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Societal Societal Bilingualism Bilingualism Nigel Musk Nigel Musk Master’s Course Spring Term: Language & Culture Master’s Course Spring Term: Language & Culture http://www liu se/ikk/ffu/ske/Masterutbildning/courses/language and culture in europe?l=en http://www.liu.se/ikk/ffu/ske/Masterutbildning/courses/language-and-culture-in-europe?l=en Course Structure Course Structure 1. Language Contact language change 2. Individual Bilingualism code-switching & code-mixing 3. Societal Bilingualism diglossia, language maintenance, language shift & language death (obsolescence) 4. Language Policy and Language Planning national languages, the EU and multilingualism, language revitalisation & bilingual education Three (prototypical) sociolinguistic Three (prototypical) sociolinguistic Three (prototypical) sociolinguistic Three (prototypical) sociolinguistic situations situations 1. Standard-with-dialects 2. Societal bilingualism (multilingualism) 3. Diglossia Some Some snapshots of bilingualism in snapshots of bilingualism in Some Some snapshots of bilingualism in snapshots of bilingualism in Wales Wales TV series: Pam Fi Duw? (Why Me God?) – life in and around a bilingual (Welsh) secondary school Welsh homepages Si ti Signposting Demographics Demographics Official Language Policy & Planning

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Page 1: Bilingualism 2 [Kompatibilitetsläge] - Linköping University · Bilingualism & Bilingualism & diglossiadiglossia bilingualism: “The capacity to make alternate (and sometimes mixed)

SocietalSocietal BilingualismBilingualismNigel MuskNigel Musk

Master’s Course Spring Term: Language & Culture Master’s Course Spring Term: Language & Culture

http://www liu se/ikk/ffu/ske/Masterutbildning/courses/language and culture in europe?l=enhttp://www.liu.se/ikk/ffu/ske/Masterutbildning/courses/language-and-culture-in-europe?l=en

Course StructureCourse Structure

1. Language Contact language change

2. Individual Bilingualism code-switching & code-mixing

3. Societal Bilingualismg diglossia, language maintenance, language shift &

language death (obsolescence)

4. Language Policy and Language Planning national languages, the EU and multilingualism, language g g , g , g g

revitalisation & bilingual education

Three (prototypical) sociolinguisticThree (prototypical) sociolinguisticThree (prototypical) sociolinguistic Three (prototypical) sociolinguistic situationssituations

1. Standard-with-dialects

2. Societal bilingualism (multilingualism)

3. Diglossia

SomeSome snapshots of bilingualism insnapshots of bilingualism inSomeSome snapshots of bilingualism in snapshots of bilingualism in WalesWales

TV series: Pam Fi Duw? (Why Me God?) – life in

and around a bilingual (Welsh) secondary school

Welsh homepages

Si ti Signposting

Demographics Demographics

Official Language Policy & Planningg g y g

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A bilingual A bilingual websitewebsiteBilingual Bilingual

d id iroadsignsroadsignsin Cardiffin Cardiff

CardiffCardiffCardiffCardiffCaerdyddCaerdydd

DemographicsDemographicsDemographics Demographics of bilingualism of bilingualism

in Wales 1in Wales 1

D hi f Bili liD hi f Bili liFig 2 Percentage & Numbers of Welsh SpeakersDemographics of Bilingualism Demographics of Bilingualism in Wales 2in Wales 2

Fig. 2 Percentage & Numbers of Welsh Speakers60 1200000

50 1000000

30

40

% 600000

800000

bers

20

30%400000

600000

Num

b

10

20

200000

400000

01901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

0 %no1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 no.

