind the rail. However, after

some time it will be worn out to the level it can no more be

used and the whole system must be replaced with a new

one.

All the above process demands a lot of time, human effort

and costs large amount of money, so a small improvement

on the wear rate reduction could have a great impact on

such a large scale railway operation. There have been re-

searches made to reduce the wear rate. One of the most ef-

fective approaches is to play on the material, as mentioned

above the material in which the wheel is made of is differ-

ent from the one in which the rail is made.

There are different lists of materials for the rail and for the

wheel, which have been discovered by different research-

ers. All these materials are steel

based but with different hardness and other mechanical

properties. We can select or set new combination of mate-

rials like ER7 for the wheel and 60E1 for the rail. These

materials are recently used in Europe [4]. The word

‗combination‘, used in the above sentence is to indicate

that a matching between a wheel made of ER7 steel and a

rail made of 60E1steel material could be done for railway

operation. The aim of this research is to set new combina-

tions (pairs) of wheel and rail materials, test them for wear

performance then compare the result with the existing

ones and identify for the best material combination.




4.1.1 Major Technical Parameters based on Addis Ababa LRT specifications [24]

Tramcar Width: 2650mm Tramcar Height: 3700mm Track Gauge: 1435 mm Minimal Curve Radius: 50m for mainline and

30m for parking garage Minimal Vertical Curve Radius: 1000m Tramcar Length: 28400 mm Wheel Base: 1900 mm for power bogie and

1600 mm for driven bogie Wheel radius = 600mm Axle load = 25ton Maximum operation speed = 70 km/hr

Fig.2. - Contact positions of the wheel-rail pair

Stiffness and Damping

- The stiffness and damping values used are: cx =

cy= 10 kN/mm (107N/m), cz= 5kN/mm (5*105N/

m), and dx = dy= dz= 20 kNs/m (2* 105Ns/m).

- Create a Force Element of type 5

Vertical Load

The same Force Element also exerts the vertical

load. Create a SubVar‘$_PS_Fz‘ with a value of,-50

kN. The minus sign is important because the force

direction is related to the Force Element‘sFrom

Marker: The guidance Marker must be ‘pulled‘ up-

wards, in negative z direction, in order to have the

wheel setpressed on the rails.

4.2. Wear analysis and results

For the test I used four new combinations of wheel

and rail materials and one material combination

with similar property with the Addis Ababa LRT

2. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

Different countries like China, America, India and Ger-

man spend millions of dollars annually for repairing and

replacement of worn wheels and rails, for instance

America spent more than 900M dollars for wheel re-

placement in the year 2010-2011 and 32.2% of it is due

to wheel wear[6].

Researches show that improved rail materials like the

standard carbon steel grade R260 reduced wear rate sig-

nificantly when it replaced the R200 half a century ago.

Recently improved materials like AAR (Association of

American Railroad) classes, AAR Class C, AAR Class

B, and ER7 are widely used for the wheel and Thyssen/

Krupp60E1 for the rail [5].The purpose of this research

is to find a better material combination between wheel

and rail for further reduction of wear rate, which in turn

reduces a great amount of expense. For this research I

will develop a model using SIMPAK software to simu-

late an actual wheel/rail interaction condition. Many

researches like the one done by Roderik A Smith fo-

cuses on a new material for the wheel/rail and some oth-

ers perform a test for the wear behavior based on real

experimental setups. However, my research does not

aim to find for new sets of materials, instead I will per-

form a matching between the existing wheel and rail

materials and test for their wear behavior so that we can

identify the effective combinations of wheel/rail materi-

als with minimum wear rate.

3. APPLIED METHODS

The methods used to do this research are the following:-

Data collection and study on recently used wheel/

rail materials.

Vehicle modeling and simulation using SIMPACK

software.

Result analysis

4. MODELLING AND ANALYSIS

4.1. Vehicle Modeling Using Simpack

Fig.1. - Vehicle model



TABLE 2

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND HARDNESS

4.2.4 Material properties and important inputs for the

SIMPACK vehicle model

TABLE 3

SELECTED WHEEL/RAIL GRADES AND THEIR

PROPERTIES

4.2.5 Input for the SIMPACK model The combined young‘s modulus [29]

Where:-

Ei is the young‘s modulus of material i.

Ej is the young‘s modulus of material j.

νi is the poisson‘s ratio of material I .

νj is the poisson‘s ratio of material j.

specifications (Material combination 0), the mate-

rial combinations used for this wear analysis are

presented as below.

4.2.1 Explanation on material combination

To make the concept material combination it is enough to see fig. 26 material combination implies simply a selection and matching of different standard of rail and wheels. It has no connection with mixing the materials of the wheel and rail chemically.

Fig.3. - Explanation of Material combination, example: - Material combination 0

4.2.2 Heat treatment of the five material combinations

TABLE 1

HEAT TREATMENT OF THE SELECTED MATERIALS

4.2.3 Chemical composition and hardness of the five material combinations



Combination Wheel Rail

Material combination 0 Normalized Normalized

Material combination 1 Normalized Normalized

Material combination 2 Whole heat

treated (hard) Whole heat treated

(hard)

Material combination 3 Rim heat treated

(hard) Whole heat treated

( very hard)

Material combination 4 Normalized Whole heat treated

( very hard)

Material combination

Chemical composition %

Hardness

C Si Mn p S

Material com-

biantion0

Wheel 0.4 0.35 0.8 ≤ 0.05 ≤0.05 200

Rail 0.6 0.5 1.3 ≤0.05 ≤0.05 240

Material com-

biantion1

Wheel 0.4 0.3 0.8 ≤ 0.05 ≤ 0.05 220

Rail 0.6 0.1 1.3 ≤ 0.04 ≤ 0.04 260

Material com-

biantion2

Wheel 0.5 0.1 1.3 ≤ 0.025 ≤ 0.025 240

Rail 0.6 0.1 1.3 ≤ 0.03 ≤ 0.03 270

Material com-

biantion3

Wheel 0.6 0.1 1.3 ≤ 0.04 ≤ 0.04 260

Rail 0.8 0.1 0.8 ≤ 0.025 ≤ 0.03 350

Material

combiantion4

Wheel 0.6 0.35 0.8 ≤ 0.05 ≤ 0.05 200

Rail 0.8 0.1 0.8 ≤ 0.03 ≤ 0.03 350

(b) Fig. 5. -Maximum wear number for material combination 0,

(a) graphical representation and (b) SIMPACK output

TABLE 5

MAXIMUM WEAR NUMBER OF THE FIVE MATE-

RIAL COMBINATIONS

5.1.2 Wear rate calculation

Wear rate Kw (Iw) from equation (16)

TABLE 4

COMBINED YOUNG‘S MODULUS

Another important input for the SIMPACK model is the poisons ratio as described in the above table.

