Dissertation on The Effects Of Bilingualism On Cognitive Development.pdf

8/10/2019 Dissertation on The Effects Of Bilingualism On Cognitive Development.pdf

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Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

University of Constantine 1

Faculty of letters and languages

Department of letters and English language

The Effects Of Bilingualism on Cognitive

Development

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement of the BA degree in Applied

Linguistics

Supervisor: Mr. Mokhtar HAMADOUCHE

Presented by:

Ahmed Amine BELLOUM

Charaf Eddine MELIANI

Ibtissem DERBAL

Mahi Eddine CHENNOUF

- May 2014 -


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Acknowledgments

We would like to express our gratitude and respect toward our supervisor Mr.

Mokhtar HAMADOUCHEfor his valuable guidelines, assistance and precious suggestions

through the realisation of this dissertation.

Sincere thanks are due to Dr. Riadh BELOUAHEM for his helpful assistance and

intellectual generosity along this year, as we are equally grateful to all respectful teachers we

had throughout these last three years at University.

We are also indebted to our families and friends for their encouragement and moral

support for the fulfilment of our studies.

Special thanks go to all persons who collaborated and assisted the preparation and

evaluation of this work.


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II

Abstract

As multiple researchers approached bilingualism from different angles, it has been shown

throughout complex processes that it is a field that must be held with precaution. The

distinction of all elements involved in its study and the understanding of this complex process

has been proved problematic. Yet, with the reported research of numerous linguists and with

more defined methodology it has been possible to distinguish various types of bilingualism

and its relation with mental processes. On the one hand, bilingualism negatively affects the

mind development. Whereas on the other hand it has a positive influence on cognitive

performance. Counterparts have explored the numerous areas around this topic in order to

understand a bit more the developmental mechanism and behaviour of both monolingual and

bilingual individuals. Evidently, the study of bilingualism aims to clarify major titles and

answer inevitable questions that turn around this subject. Therefore, providing exact answers

is inevitably problematic. Yet, positive reports about bilingualism's influence on cognitive

development outnumber those that suggest negative effects, where other influencing

elements are of a great impact .


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Table of Contents

Acknowledgments I

Abstract II

Table of contents III

General Introduction 1

Section I: Definition of Items

1.Bilingualism and Bilinguals 3

2.Typology and Classification of Bilinguals 6

3.Cognitive Development 11

Section II: The effects of bilingualism on cognitive development

1. Bilingualism and negative cognitive effects 14

2. Bilingualism and cognitive advantages 17

General Conclusion 20

References 22


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General Introduction

Background of The Study

Merely, bilingualism was born from the contact and communication of individuals

coming from different nations. Where migration and globalization played a great role in the

spreading of this phenomenon.

Bilingualism has been the subject of interest of many linguists. Aiming to understand

the differences between bilinguals and their monolingual peers. In history, In addition to the

research of Peal and Lambert in 1962 that influenced radically most assumptions and beliefs

concerning bilingualism.

Evidence of language proficiency levels in L1 and L2 proved to be important

standards in the study of bilinguals' behaviour, as well as further social factors influencing the

performance and development of individuals.

Further approaches about bilingual influence on cognitive development have been

author of many problematic questions. where some reported negative effects as poor

vocabulary and less proficiency in languages. and other reports better cognitive flexibility .

In sum one must take into consideration the various outcomes and influencing

elements so as to make clearer distinction when investigating the effects of bilingualism on

cognitive development.

This research will focus on possible effects of bilingualism on cognitive development

and to find out which of the positive or negative effects is prominent.


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Research Questions and Hypothesis

In order to discuss matters related to bilingualism and its impact on cognitive

development, we set out to answer the following questions:

- What are the different definitions of bilingualism? And why is it defined differently?

- On what basis bilinguals are differentiated and classified ?

- What are possible negative effects of bilingualism on cognitive development ?

- What are the benefits of being bilingual in relation to cognitive abilities and educational/

social development ?

On the basis of these questions, the following hypothesis is put forward:

Bilingualism has more positive effects on cognitive abilities than negative effects .


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Section I: Definition of Terms

1.Bilingualism and Bilinguals

During the twentieth century, many approaches had dealt with bilingualism and the

definition of a bilingual - even if it seems easy - it is rather a complex and ambiguous task.