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Three (prototypical) sociolinguisticThree (prototypical) sociolinguisticThree (prototypical) sociolinguistic Three (prototypical) sociolinguistic situationssituations

1. Standard-with-dialects

2. Societal bilingualism (multilingualism)

3. Diglossia

Bilingualism & Bilingualism & diglossiadiglossia

bilingualism: “The capacity to make alternate (and sometimes mixed) use

of two languages ” (Concise O ford Companion to the English Lang age 1998)of two languages. (Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language 1998)

“Bilingualism is the use of two (or more) languages in one’s everyday

life and not knowing two or more languages equally well andlife and not knowing two or more languages equally well and

optimally.” (Grosjean 2002: 2)

diglossia: in some speech communities there is “one particular kind ofdiglossia: in some speech communities there is one particular kind of

standardization where two varieties of a language exist side by side

throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play” g y, g p y

(Ferguson 2000 [1959]: 65), one of which is a superposed variety, that is,

not a primary “native” variety, but one learnt in addition to the native

variety.

DiglossiaDiglossia: high : high vsvs lowlow

“The varieties are called H and L, the first being

generally a standard variety used for ‘high’ purposes

and the second often a ‘low’ spoken vernacular. […]

L is typically acquired at home as a mother tongue […]

H, on the other hand, is learned through schooling and

never at home, and is related to institutions outside the

home.”(Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language 1998, my highlighting)

Ferguson’s nine criteria forFerguson’s nine criteria forFerguson s nine criteria for Ferguson s nine criteria for determining determining diglossiadiglossia (2000 [1959])(2000 [1959])

1. function

2. prestige

3. literary heritagey g

4. acquisition

5 standardisation5. standardisation

6. stability

7. grammar

8. lexicon

9. phonology

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Ferguson’s four prototypical cases ofFerguson’s four prototypical cases ofFerguson s four prototypical cases of Ferguson s four prototypical cases of diglossiadiglossia (2000 [1959])(2000 [1959])

Situation 'high' variety 'low' varietyArabic Classic Arabic Vario s regionalArabic Classic Arabic Various regional

colloquial varietiesSwiss German Standard German Swiss GermanSwiss German Standard German Swiss GermanHaitian Standard French Haiti CreoleGreek Katharévousa Dhimotiki

The case of Arabic The case of Arabic diglossiadiglossia(Ferguson 2000 [1959]: 68)(Ferguson 2000 [1959]: 68)

Situation H L

Sermon in church or mosque xInstructions to servants, waiters, worksmen, clerks xPersonal letter xPersonal letter xSpeeches in parliament, political speeches xUniversity lecture xyConversations with family, friends, colleagues xNews broadcasts xRadio 'soap opera' xRadio soap opera xNewspaper editorial, new story, caption on picture xCaption on political cartoon xPoetry xFolk literature x

Fishman’s extension of Fishman’s extension of diglossiadiglossia(2000 [1967])(2000 [1967])

DiglossiaDiglossia vsvs bilingualism 1bilingualism 1(Fishman 2000 [1967])(Fishman 2000 [1967])

Both diglossia and bilingualism - clearly defined or separate functionsfunctionse.g. Spanish (H) and Guaraní (a typologically unrelated indigenous language) in Paraguay “where almost the entire population speaks both” (83)population speaks both” (83)

Bilingualism without diglossia - the two languages or varieties lack clearly defined or separate functions- may be indicative of “rapid social change, of great social unrest, of widespread abandonment of prior norms before the consolidation of new ones” (85) prone to be unstable andconsolidation of new ones (85) prone to be unstable and transitional (87)

e.g. industrialisation in the Western world with means of d i f h i (H) d l b fproduction from one speech community (H) and labour force

from another (L) language shift from L to H

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DiglossiaDiglossia vsvs bilingualism 2bilingualism 2(Fishman 2000 [1967])(Fishman 2000 [1967])

Diglossia without bilingualism - two or more speech communities “united religiously, politically or economicallycommunities united religiously, politically or economically into a single functioning unit” (84)

- typically an impermeable group boundary between a small H speaking élite and the L speaking masses i e bilingualismH-speaking élite and the L-speaking masses, i.e. bilingualism is not widespread. e.g. French-speaking élites in a number of otherwise non-French-speaking European countries prior to World War I.