5. RESULT

5.1. Wear analysis result, Wear number (Wear index)Iw

Fig.4.- Wear results of the five material combinations using

SIMPACK

5.1.1. Maximum wear number (wear index)

(a)



Material combination Combined young‘s

modulus (Gpa)

Material combination 0 224.3





Material combination Wear index (Iw),max ( N/mm2 )






1. INTRODUCTION

"FORTSCHRITT ELECTRO - MECHANICAL SERVICES PLC" /FEMS/

is established in 1997 by a group experienced pro-fessionals engaged in various Electro-Mechanical works and consultancy.

FORTSCHRITT ELECTRO-MECHANICAL SERVICE PLC (FEMS)

has participated in various technical activities throughout the nation. The company

still carrying out some projects located at different regions in the country.

Some of our works include:

Design, Installation, Rehabilitation and Maintenance of electro-Mechanical

works. Such as High Voltage Sub stations, Electrical Distribution networks,

Waste Water Treatment Plants Supply and installation of equipment for Ho-

tels, Hospitals and Factories,

Address: CETU building, Bole Road Room No 001/1

P.O.BOX 13574 Addis Ababa Ethiopia

Telephone: +251-111-550-9545 +251-111-550-3938

Email: [email protected]/[email protected]

Contact Person: Mr. Mulugeta Edea ö Managing Director

Cell Phone: +251-911-23666

2. Activities of the firm



mailto:[email protected]/[email protected]


TABLE 6

WEAR RATE OF THE FIVE MATERIAL

COMBINATIONS

5.1.3 Specific volume of material removed

From equation (17)

TABLE 7 SPECIFIC VOLUME OF MATERIAL REMOVED

Fig.6. - Specific volume of material removed

5.2. Derailment coefficient The derailment coefficient is an indicator of the risk of derailment of the vehicle. It indicates the safety level of the vehicle.

Fig.7. - Derailment coefficient outputs

5.2.1 Maximum Derailment coefficient values

(a)

(b) Fig.8. - Maximum derailment coefficient of Material

combination 0. (a) Graphical representation and

(b) SIMPACK output


Combination Wear rate, Kw(µg/m

mm2 )






Combination

Specific volume of material removed ( mm3/m mm2 )

Wheel Rail


0.111


0.106

Material combination 2 0.107 0.108

Material combination 3 0.105 0.106


0.103



TABLE 8

MAXIMUM DERAILMENT COEFFICIENT VALUES OF

THE FOUR MATERIAL COMBINATIONS

Fig.9. Maximum derailment coefficient of the five material

combinations

5.2.1 Discussion on the derailment coefficient values

Fig.10. - Forces at flange and tread contact [30]

Q, vertical load Y, lateral reaction F, component of tangential force in the transverse verti-cal plane N, normal reaction

Explanation Derailment occurs when the vertical load Q is carried entirely by the point of contact on the flange, and so the derailment limit is defined by the minimum value of the lateral reaction Y.

We know that µ depends on the material in contact and it decreases as hardness increases. Which implies that the derailment coefficient is greatly affected by the hardness of the existing material of the wheel and the rail as can be seen from the SIMPACK simulation and the mathematical equation.

6. CONCLUSION

Generally, as the hardness of the rail, increase there is a better wear performance but in the case of wheel rail contact a better result is obtained when a rela-tively softer wheel material rolls on a relatively harder material.

Increasing hardness of both wheel and rail doesn‘t secure wear rate reduction

Specific volume of material removed highly depends on the density of the material combination not only on hardness.

Softer wheel material with rim heat treated performs better wear property when rolled on a harder rail.

Grade of material also affects the coefficient of fric-

tion that is necessary to keep the vehicle on track. We can see that material combination 0 has the best

wear performance for the wheel and material combi-nation3 has the best wear performance for the rail. But the combined effect of the wheel from material combination0 and rail from material combination3 gives a better result. However, as the hardness in-creases the cost of material increases because of the processes needed to attain high hardness, which makes the initial investment, as well as replacement cost expensive.

Combination Derailment coefficient


Material combination 1 0.3530 Material combination 2 0.353967





As a combination, among the simulated combina-

tions material combination4 is the best in terms of wear performance and have a good stability in terms of derailment.

REFERENCE

[1]. Roderick A Smith: ―Railway and materials‖, vol 35, no 7, 2007, pp 505.

[2]. S. Marich: ―Development of improved rail and wheel

materials‖, pp 23-27. [3]. MartinSchilke: ―Degradation of Railway Rails from a

Materials Point of View‖, 2013, pp3-9. [4]. Cameron Lonsdale,Prof. Roman Bogacz,Mark Norton:

Application of Pressure Poured Cast Wheel Technol-ogy for European Freight Service, world congress on railway research 2011.

[5]. Wolfgang Schoech, GregorGirsch, Rene Hey-

der:Advanced rail steel grades and their appropriate maintenance – the key to combat rcf, 2012.

[6]. ―18thannual Association of American Railroad (AAR)

research review‖, 2013. [7]. www.amstedrail.com. | +1.312.922.4501 | 311

S.Wacker Drive, Suite 5300, Chicago, IL 60606. : The global leader in railway wheels, 2012.

[8]. Pombo, J., Ambrosio, J., Pereira, M., Lewis, R., Dwyer

-Joyce, R., Ariaudo, C., Kuka, N. ―A study on wear evaluation of railway wheels based on multibody dy-namics and wear computation, Multibody System Dy-namics‖, (2010) 24 (3), pp. 347-366

[9]. K. Mädler, A. Zoll, R. Heyder, M. Brehmer :‖Rail Ma-

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[10]. Venkatarami Reddy: Development of and Integrated

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[12]. Benson, M. (1993) Effect of differential hardness on

wheel/rail wear0 literature survey, BRR report LR MT 006, September 1993

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―Investigation of wheel and rail wear under conditions of sliding and rolling-sliding contact‖. 10th Interna-tional Wheelset Congress, Sydney, Australia, October 1992

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(2001) ―Rail materials alternatives and limits‖. Proc. 8th World Congress on Railway Research (WCRR), Seoul, Korea, May 2008

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and crack initiation in hard pearlitic rail steels‖. Proc. ―21st Century Rail‖, The Institute of Materials, Miner-als and Mining, York, UK, November 2011

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―Materials used for Wheels on Rolling Stock‖, Tech-nical Centre, Brandenburg-Kirchmöser, GERMANY

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http://www.amstedrail.com




I. INTRODUCTION

Railway transportation is attracting attention as an ef-

fective means of modal shift in transportation. Cur-

rently; electrified railway system has vital environ-

mental advantages that are becoming significant as

concern about climate change grows.

With technological advancements of electric railway,

speed up of train, prolonging lifetime and reducing

maintenance cost of the overhead contact wire are com-

pulsory. Major efforts have devoted to solve these is-

sues to meet the expectations of stakeholders. The prop-

erties of the contact wire are of the basic factors that

greatly affect the speedup of the train and the cost

of maintenance. To improve the quality of the con-

tact wire, wear resistance and corrosion resistance of

the material should be enhanced.