Linguists explored this field from different angles for the purpose of investigating and better

understanding the features and difficulties related to this topic.

Merely, bilingualism is the ability to use two languages. However, defining

bilingualism is problematic since individuals with varying bilingual characteristics may be

classified as bilingual. Therefore, definitions of bilingualism range from a minimal

proficiency in two languages, to an advanced level of proficiency which allows the speaker to

function and appear as a native-like speaker of two languages. It is said that a person may

describe themselves as bilingual but may mean only the ability to converse and communicate

orally. Others may be proficient in reading in two or more languages . Again, a person may

be bilingual by virtue of having grown up learning and using two languages simultaneously.

Or also may become bilingual by learning a second language sometime after their first

language. In sum, to be bilingual means different things to different people (Franson, 2009).

In defining bilinguals, Gottardo and Grant (2008) hold that:

The definition of bilingualism is more complex than a simplistic yes/ no

categorization. Definitions of bilingualism must include the degree of


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proficiency in each language and circumstances under which each language

is learned. Even outwardly simple questions such as what it means to

know a language must be considered. Factors that facilitate or hinder

bilingualism must be considered. (p.5)

Further, Butler and Hakuta (2006) in their attempt of defining bilingualism state that :

Bilinguals are often broadly defined as individuals or groups of people who

obtain the knowledge and use of more than one language. However,

bilingualism is a complex psychological and socio-cultural linguistic

behaviour and has multi-dimensional aspects. There is no agreed-upon

definition of bilingualism among researchers. (p.114)

Genesee (2007) argues that a definition of bilingualism should include the age of the

first exposure to language, regularity and the extent of exposure to each language. In that

very same year, Wei listed four concepts which should be taken into consideration in the

definition of a bilingual: first, the age and way of the acquisition of a language ; second,

proficiency level in specific languages; third , domains of language use; and fourth, self-

identification and attitude.


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Gottardo, and Grant (2008) also assert that : "carefully defining degrees of

bilingualism in each circumstance and for each learner is important because educational

decisions depend on the accuracy of these definitions" (p.5)

It cannot be but clear that there is no single interpretation able to define bilingualism

and bilinguals. As has been said previously, one must take into account the fact that there is

different points and views from which one can perceive bilingualism. Hence, grasping an

exact detailed and truthful definition of it ,is difficult. One must consider the age factor as

well as the manner and amount of the exposure to the language , and again when and what the

language is used for . To end up with concluding that defining bilingualism requires paying

attention to all susceptible influencing details related to the field .


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2.Typology of Bilingualism and Classification of Bilinguals

According to Butler and Hakuta, Bilingualism have multiple dimensions. These

dimensions are in fact characteristics of individual bilinguals that were observed to differ

from one another. Therefore, it is important to take into account one dimension at the time

which means focussing on a certain one in order to be able to elaborate an adequate

classification of bilinguals . As they assert : " bilingual individuals can be classified on the

basis of different dimensions both at the individual and social levels" (p.118 ).

Again , there are various types into which bilinguals may fall . Seeing individual

bilinguals from different dimensions cleared the existence of more than one type. In the

purpose of classifying those bilinguals into distinct categories, one must concentrate on

specific dimensions so as to elaborate a clearer distinction between them.

Bilingual's classification encompasses numerous categories . We find studies based on

individual's proficiency in language, for instance that of Pearl and Lambert which

distinguished between two types :Balancedand unbalancedor (dominant). Bilinguals of the

first category, or balanced bilinguals are those with similar degree of proficiency in both

languages. And bilinguals of the second category, or unbalanced (dominant) bilinguals, are

those whose proficiency in one language is higher than their proficiency in the other language

(s) . (Pearl and Lambert , 1962).