Neither diglossia nor bilingualism - theoretically possible, but perhaps only in small isolated and undifferentiated speechperhaps only in small, isolated and undifferentiated speech communities. - but since “[a]ll communities seem to have certain

i i hi h i li i d” hiceremonies or pursuits to which access is limited”, this category “tends to be self liquidating.” (87)

A broad definition of A broad definition of diglossiadiglossia

Broad diglossia is the reservation of highly valued segments g g y g

of a community’s linguistic repertoire (which are not the first to

be learned, but are learned later and more consciously, usually , y, y

through formal education), for situations perceived as more

formal and guarded; and the reservation of less highly valued g ; g y

segments (which are learned first with little or no conscious

effort), of any degree of linguistic relatedness to the higher ), y g g g

valued segments, from stylistic differences to separate

languages, for situations perceived as more informal and g g p

intimate. (Fasold 1990 [1984]: 53, my highlighting)

DiglossiaDiglossia vsvs bilingualism 3bilingualism 3

Problems (Musk 2006b: 74-77)Problems (Musk 2006b: 74 77)

Rather than resorting to an apolitical consensus model, conflict and

power relations need to be taken seriously

Fishman’s portrayal of bilingualism with diglossia as an inherently

stable and ideal state is a misconceived political statement. Any

model of diglossia needs to acknowledge the political reality of

tensions that may arise from an inequitable compartmentalisation of

functions for language (or variety) L and H.g g ( y)

DiglossiaDiglossia vsvs bilingualism 4bilingualism 4

Problems (Musk 2006b: 74-77)( )

Domain analysis needs to accommodate more parameters in order to

acknowledge the real choices that bilinguals make and can make in

talk-in-interaction (including code-switching and code-mixing).

The simple binary distinction H vs L cannot capture either the range

of possible situations or domains, nor in many cases the languages or

language varieties.

But a formality/intimacy continuum (Fasold 1990 [1984]: 53) is at least one

contributory factor which can influence the choice of language(s) or

l ( ) b l l l l llanguage variety(-ies) in bilingual or multilingual societies.

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DiglossiaDiglossia vsvs bilingualism 5bilingualism 5

The genetic (relatedness) question – do the languages need to be typologically related for diglossia to pertain?

Arguments for:Diglossia is one kind of societal bilingualism not vice versa (Co lmas 2005 Diglossia is one kind of societal bilingualism not vice versa (Coulmas 2005: 133)

Broad diglossia focusses heavily on the complementary distribution of d ( d )codes (Hudson 2002: 39)

Language shift can only normally be H L, since H is learnt as an additional (non-native) variety

Arguments against: narrow definition runs the risk of concealing the inevitable connections

between ‘classic’ diglossia and the other two broad categoriesbetween classic diglossia and the other two broad categories

Bilingualism & Bilingualism & diglossiadiglossia in Wales 1 in Wales 1 (Musk 2006b: 79)(Musk 2006b: 79)

Bilingualism & Bilingualism & diglossiadiglossia in Wales 2in Wales 2

vernacular: Galle’ nw at least halacould they send

literary: Gallent (hwy) o leiaf anfoncould (they) they of least send( y) y

They could at least send

l t i l C âplant nw i ysgol Cymrâg.children their to school Welsheu plant (hwy) i ysgol Gymraeg.p ( y) y g y gtheir children (their) to school Welshtheir children to a Welsh school

Bilingualism & Bilingualism & diglossiadiglossia in Wales 3in Wales 3(Musk 2006: 368)(Musk 2006: 368)

1 Cornilov: a fi’n ┌meddwl┐ ┌siarad┐ cymraeg nawr naturally ynand I part. think speak Welsh now part.and I think speaking Welsh now naturallyand I think speaking Welsh now naturally

2 Batman: └a- ┘ │ │?

3 A Man: └ie ┘yeahyeah

4 Cornilov: golygu ((points towards himself with both hands & mean

means5 smiles)) naturally yn golygu ca’l geirie saesneg5 smiles)) naturally yn golygu ca l geirie saesneg

part. mean get words Englishnaturally means having English words

6 ynddo ┌fe he┐fyd ┌ie?┐= in him him too yeahin him him too yeah

in it too yeah?7 A Man: └ie ┘ │ │

yeah8 Batman: └ie ┘=8 Batman: ie

yeah

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Language shiftLanguage shift