To withstand the harsh service condition in real applica-

tion, the electric contact wire made with the new mate-

rials should possess high hardness and mechanical

strength, high sliding wear and corrosion resistance and

good electrical conductivity.

A poor contact produces various drawbacks, including

bursts of arcing: if they have a long duration, locomo-

tive efficiency may reduce and an excessive wear of

the pantograph strips and of the contact wire may

lead to maintenance problems, up to crashing of cate-

nary [5]. Excessive wire wear can lead to breakage

causing the service to be suspended it will results main-

tenance cost. The costs linked to a service being sus-

pended can be extremely high, although the most im-

portant factor is the consequence on the passengers af-

fected so it has socio economic impact.

In the new network rail transport in Ethiopia if these

problems are not analyzed from the beginning and ig-

nored, it will cost more in incidents, accidents, fatality

and excess maintenance cost. Therefore, it is very im-

portant to find a compromise that will allow maximum

usage of the wire without entailing any risk of breakage

and major efforts have been devoted to prolonging the

lifetime and reducing the maintenance costs of the

overhead catenary.

Addis Ababa Light Rail Transit uses Cu-Ag contact

wire and pure copper supports, but their contact wire

material has poor wear and corrosion resistance. Since

our country is introducing this technology, the contact

wire line system shall be characterized of safe and reli-

able performance, being able for satisfy the operation

requirements at the maximum operation speed of 80km/

h and in various environmental conditions. The aim of

present study is to develop the overhead contact wire

materials that have relatively better wear and corrosion

resistance with low cost and good electrical conductiv-

ity.


Development of Train Overhead Contact Wire Material

Ashreka Yenus1, Dr. Daneil Tilahun2 1School of Industrial and Mechanical Engineering, Addis Ababa University Institute of Technology (AAIT),

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 2 School of Industrial and Mechanical Engineering, Addis Ababa University Institute of Technology (AAIT).

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Abstract - The paper aimed at developing overhead contact wire material (Cu-Ni-Cr), which has better slid-

ing wear and corrosion resistance with moderately low cost, in view of the current Addis Ababa Light

Rail Train overhead contact wire (Cu-Ag). The sliding wear resistance, corrosion resistance and electrical

conductivities of the prepared copper alloys were investigated by using lab testing machines. The character-

istics of worn surfaces of the copper alloys were analyzed by optical microscope. The dominated wear mecha-

nisms are abrasive and adhesive wear in mechanical sliding frictional process. Among the copper alloys inves-

tigated, Cu- Ni-Cr which possesses highest corrosion resistance, quite good electrical conductivity and rela-

tively high wear resistance (two times that of Cu-Ag). Based on the findings obtained in this work, it is sug-

gested that Cu-Ni-Cr is found to be suitable for Addis Ababa light rail train and future national railway

overhead contact wire. However further investigation is needed with the application of electric current.

Keywords: Overhead contact wire, Sliding wear, Corrosion, Electrical conductivity


II. LITERATURE REVIEW

The contact wire serves as a medium through which

electricity is supplied to the train using sliding contact

with pantograph of rolling stock. Both mechanical and

electrical considerations have to be acknowledged

when choosing material of the contact wire [1]. The

overhead contact wire is subjects to friction and corro-

sion at different degrees of severity depending on the

wire materials and the environmental conditions. Simi-

larly external influences such as wind and humidity

can ha ve an effect on the rate of contact wire wear [4].

The wear behaviors of tribological pairs with electrical

current were different from those without electrical cur-

rent [8].Wear is due to mutually related mechanical and

electrical factors. According to[10],the most influen-

tial factors are the material and collector strip are made

of, the contact force, the current intensity and the

speed of the vehicle. Irregularities in the wire and par-

ticularly singular spots with local variations in stiffness

cause contact losses between the pantograph and the

catenary, [10], [11], [12], and [13]. These accelerate

the wear process at a local level.

The over head contact wires are designed to give high

resistance to wear, corrosion and have good electrical

conductivities to prolong service life. Copper alloy con-

ductors are preferred instead of pure copper [2].There

are different researchers who have conducted on devel-

oping and improving materials for train overhead con-

tact wire by considering their electro mechanical prop-

erty. Among those researches; the paper on the

―Sliding wear behavior of copper alloy contact

wire against copper-based strip‖ they developed

CuAg Cr alloy in order to compare to that of Cu Ag

alloy. Finally; they found that the Cu Ag Cr alloy wire

had much better wear resistance because of the addi-

tion of Cr [3].

In Ethiopia, due to the early establishment of rail-

way engineering sector there is a shallow or few

researches have been done on railway area. Specifi-

cally, on development of train over head contact

wire material, there is a huge gap of conducted research

in the area. Therefore this study is expected to reduce

this gap.

III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

For this experimental investigation, four industrial grade

materials like Cu, Ni, Cr and Si were collected from

Aka ki basic metals, Elsewdy cables and Gafat. The ma-

terials have chosen by considering both mechanical and

electrical properties. Table1 shows wear resistance, cor-

rosion resistance, hardness and electrical conductivity of

selected materials.

After having the appropriate materials to get the needed

percentage composition, calculation was conducted. The

chemical composition of copper alloys before melting

process is presented in Table 2 below. Following

amount preparation the melting process was carried out

by graphite crucible with oil furnace at Yalew garage.

The materials were melted according to their melting

temperature. Finally; Pins of diameter of 13 mm and

length of 13 mm were prepared by lathe machine at the

Mechanical Workshop of AAiT. As a sample, Fig.1

shows the copper alloy pins Cu-Ni-Si-Cr and Cu-Ni-Cr

after melting and machining process. With collaboration

of Hebert Manufacturing Industry, the chemical compo-

sition and hardness of the prepared copper alloys were

obtained by using spectrometer and Vickers hardness

testing machine respectively.

Sliding wear, corrosion and electrical conductivity of

the copper alloys were tested by lab testing machine in

the department of Mechanical, Chemical and Electrical

Engineering laboratory respectively.

(a)

(b)

Fig.1. - Photographs of the copper alloy pins after melting and

machining process


Cu - Ni - Si - Cr

Cu - Ni - Cr

test. The test was con-

ducted by corrosion

studies kit and the cop-

per alloys were embed-

ded in pure distilled

water, 3.5%Nacl solu-

tion and acid rain solu-

tion for 3 to 10 days.

After the experiment has

been completed, re-

weighed the specimen and Put the gram difference

which indicates the corrosion part.

3. Electrical Conductivity Test

After knowing t h e chemical composition

and later the hardness test and the electrical

conductivity test was conducted at room

temperature .The resistance value of the four

copper alloys measured with the help of mul-

timeter from these value the resistivity and

conductivity value of the alloys can be

found.