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From another dimension, in 1953, a study based on the organization of linguistic codes in

relation to meaning units. Weinreich classified bilinguals into three categories : the first was

named compound, the individuals of this category possess two distinct sets of linguistic

codes ; each language has its own linguistic code . The second one, as coordinate; this

category counts individuals with linguistic codes organized separately into two sets of

meaning unites .The third category encloses subordinate bilinguals , in which linguistic

codes in the first language (L1) are presumed to be interpreted through the second language

(L2) and the existent two sets of meaning unites are accessible only through the first

language (L1). (Weinreich, 1953)

Moreover, there is Genesee's study based on the age of acquisition, have set out early

and latebilinguals (Genesee et al,1978). While Hamers and Blanc stated that earlybilinguals

acquire both languages in a common family context. whereas Latebilinguals acquire the first

language in their family context and a second language in school . Again, from early

bilingualism derive Simultaneous and Consequential or consecutive bilingualism (Hamers

and Blanc, 1989). The first category regroups bilinguals who simultaneously acquire

equivalent skills in both languages , i.e., learning two languages at the same time. While in the

second category, bilinguals are said to acquire the second language after the first one but with

the acquisition still taking place during childhood . i.e., the acquisition of one language after

another in early age.


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Linguists have classified bilingualism and bilinguals into different types according to

observations they collected through research. Based on aspects and emphasis on proficiency,

linguistic codes and meaning units, or again measured to the age of the acquisition of the

languages. All in the aim of understanding bilinguals' development . But also they were able

to define characteristics of Second Language Acquisition (SLA). And possible outcomes

related to levels of proficiency, semantic representation and cultural identities. Moreover, they

observed related issues in educational implications.

Lambert, 1974 based on Functional ability distinguished from the one hand between

Incipient, receptive and productive bilingualism. Again based on the effects of the second

language learning on the retention of the first language from the other hand ,between additive

Bilinguals, those who have the ability enhance their L2 without losing L1 proficiency and

subtractive bilinguals whose L2 was acquired or learned at the expense of losing their L1

(Lambert, 1974-1975).

On the basis of Language status and learning environment, in 1977, Fishman

distinguished Folk Bilinguals whose own language does not have a high status in the

society they reside in, from Elite bilinguals who speak a dominant language in a given

society and another language which gives them additional value. also based on dimensions

similar to those proposed by Fishman (1977), Valds and Figueroa in 1994 differentiated

between Circumstantialand Elective Bilinguals.


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In addition, Butler and Hakuta (2008) have affirmed :

Dimensions of bilingualism are continuous and not simply categorical constructs.

One cannot draw clear boundaries between different types of bilinguals within a

given dimension. Take, for instance, the dimension of proficiency. There could be

a wide range of combinations of proficiencies in two languages (p.118)

One more item is to be mentioned in this scope, that is the fact that ones bilingual

profile is susceptible to change with the time for the reason that bilingualism is not static but

dynamic, according to Butler and Hakuta (2008) , individual may lose one of the skills'

proficiency in their primary language once they start engaging in more activities in their

second language.

Finally one must acknowledge the complexity of bilingualism and that the

classification of individual bilinguals depends much on the multi-dimensions of this

linguistic behaviour in addition to external influencing circumstances as environmental and

social factors.


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Table 1. Classification of Individual Bilinguals :


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3. Cognitive Performance

It is important to introduce the notion of cognition before getting into further detailed

aspects of the relation between bilingualism and cognitive performance . According to a

dictionary definition of the word cognition it is explained that " it is the mental act or process

by which knowledge is acquired, including perception, intuition, and reasoning". (Collins,

2000).

In other words, Cognitive performance is our ability to acquire and use that

knowledge. However behind such simple terms lays a complex related brain-based skills that

individuals use in the performance of every action without realizing it . Perception through

human senses , intuition, and also decision making and language skills are all parts of

cognition. cognitive processes have less to do with any actual knowledge , but instead are

about our ability to use that knowledge to direct and adapt actions towards goals.

Back in history, Piaget's first publication of his theory of children's cognitive

development took place in the 1920's. Though his work did not become prominent until the

mid-twentieth century, he suggested as well his own theory about children's moral

development. He recognized that this latter is closely tied to moral development and he was

interested in the way children's thoughts about morality change over time. For this purpose,

he investigated cognitive development in children. (Oswalt, 2008)


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Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. It encloses four

main stages defined by age and mental abilities. The first stage is called The Sensorimotor

Stage. It is the stage in which, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through their sensory

experiences and their manipulation of objects. Second, The Preoperational stage. At this

stage, kids learn through pretends play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of

view of other people . The Third Stage is The Concrete Operational Stage . kids at this point

of development start to think in a more logical way but their thinking can also be very rigid.

They tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts. The final stage is The Formal

Operational Stage, it involves an increased logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and

the understanding of abstract ideas.(Oswalt, 2008)

Since language skills are all parts of cognition and from the stages of cognitive

performance and development ,in addition to further approaches we found that bilingualism

or multilingualism and cognitive performance are related while one affects the other in

different ways.

According to Bialystok in 2011, bilingualism and cognition-based research highlight

implications in individual processes of cognition in order to show the impact of bilingualism

instead of the way particular languages and combinations of languages influences the thought

processes of their speakers.


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However, interrogative statements take place in this area of research. The studies

based on individual bilinguals has shown a difference between their cognitive development

and that of their monolingual mates. So as necessary observations about the relation between

bilingualism and cognitive development


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Section II: The Effects of Bilingualism on Cognitive Development

1. Bilingualism and Negative Cognitive Effects

With the assertion of several previous approaches, Bilingualism has been proved to

affect cognitive performance in a negative way. From previous research, Hamers and Blanc

(2000) point out that, whereas the biographies suggested a well-balanced development of the

bilinguals languages, psychometric tests of the same period claimed that bilingualism had

negative effects on childrens cognitive development. Another conducted study by Hoff et al.

(2011) on bilingual and monolingual children. where monolinguals were only exposed to

English while bilinguals were exposed to by English and Spanish. The research showed that

children who are exposed to two languages simultaneously do not typically acquire each

language at the same rate as children only exposed to one language.

In the early approaches Pintner and Keller (1922) refer to 'linguistic handicap' in

bilingual children, and Saer (1923) to 'mental confusion', claiming that bilingual children had

lower IQ values than their monolingual peers.

in other works E. Bialystok and Craik 2011 reveal that speaking two languages created

retardation in children . And Studies of vocabulary knowledge have reported lower scores for

bilinguals in each language than for monolingual speakers of that language, and this deficit

appears at all ages across the lifespan (Bialystok, 2001).


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E. Bialystok and Craik (2011) argue that

In a study examining receptive vocabulary scores in English for over

1,700 children between the ages of 3- and 10-years old, monolingual

children obtained higher scores than bilingual children at every age,

even though all the bilingual children were fluent in English and used

it daily at school [Bialystok, Luk, Peets, & Yang, in press]. (p.8)

In addition study reported that dual language input affected both the childrens

grammatical development as well as vocabulary (Hoff et al.2011) .These results agrees with

Bialystoks study on children aged between 3 and 10,investigating their English receptive

vocabulary. Children who spoke English and with another language scored lower on the tests

than their monolingual peers. Despite these results, Bialystok (2010) maintains that

there is no reason to believe that bilingual children have a smaller overall

vocabularyin fact, their combined vocabulary may be larger than that of

monolinguals or that they have poorer communicative ability than

monolinguals, only that their vocabulary is distributed across two languages.

(p. 561 )


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The negative effects of bilingualism on cognitive development found across research,

are the proof of the fact that bilingualism can also affect negatively the cognitive

performance. It is also important to clarify that these results were not observed only in

children but in adults as well. What was referred to as mental confusion and linguistic

handicap as well as vocabulary deficiency is essentially related to individuals themselves

i.e. ; not the amount or number of languages. This brings us again to the questions asked

before concerning the effect of language on mind., to come up to conclude that language

deficiency in bilinguals is not directly due to the number of languages one uses but in the

amount and manner a bilingual individual uses it.


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2. Bilingualism and cognitive advantages

Responses to the question investigating the impact of the number of languages on

human mind emphasized the negative consequences of bilingualism . it was surprising when a

radically different answer was offered by Peal and Lambert (1962); showing that bilingual

francophone children in Montreal outperformed monolingual English-speaking children on a

wide variety of measures.( Bialystok and Craik , p.3.)

In Bilingual Mind, Bialystok and Craik state :" Studies seeking evidence for bilingual

effects on development began with the conservative assumption that any detectable effect of a

linguistic experience would be found in the domain of linguistic competence." (p.3).