V. LABORATORY TEST RESULTS

AND DISCUSSION

1. Sliding Wear Behavior

The plot of wear resistance with different normal

forces under constant velocity and time is shown in

Fig.2 below. The graph shows the wear resistance prop-

erty of each material. Among the copper alloys Cu-Ni-

Si-Cr has highest wear resistance followed by Cu-Ni-Cr

and Cu-Ni-Si. Cu-Ag possesses the lowest wear resis-

tance. Moreover, the graph shows when the force in-

creases the wear resistance of all material decrease be-

cause of high friction at the contact. The ranking of

sliding wear resistance at 3.5N, 5.5N and 7.5N and

at constant velocity in descending order is; Cu-Ni-Si-

Cr>Cu-Ni-Cr>Cu-Ni-Si>Cu-Ag. Cu-Ag has highest

wear rate followed by Cu-Ni-Si .The copper alloy Cu-

Ni-Si-Cr has lowest wear rate. Addition of elements

such as Cr, Ni and Si to copper significantly im-

proves the hardness and hence the wear resistance also

increases. Compared with CuAg, the wear resistance

was increased by 3 and 2 times for CuNiSiCr and

CuNiCr respectively. In general, the wear resistance of

the Cu based alloys increases with the increase in hard-

ness.

Source: Copper Development Association TABLE 1

PROPERTIES OF SELECTED MATERIALS FOR THIS

STUDY

TABLE 2

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF COPPER ALLOYS USED

FOR THE STUDY

IV. LABORATORY TESTS AND CONDITION

1. Sliding Wear Test

Sliding wear tests of the alloys were conducted using a

pin-on-disc tribometer which simulated the tribological

conditions of sliding contact strip on overhead wires in

the railway system. The copper-alloys in the form of

cylindrical pins were forced to slide against a stainless

steel disc with a sliding velocity of 80 km/h at room

temperature under un-lubricated condition and normal

load up to 11N without electric current. The amount of

wear is determined by weighing the specimen before

and after the test using precession electronic weighing

machine. The worn surface and wear debris of the se-

lected specimen after sliding wear test were then ana-

lyzed by optical microscopy.

2. Corrosion Test

In order to simulate acidic and costal environmental

conditions the corrosion test was carried out with

3.5%NaCl solution, acid rain solution with 5PH and

distilled water under room temperature, while the cur-

rent supply to the solution ended constant throughout the



Material Hardness Wear

resistance

Resistance to

corrosion

Electrical

conductivity

Cost

Copper low low low very high moderate

Chromium very high very high good good high

Nickel high high very high moderate low

Silicon good good high moderate higher

Material

Chemical composition in %

Cu Si Cr impurities

Cu -Ni-Si-Cr 96.7with0.04% O2 2.4 0.003 0.077 <0.78

Cu-Ni-Si 99 with0.04% O2 0.503 0.14 <0.317

Cu -Ni-Cr 98.6with0.04%

O2

0.33 - 0.193 <0.837

Cu-Ag (99.3Cu-0.08Ag) as per specification of ERC



(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig.3. - Photographs of worn surfaces of (a) Cu-Ag;(b) Cu-

NiSi ;(c) CuNiSiCr and (d) CuNiCr With load of 7.5N

In this Experiment, for the harder material which is

CuNiSiCr, the size of the wear debris is much smaller

as shown from the figure 3(c) and the smaller wear

particles were removed from the CuNiSiCr specimen

after the wear test and a lower degree of scratch is

observed .CuNiCr has also a good wear resistance the

size of the fragment is small as shown in figure 3(d)

so CuNiCr harder compare to Cu-Ni-Si and Cu-Ag.

Fig.2. - Plot of wear resistance versus applied load

2. Mechanism of Sliding Wear

The worn surfaces of the specimens were observed

by optical microscope. Figure below shows the

worn surface of copper alloys without the electrical

current under load of 7.5N at the sliding speed of

80km/h for 2 minute respectively. Friction is the

main factor of mechanical wear when the alloys

slide without electric current which includes abrasive

and adhesive wear mechanism.

On micro-scale, asperities of the harder surface press

into the softer surface, with plastic flow of the softer

surface occurring around the harder asperities. The de-

tached mixture of metal and oxide debris acts as the

hard abrasive and causes abrasive wear. For adhesive

wear, the asperity junction of the sliding surfaces of

counter parts under normal contact force adhered to-

gether.

(a)



RECOMMENDATION It is better to consider service life of contact wire

for future work since the overhead contact wire is

subjects to abrasion, friction, scraping, corrosion,

erosion and vibration, at different degrees of sever-

ity.

For Addis Ababa light rail project and future na-

tional railway, it is suggested that for the future by

making further investigation with the application of

electric current , they can use this Cu Ni Cr material

as the over head contact wire.

At acid rain solution the corrosion effect is high so

in order to promote safety issue that related to corro-

sion failure of overhead contact wire while im-

plementing the project it is necessary to have pro-

tected environment beyond the contact wire material

property.

REFERENCES

[1] Po Kee Wong, Chi Tat Kwok, Hau Chung Man,

and Fai Tsun Cheng. (2009), Electrical Sliding

wear of copper-based contact wire materials for

electric railway, International Symposium on

Speed-up, Niigata Japan.

[2] Kwok, C.T., Wong, P.K., Man, H.C. and Cheng,

F.T.(2010),Sliding Wear and Corrosion Resis-

tance of Copper-based Overhead Catenary for

Traction Systems, IJR International Journal.

[3] Jia a, S.G., Liua, P., Rena, F.Z., Tian a, B.H.,

Zheng b, M.S. and G.S. Zhoub.(2006), Sliding

wear behavior of copper alloy contact wire

against copper-based strip for high- speed elec-

trified railways, School of Materials Science

and Engineering,Henan University of Science and

Technology, China.

[4] Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Ltd, pre feasibility

report.(2011), Power Supply and Overhead Cate-

nary System.

[5] Aldo Balestrino, Ottorino Bruno, Alberto Landi,

Luca Sani.(2005), Active Controls and Non-

Invasive Monitoring for High Speed Trains,via

Diotisalvi 2, 56126, Pisa, Italy.

[6] China railway publishing house.(2005), Copper and

copper alloy contact wires for electric railway, TB/

3. Corrosion Behavior The plots of weight loss in grams with different corro-

sion Medias are presented in Fig.4. From the graph be-

low the corrosion effect is highest at acid rain solution

followed by 3.5%Nacl solution. The high weight loss

indicate the high corrosion rate and the low corrosion

resistance property of the material. From the ranking of

corrosion resistance for the corrosion Medias, Cu –Ag

is highly corroded followed by Cu-Ni-Si. Cu-Ni-Cr

has highest corrosion resistance.

Fig.4. - Plot of Corrosion media versus weight loss

VI. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDA-

TION

CONCLUSION

Based on the laboratory test results, the investiga-

tion into the electrical conductivity, the behavior of

wear generated by sliding friction (mechanical wear)

under conditions of varying normal load and constant

sliding speeds and the corrosion behavior of copper

alloys under 3.5% Nacl solution, acid rain solution and

distilled water by electro chemical method finally have

led to the following conclusions.

Adhesive wear and abrasive wear are the wear

mechanisms during the mechanical sliding which

results in metal transfer, removal, debris genera-

tion and surface deterioration.

The ranking of sliding wear resistance in descending

order is :CuNiSiCr> CuNiCr>CuNiSi>CuAg.

Among the alloys Cu-Ni-Cr has the highest cor-

rosion resistance and also takes less purchase

cost.

Among the corrosion media, High corrosion

effect observed in PH5 acid rain solution.

The wear resistance of the copper- based alloys

increases with decrease in normal load.



T 2809-2005, china.

[7] Copper development association. (2010), A guide

to working with copper and copper alloys,

collection of scientific research from 1990-2009,

New York.

[8] Herbert Henry ,Uhlig. (2008),Corrosion and Corro-

sion Control: an introduction to corrosion sci-

ence and engineering, R Winston Revie:-4th Ed.

[9] Gonzalez, F.J., Chover, J.A., Suarez, B. and

Vazquez, M.(2008), Dynamic analysis using

finite elements to calculate the critical wear sec-

tion of the contact wire in suburban railway

overhead conductor rails, Journal of Rail and

Rapid Transit, Vol. 222, pp. 145-157

[10] Collina,A., Melzi, Stefano and Facchinetti,A.

(2002), On the Prediction of wear of contact

wire in OHE lines: a proposed model, Vehicle

System Dynamics Supplement Vol. 37,

pp. 579-592.

[11] Bruni, S., Bucca, G., Collina, A., Facchinetti,

A.and Melzi,S.(2004) PantographCatenary

Dynamic Interaction in the Medium-High Fre-

quency Range, Vehicle System Dynamics

Supplement Vol. 41, pp. 697-706.



commuter rail stations vis-a`-vis those occurring at

highway rail grade crossings with attached sidewalks.

Furthermore, incidents in crossings with commuter rail

or light rail would require different countermeasures

than those occurring in crossings with freight rail. A

large array of treatments has been applied in different

rail grade crossing environments to improve the safety

of non-motorized users, but their effectiveness remains

difficult to assess [26]. This paper will highlight the-

matic areas related to pedestrian safety at rail grade

crossings that are primed for further research and policy

intervention. The presentation will synthesize literature

findings. The objective of the paper is to offer informa-

tion for researchers and practitioners involved with

safety at rail grade crossings.

II. LITERTURE REVIEW

In this paper, the terms ‗pedestrian,‘ ‗non-

motorists ‘and‗ non-motorized users‘ will be used inter-

changeably to indicate crossing users who utilize pedes-

trian approaches to rail grade crossings. Such users in-

clude (obviously) pedestrians, pedestrians pushing a

stroller, cyclists (either on bike or off their bike), and

users on wheelchair using an exclusive pedestrian ap-

proach to a rail grade crossing.

The literature findings will discuss issues with warning

devices, accessible non-motorist signals, engineering,



I. INTRODUCTION

The number of fatalities due to train–vehicle collisions

at highway-rail grade crossings, the number of non mo-

torist fatalities at rail grade crossings has increased.

However the number of pedestrian fatalities has in-

creased. Advancing pedestrian safety at rail grade cross-

ings is a challenging issue for many reasons. Pedestrian

crossing incidents occur in different settings requiring

the coordination of different stakeholders with context-

sensitive solutions. For example, incidents involving

violations at rail grade crossings are different from tres-

passing incidents away from such crossings. Note that

violations in this context can occur in three occasions

[33, p. 28]: (a) when a pedestrian enters the crossing

when the warning lights are flashing but before the gate

arms have begun to move; (b) when a pedestrian enters

the crossing when the gate arms are in motion, either in

their descent (before train arrival) or ascent (after train

departure); and, (c) when a pedestrian enters the cross-

ing after the gate arms are in their horizontal position.

On the other hand, trespassing incidents involve indi-

viduals who are trespassing on railroad rights-of-way at

locations other than authorized grade crossings, includ-

ing overhead and underground crossings. Other contex-

tual distinctions regarding pedestrian crossing incidents

may include those at crossings that are exclusively used

by non-motorists in the vicinity of or within the area of

Pedestrian Safety at Rail Grade Crossings

Er. Prakash C.H Lecturer, Department of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Adama Science and Technology University,

Adama, Post Bag 1888, Ethiopia, [email protected]

Abstract - The number of fatalities due to train–vehicle collisions at highway-rail grade crossings, the number

of pedestrian and bicycle fatalities at highway- and pathway-rail grade crossings has increased in the last

dozen years. While engineering solutions and education and enforcements initiatives have been proposed and

implemented, little is known as to their effectiveness to mitigate such incidents. This paper reports on safety at

rail grade crossings. Major areas that in need for improvement include (a) advancing consistent standards for

warning devices and treatments; (b) advancing consistent approaches for managing non-motorist risk; and (c)

continuing commitment to education, engineering, enforcement, and evaluation efforts by enabling stake-

holders to provide adequate resources. The paper highlights the multitude of factors related to pedestrian

safety in this context, and provides information for researchers and practitioners involved in advancing safety

initiatives.

Key words- Pedestrian Safety, rail grade crossing, highway grade crossing

crossing and (b) the number of pedestrians entering the

track area at 6 s or less before a train entered the cross-

ing with the flashers activated, a much riskier behavior.

The study compared pedestrian behavior before and af-

ter installation and found that the installation of the sig-

nal reduced the incidence of risky pedestrian behavior

by 14 % on the first benchmark and 32 % on the second

one.

B. Accessible Non-motorist Signals

Accessible pedestrian signals (APS) are devices that

communicate information about pedestrian timing in

non- visual formats such as audible tones, verbal mes-

sages, and/ or vibrating surfaces (MUTCD, Section

4A.01) [36]. According to a synthesis on best practices,

the new type of APS available can provide information

to pedestrians about the existence and location of the

pushbutton using audible tones; the onset of the walk

interval using a vibrotactile indication; the direction of

the crosswalk and location of the destination curb using

different audible tones for north/south and east/west

directions; the clearance interval using audible tones;

intersection geometry through maps, diagrams, or

speech; intersection street names in Braille, raised print,

or speech; and intersection signalization using a

pushbutton information message.

A description of these features is given in a series of

reports produced by Project 3-62, ‗‗Guidelines for Ac-

cessible Pedestrian Signals of the National Cooperative

Highway Research Program‘‘ [13–15]. Additional pub-

lished guidelines are provided by the U.S. Architectural

and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board [35].

APS at rail grade crossings may assist disabled pedestri-

ans with making better judgments in regard to safely

crossing the tracks at rail grade crossings. However,

research about APS use in such environments is limited.

Indeed Korve Engineering [20] found only limited re-

search testing APS under field conditions in LRT envi-

ronments and no additional research other than Blasch

[4] comparing the effectiveness of different APS in nor-

mal traffic conditions.