Bilingual students were observed to be cognitively more developed , as having

divergent and more creative thinking (Hudson, 1968), having greater meta-linguistic

awareness, asserted by Bialystok as " the explicit knowledge of linguistic structure and the

ability to access it intentionally." In addition to cognitive control of linguistic processes

(Bialystok, 1987 ; Galambos and Hakuta, 1988), and increased communicative sensitivity

(Genesee, Tucker, and Lambert, 1975). But bilinguals must possess age-appropriate levels of

competence in two languages in order to achieve these cognitive advantages.

After the publication of the Peal and Lambert study in 1962, further research was

conducted implying the same results, or a positive effect on childrens cognition caused by


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bilingualism. Most studies have provided empirical evidence on the cognitive advantage

among bilingual children compared with their monolingual counterparts, particularly in high

control tasks requiring increased cognitive flexibility . This flexibility can be tested with

changing task demands which are unpredictable or novel to the participant (Bialystok, 1999).

Den (2003) defines flexible cognition as:

The dynamic construction and modification of representations and responses based

on information (i.e., similarities, cues, relations) selected from the linguistic and

non-linguistic environment. That is, when there is a range of plausible ways to

understand and respond to a problem, flexible thinkers select patterns that limit this

range. The selected information must change over time as a function of shifting

task demands. That is, as new problems and circumstances are imposed by the

environment, the cognitive focus should shift to new, pertinent information. (pp.

275276)

and with changing unpredictable or novel task demands this flexibility can be tested .

Again, Based on illustrative experiment by Bialystok and colleagues (2004) involving

several reaction-time (RT) conditions, E. Bialystok stated "The Result suggests that

bilingualism may protect against age-related cognitive decline at least in the ability to inhibit

the disruptive effects of misleading stimuli. "(p.7)

Also positive relationship exists between bilingualism and various abilities. For

example, a positive relationship between bilingualism and the students ability to think


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abstractly about language (a skill that has been called meta-linguistic ability and is

hypothesized to be related to reading ability in elementary school students). We also found a

positive relationship between bilingualism and nonverbal thinking as measured by a standard

test of intelligence.( Hakuta, 1985)

In a nutshell, Bilingualism is majorly important for many cognitive, social and

psychological reasons. From what has been said before and through several research and

approaches: (Weinreich, 1953) ; (Peal & Lambert, 1962) ; ( Fishman &Figueroa, 1994)

(Hamers &Blanc, 2000) ; ( Butler & Hakuta, 2008) ; ( Hoff et al, 2011). It was demonstrated

that bilingualism's impact on cognitive performance is of a great positive importance. From

cognitive development to more developed creative thinking and meta-linguistic awareness,

Evidently bilingualism has positive effects on cognitive performance.


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General Conclusion

To sum up what was previously stated, Bilingualism has been proved to be a complex

field with no exact definition or standards, which makes it non measurable without due

clarifications based upon multi-dimensions that finally constitute an easier way to understand

this study . It is similar to related classification of bilingual individuals according to the

typology of bilingualism.

It was shown that bilingualism and cognition were interrelated and affect the cognitive

performance. while early research found that bilingualism affects negatively the cognitive

development. It was the publication of Peal and Lambert's research in 1962 that disregarded

these assertions and improved the way other researchers defined concepts and selected their

subjects accordingly. Particularly , the distinction between types of bilinguals gave hints to

coming approaches and importance to future investigations. It is this distinction that lead

researchers to experiment the differences with clearer definitions and outcomes .

Most research indicated positive effects of bilingualism on cognitive performance

because of the increase of attention and directed methodology of bilingualism. This positive

influence consisted of increased cognitive flexibility when other research demonstrated better

results on tasks requiring high control of language skills. But despite studies illustrating

positive effects of bilingualism on cognitive development, some others indicated negative


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outcomes . Mostly negative effects appear to affect individuals vocabulary . And have been

reported to have poor vocabulary in comparison to monolinguals. Also in late literacy

development . when L1 proficiency is not developed at the same time as L2 proficiency.

It can be deduced that, bilingualism is related to complicated set of factors that must be

considered carefully when investigating this field. Concerning its effects on cognitive

development, it remains the subject of struggles and fascination. Even with data collected up

to this day one cannot yet expand all the sides of bilingualism. Nevertheless, it serves as a

crucial input in stepping closely in direction of better understanding bilingualism.


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Dissertation on The Effects Of Bilingualism On Cognitive Development.pdf