The study found there was a significant difference re-

garding their utility to provide a line of direction for

street crossing, but no significant differences in regard

to confidence and comfort of the user.

In addition, in the United Kingdom, Delmonte and Tong

[9] conducted a comprehensive analysis to identify solu-



education and enforcement, engineering standards and

guidelines, intelligent grade crossings, and cost consid-

erations. Such issues have received considerable atten-

tion and remain central in the discussion of pedestrian

safety but, to our knowledge, have never been presented

in a systematic manner. It would be worth noting that

other important relevant issues not frequently found in

the literature but identified by collecting secondary in-

formation from experts.

A. Warning Devices

In an effort to ‗‗foster the exchange of information

among and experiences among transportation agencies

and organizations that are involved with pedestrian

crossings of railroad tracks,‘‘ the Federal Railroad Ad-

ministration (FRA) compiled a report [37] on deployed

pedestrian safety devices at grade crossings that are not

included in the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control De-

vices (MUTCD). The report discusses both active and

passive devices. Active devices change their appearance

or position as soon as they receive a signal that a train is

approaching from a train detection system. Passive de-

vices do not change their appearance or position.

Examples of active devices discussed in the report in-

clude audible/visual devices, such as low-rise flashing

pedestrian signals and multi-use path flashing light sig-

nals; short gate arms; and second train coming elec-

tronic warning signs. Examples of passive devices in-

clude highly reflective passive warning signs and chan-

nelizing devices, such as different types of fencing,

swing gates, and zigzag or Z-gates. According to the

report, various factors that should be examined during

device selection include (a) collision experience, if any,

at the crossing, as it involves pedestrians; (b) pedestrian

volumes and peak flows, if any; (c) train speeds, num-

bers of trains, and railroad traffic patterns, if any; (d)

sight distance that is available to pedestrians approach-

ing the crossing; and (e) skew angle, if any, of the cross-

ing relative to the railroad tracks.

A study evaluated the (preliminary) effects on pedes-

trian behaviour of the installation of a second train

warning train activated signal at a highway-rail crossing

near the Vernon Avenue Station on the Los Angeles

County Metropolitan Transportation Authority‘s Metro

Blue light rail transit line [19]. The pedestrian sidewalk

crossed two light rail transit (LRT) tracks and two

freight rail tracks. Two measures of pedestrian behavior

were examined: (a) the number of pedestrians entering

the track area at 15 s or less before a train entered the

ance is provided by the MUTCD (Part 8) [36], Ameri-

can Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way As-

sociation (AREMA) Communications & Signal Manual

[2], and Code of Federal Regulations 49 (Part 234). In

addition, the FHWA‘s Handbook [27] identifies pedes-

trian crossing treatments and provides recommendations

for flashing light signals, second train coming signals,

dynamic envelope markings, pedestrian automatic gates,

swing gates, bedstead (maze) barriers, z-crossing chan-

nelization, and combined pedestrian treatments.

Different standards apply to at-grade crossings of LRT.

LRT has at least five different categories of operational

alignments all of which have criteria for the type of

warning systems needed at intersections based on the

maximum operating speeds. Usually at speeds under 35

mph, LRTs use the existing street traffic signal controls

in conjunction with priority and pre-emption controls

[23]. At speeds above 35 mph, Active Warning Railroad

systems are used in conjunction with adjacent traffic

signal controls [21]. Additional guidelines for improv-

ing pedestrian and motorist safety along LRT align-

ments are reported in [8].

In California, CalTrain developed their own design cri-

teria regarding grade crossings and began implementing

them in 1999 [6]. These standard practices utilize active

warning devices similar to those at vehicular crossings:

signal equipment modified from that of vehicular cross-

ing, crossing gate arm, and a crossing configuration

which channels pedestrians. Different design criteria

apply for pedestrian crossings in general regarding

warning time, center fence, warning devices, safety

buffer zone, warning assemblies, gate recovery, as well

as pedestrian crossings at stations, at stations and road-

way, and crossings between roadway crossings.

The American Public Transportation Association

(APTA) provides guidance for rail transit systems for

selecting, installing, and operating highway-rail transit

grade crossing warning systems and includes minimum

requirements for highway-rail grade crossing warning

devices, highway traffic signs, and other highway traffic

control appliances [1]. Particular recommendations are

made for pedestrians at rail grade crossings.

The California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) has

published extensive design guidelines for pedestrian-rail

crossings within the state of California [5]. Their review

of design considerations and installations includes rec-

ommendations for swing gates, detectable warnings, and



tions for improving safety and accessibility at grade

crossings for disabled pedestrians. More specifically,

the study conducted discussion groups with disabled

pedestrians, scored and ranked potential solutions, and

developed an industry-approved set of solutions. The

most promising solutions were grouped to create an

‗ideal‘ accessible grade crossing. However, these solu-

tions have not been field tested yet.

C. Engineering, Education, and Enforcement

Under the Rail Safety Improvement Act of 2008 (P.L.

No.110-432), the U.S. Department of Transportation has

developed model railroad trespassing, vandalism, and

highway-rail grade crossing warning device violation

prevention strategies to assist State and local govern-

ments, and railroads. These strategies fall under three

broad categories: (1) expanding educational outreach,

(2) energizing enforcement, and (3) fostering engineer-

ing and sight improvements. Educational outreach in-

volves public awareness programs helping non-

motorists to safely navigate grade crossings. Consistent

enforcement of traffic safety laws by State or local po-

lice and a sustained effort by the courts to impose penal-

ties on violators discourage and deter non-motorists

from making poor decisions at grade crossings. A recent

report has published the latest compilation of state laws

and regulations affecting highway-rail grade crossings

[17]. Moreover, engineering improvements greatly re-

duce or prevent the potential for non-motorist-train col-

lisions [38]. Finally, Fitzpatrick et al. [10] presents addi-

tional discussion about engineering treatments for light

rail, commuter rail, and streetcar rail services.

The Illinois Commerce Commission (ICC), and the

FRA initiated the Public Education and Enforcement

Research Study (PEERS) to measure the before and af-

ter change in the public‘s adherence to traffic safety

laws [33]. The study demonstrated a reduction in cross-

ing violations and a dramatic reduction in the most dan-

gerous pedestrian behaviour. Moreover, Khattak and

Luo [18] found there is a need for pedestrian and bicy-

clist outreach and education, especially for children 8

years old or younger. In addition, Lobb [25] suggested

that lessons learned about behaviour and consequences

from cognitive psychology may apply to pedestrian

safety at rail grade crossings.

D. Engineering Standards and Guidelines

The Federal Highway Administration‘s (FHWA‘s) Rail-

road- Highway Grade Crossing Handbook [27] provides

guidance about pedestrian crossings. Additional guid-

guidelines, intelligent transportation technologies. To

the extent that such issues would need to be addressed

whenever new safety treatments are being planned, de-

signed, implemented, and evaluated, it is also clear that

very few, if any, studies have delved into these issues in

a holistic manner.

F. Initiatives for researches

The Problems that need to be concentrated by research-

ers and practitioners involved in advancing safety initia-

tives are:

What types of non-motorist safety treatments have to

be installed at rail grade crossings?

What types of APS have to be designed and in-

stalled?

What information to be collected on cost estimates

and/or actual costs of the warning systems that have

already installed?

How to evaluate the cost effectiveness of such safety

treatments?

What criteria need to be for the selection of warning

devices for deployment?

What engineering standards and guidelines have to

be applied to such crossings?

What are the educational outreach activities (e.g.,

public awareness programs, partnerships with other

organizations, etc.). How effective are they?

What are the enforcement initiatives (e.g., police,

courts). How effective are they?

What is the overall budget for safety at grade cross-

ings? For pedestrian safety?

The percentage of cost breakdown among engineer-

ing, education, and enforcement activities?

What funding sources to promote pedestrian safety at

rail crossings?

What are the policies/warrants/standards for using

warning signs for non-motorized users at rail grade

crossings (e.g., minimum warning times at/near to/

far from commuter stations, design/installation/

operational guidelines, etc.)?

What state and local regulations in addition to federal

regulations apply to non-motorized users at rail grade

crossings in your area?

III. FOCUS AREAS FOR IMPROVING PEDESTRIAN

SAFETY

A. Prioritization of Safety Upgrades

The safety upgrades at dedicated pedestrian crossings

are not prioritized as highly as those at rail-highway



pedestrian gates, flashing light signal assemblies, sign-

age, crossing surfaces, channelization design, and other

treatments. Signage must conform to the state MUTCD.

The report makes a particular reference to the Transpor-

tation Research Board‘s Transit Cooperative Research

Program (TCRP) Report 69 Section 3.8.3 [21] which

provides a decision tree as a tool to determine appropri-

ate pedestrian rail at-grade crossing treatments. In addi-

tion, a risk-scoring methodology to evaluate safety fac-

tors at station pedestrian crossings is in use in the

United Kingdom [34].

A risk assessment methodology for pedestrian grade

crossings is part of the Australian Level Crossing As-

sessment Model (ALCAM) still under development [11,

32]. The model is an assessment tool used to identify

key potential risks at level crossings and to assist in the

prioritization of railway level crossings according to

their comparative safety risk. ALCAM uses a scoring

algorithm which considers each level crossing‘s physi-

cal properties (characteristics and controls) including

consideration of the related common human behaviors,

to provide each level crossing with a ‗‗Likelihood Fac-

tor‘‘ score. This score is then multiplied by the level

crossings ‗‗Exposure‘‘ score (a factor taking into ac-

count the volumes of Vehicles/Pedestrians and Trains)

and finally multiplied by the Consequence score (which

is set to be one for pedestrians) to give the ALCAM

Risk Score.

E. Intelligent Grade Crossings

Interesting new developments in the area of Cooperative

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) may bring to

bear applications that could dramatically affect safety

for non-motorized users in grade crossings in the not so

distant future. Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), vehicle-to-

infrastructure (V2I), and vehicle-to-consumer devices

(V2D) are being developed to deliver more safety mo-

bility benefits. Pedestrians and non-motorized users, in

general, at rail grade crossings will be able to receive

personalized advance warning of incoming trains in

time to avoid injuries and fatalities.

Synthesis

It is evident from the previous literature review that

there is a considerable body of research that has studied

several dimensions of the problem regarding improving

pedestrian safety at rail grade crossings. These research

efforts have investigated issues with warning devices,

accessible nonmotorist signals, engineering, education

and enforcement strategies, engineering standards and

crossing, skew angle of the crossing relative to the rail-

road tracks, multiple tracks, vicinity to a commuter sta-

tion, and installation/maintenance costs. Furthermore, to

discourage trespassers at or in the vicinity of grade

crossings, communities apply fencing, landscaping, pro-

hibitive signs, video monitoring, education/outreach,

and enforcement.

D. Lack of Accessible Pedestrian Signals

The lack of APS at pedestrian-rail grade crossings is

mainly due to the shortage of dedicated funding for such

crossings. Such signal treatments need not convey the

type of messages needed in regular intersection street

crossings with more complicated traffic patterns. Occa-

sionally, there are situations in grade crossing improve-

ment projects where certain options are not available.

For example, in the absence of adequate right of way, it

usually becomes impossible to produce accessible side-

walks of the proper width in compliance with the

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) standards. An-

other reason for the infrequent use of accessible signals

(other than detectable strips and detectable yellow tiles

just ahead of the pedestrian gates) at rail grade crossings

is the lack of standardization among manufacturers.

E. Risk Management

The absence of consistent approach for managing the

risk at pedestrian-rail grade crossings that could assure

(a) the uniformity and continuity of data collection pro-

grams and administration of related databases on all

such crossings; (b) the analysis of risks at such cross-

ings; (c) the prioritization of crossing upgrades; (d) the

introduction of suitable risk controls; and (e) the assess-

ment of cost effectiveness of such measures.

The five-point program of risk management

(affectionately called the five ‗Es‘—‗Engineering,‘

‗Education,‘ ‗Enforcement,‘ ‗Enabling,‘ and

‗Evaluation‘) to increase safety at pedestrian (and ve-

hicular) rail grade crossings. Note that the first three

‗Es‘ have been key underlying principles of Operation

Lifesaver in the USA. ‗Enabling‘ was added during the

formation in Britain of the National Level Crossing

Safety Group (NLXSG) in 2002, and is concerned with

providing resources, people, and systems to facilitate

progress with improving level crossing safety [24].

‗Evaluation‘ was added more recently, and has become

of particular interest in Europe where attention is being

paid to developing common reporting methods for level

crossings (i.e., types of crossings, numbers, and risk



grade crossings unless these two types of crossings are

adjacent to each other (e.g., adjacent sidewalks on one

or either side of a rail-highway crossing extending to the

other side of the tracks).

B. Engineering Standards

Based on substantial passenger, commuter, and freight

rail operations are leading the effort to develop guide-

lines and engineering standards for safety improve-

ments. Moreover, it is likely that pedestrian safety at rail

grade crossings will benefit in the longer term by the

increasing consistency in standards for warning devices

and treatments among organizations responsible for this

task. As an example of standards consistency, the defi-

nition of advance preemption in MUTCD looks the

same as the one in AREMA and Institute of Transporta-

tion Engineers (ITE) documents as well as in APTA

standards.

The requirement for extra warning time for pedestrians

and motorists in grade crossings of high-speed rail op-

erations is emerging as an additional issue for safety

upgrades at such crossings. Currently, the typical warn-

ing time at crossings where pedestrians may be present

is between 20 and 30 s for conventional speed trains. In

an environment with 110 mile an hour trains, there

would be a need to provide confirmation signals to the

train crew and the onboard computer that the crossing is

clear likely requiring a warning time of at least 80 s.

The question about how pedestrians will react to such

extended warning times at pedestrian crossings remains

to be determined. This is because currently most of the

warning time is built into the time that the train occupies

the crossing. When high-speed trains begin to operate,

most of the warning time is going to be built into the

time for the train approaching the crossing.

Therefore, there would be an extended warning time

where the crossing remains unoccupied while a high-

speed train cannot even be seen on the horizon. This

situation will require ‗‗reeducation‘‘ of the public, espe-

cially in areas where crossings are very near to each

other.

C. Selection Criteria

Number of criteria are used for the selection of warning

devices for deployment at pedestrian- rail grade cross-

ings including pedestrians collision experience at the

crossing, frequency of inclement weather, pedestrian

volumes and peak flows, train speeds, numbers of

trains, and railroad traffic patterns, surrounding land

uses, sight distance for pedestrians approaching the

measurement), and being able to measure the effective-

ness of programs. Little [24] defined these five ‗Es‘ as

follows:

Enabling: The provision of resources through peo-

ple, procedures, and systems to allow the other ‗Es‘

to be effective.

Education: Increasing public awareness of the dan-

gers of crossings and educating pedestrians, road

vehicle drivers, and other users how to use them cor-

rectly.

Engineering: The protection fitted to level crossings

through lights, horns, barriers, telephones, and signs

together with research into innovative means of in-

creasing safety.

Enforcement: The use of laws to prosecute those

who endanger themselves or others by misuse of

crossings.

Evaluation: The idea as envisaged by the NLXSG is

to encourage organizations to set a baseline before

embarking on new initiatives so that the before and

after can be properly compared.

IV. CONCLUSION

Safety upgrades at dedicated pedestrian crossings are not

prioritized as highly as those at highway-rail grade

crossings unless the two types of crossings are adjacent

to each other (e.g., adjacent sidewalks on one or both

sides of a highway-rail crossing extending to the other

side of the tracks).

2. The vast majority of funding available for safety im-

provements is usually planned for rail-highway cross-

ings; very rarely are these funds scheduled exclu-

sively for dedicated pedestrian grade crossings.

3. States with substantial passenger, commuter, and

freight rail operations are leading the effort to de-

velop guidelines and engineering standards for safety

improvements.

4. Cost estimates and/or actual costs of the warning sys-

tems already installed are not readily available.

5. Strong local advocacy is the most important factor,

other than adequate funding, behind effective educa-

tion, outreach, and enforcement safety campaigns at

pedestrian-rail grade crossings.

6. Education and enforcement campaigns must be sus-



tained over time and place and use a variety of tech-

niques to engage the user community. Campaigns for

commuter and light rail grade crossing safety can be

relatively more effective with the active participation

of the transit agency and a captive local audience ex-

posed to the frequency of transit operations.

7. There is no consistent approach for managing risk at

pedestrian-rail grade crossings that could ensure (1)

the uniformity and continuity of data collection pro-

grams and administration of related databases on all

such crossings; (2) the analysis of risks at such cross-

ings; (3) the prioritization of crossing upgrades; (4)

the introduction of suitable risk controls; and (5) the

assessment of cost effectiveness of such measures.

8. It is likely that pedestrian safety at rail grade crossings

will benefit in the longer term by the increasing con-

sistency in standards for warning devices and treat-

ments among organizations responsible for this task.

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2010.



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አገራዊ የልማት ራዕይን ዕውን ሇማድረግና የተቋቋመበትን ተልዕኮ ከዳር ሇማድረስ በብረታ ብረት እና ኢንጂነሪንግ ልማት ሇተሰማሩና ሇወደፊትም ሇመሰማራት ውጥን ላላቸው ልማታዊ ባሇሀብቶች ኢንቨስትመንት አቅም፣ የምርትና ምርታማነት አቅምና የግብይት አቅምን በማሳደግ ላይ ትኩረት ያደረገ ተከታታይ ድጋፍ በመስጠት ኢኮኖሚው መዋቅራዊ ሽግግር እየሰራ ነው፡፡

በተሇይም የአዋጭነት ጥናት ማረጋገጫ፣ የቴክኒክና የማማከር አገልግሎት ድጋፍ፣የቴክኖሎጂ ሽግግርና ልማት፣ የፕሮጀክት ጥናትና ትግበራ፣የአቅም ግንባታ ስልጠና፣ የምርቶች የፍተሻ አገልግሎት፣ ውጤታማ የምርምርና የምርት ልማት ሥራ በማከናወን የኢንዱስትሪው ምርትና ምርታማነት እንዲያድግ በመስጠት ላይ ነው፡፡

የብረታ ብረት እና ኢንጂነሪንግ ኢንዱስትሪ ልማት ዘርፍን ሇማሳደግ መንግሥት ተመጣጣኝ የማበረታቻ ሥርዓቶችን ዘርግቶ ተግባራዊ በማድረግ ላይ በመሆኑ ሀብትና ዕውቀቱን አቀናጅቶ ኢንቨስት ሇሚያደረግ ልማታዊ ባሇሀብት ሁለ ሰፊ የኢንቨስትመንት አማራጮች አለ፡፡

በአሁኑ ጊዜም በንዑስ ዘርፉ የአርማታ ብረት አምራች ኩባንያዎች፣ የስቲል ፕሮፋይል ኢንዱስትሪዎች፣ማሽነሪና ኢኩዩፒመንት አምራቾች፣ የአውቶሞቲቭ ኩባንያዎች፣አልሙኒየም ፕሮፋይ፣ የኤሌክትሮኒክስና ኤሌክትሪካል ኩባንያዎችና ሌሎች ኢንጂነሪንግ ምርቶች በኢንቨስትመንቱ ሥራ ላይ ተሰማርተው የሚገኙ ሲሆን ከፍተኛ አቅም ይዘው ንዑስ ዘርፉን ሇመቀላቀል በፕሮጀክት ትግበራ ላይ የሚገኙ ድርጅቶችም በእንቅስቃሴ ላይ ይገኛለ፡፡

ኢንስቲትዩቱ እነዚህን ሇመቀላቀል ፍላጎት ያላቸውን ልማታዊ ባሇሀብቶች ተቀብሎ ሇማስተናገድ ሁሌም ዝግጁ መሆኑን ያረጋግጣል፡፡

የንዑስ ዘርፉ ምርቶች በከፊል

SINTEC ETHIOPIA ( PLC )

Engineering Solutions

Design and Fabrication of

structures and industrial parts.

Erection and commissioning of

plant and plant equipment

Rehabilitation and maintenance:

of plant and plant equipment

Service: Arc, MIG,TIG and power

welding and sheet metal

shearing, bending and rolling

Suppliers of

* Elevators and Escalators

Welding Electrodes

Welding Machines

Cutting & Grinding discs

Vehicle & Industrial Filtration

solutions

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(‰. ½w. ½Ð. G.)

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Documents

(ESME)esme-ethiopia.org/sites/default/files/21st Annual... · Dear ESME Members and all stakeholders, I would like first to convey my warmest greetings to you all. On the occasion