Early model:y

Haugen on Norwegian in N. American context (1953: 370ff):

A > Ab > AB > aB > B

A = language of monolingual (Norwegian) minority speech community

Ab = A-dominant bilingualismAB = balanced bilingualismaB = B-dominant bilingualismB = language of monolingual (English) majority speech communityg g g g j

Accounting for language shift/Accounting for language shift/Accounting for language shift/ Accounting for language shift/ language maintenancelanguage maintenance

Three categories of accounts (H lt t & St d 1996 568 73)Three categories of accounts (Hyltenstam & Stroud 1996: 568-73)

1. Studies focussing on macro-societal framing conditions

2. Studies focussing on the connections between societal

factors speaker perceptions & actual language practicesfactors, speaker perceptions & actual language practices

3. Studies focussing on speakers’ language competence & the

structural (linguistic) consequences

MacroMacro--societal factors 1societal factors 1

Examples of macro-societal factors: migration industrialisationExamples of macro societal factors: migration, industrialisation,

language policy and planning, urbanisation (Fasold 1984: 217)

Giles, Bourhis & Taylor (1977) divide contributory factors into three

main areas:

1. status

2. demographic factors ethnolinguistic vitality2. demographic factors

3. institutional support

ethnolinguistic vitality

”that which makes a group behave as a distinctive and active collective entity in i i i ”intergroup situations” (308)

The case of Breton 1The case of Breton 1

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The case of Breton 2The case of Breton 2 MacroMacro--societal factors 2societal factors 2

Critique of macro-societal modelsq

They fail to account for the dynamic processes operating between

macro and micro levels:macro and micro levels:

“Socio-structural approaches, however useful for defining macro-

factors of change fail to account for the influence of interveningfactors of change, fail to account for the influence of intervening

variables such as the importance of social networks, individual

perceptions of the relative ethnolinguistic vitality of groups inperceptions of the relative ethnolinguistic vitality of groups in

contact, and the communication interactions of participants.”(Hamers & Blanc 2000: 298-299)

Accounting for language shift/Accounting for language shift/Accounting for language shift/ Accounting for language shift/ language maintenancelanguage maintenance

Three categories of accounts (H lt t & St d 1996 568 73)Three categories of accounts (Hyltenstam & Stroud 1996: 568-73)

1. Studies focussing on macro-societal framing conditions

2. Studies focussing on the connections between societal

factors speaker perceptions & actual language practicesfactors, speaker perceptions & actual language practices

3. Studies focussing on speakers’ language competence & the

structural (linguistic) consequences

I t ti b t i t lI t ti b t i t lInterconnections between societal Interconnections between societal factors and language practices 1factors and language practices 1

Micro-interactionist perspective describes bilingual speakers’ use of p p g p

their linguistic repertoire as one aspect of their communicative

competence (Martin Jones 1989: 107)competence (Martin-Jones 1989: 107)

sees speakers as active interlocutors, who are free to make

language choices to express particular social and cultural

meanings

may involve attention to minute detail, including code-mixing

and code-switching

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I t ti b t i t lI t ti b t i t lInterconnections between societal Interconnections between societal factors and language practices 2factors and language practices 2

Susan Gal’s (1979) study of language shift in Oberwart/Felsőőr( ) y g g /

(on Austrian-Hungarian border) combining three complementary

approaches:approaches:

1. Examining historical (generational) pattern of language shift to

German

2. Observing and audio-recording everyday language practices of

limited number of bilingual individuals

3. Interviewing same individuals to uncover values & associations g

underlying their language practices

Choice ofChoice ofChoice of Choice of language language

in in OberwartOberwart//FelsőőrFelsőőr

(Gal 1979: 135)(Gal 1979: 135)( )( )

I t ti b t i t lI t ti b t i t lInterconnections between societal Interconnections between societal factors and language practices 3factors and language practices 3

Critique of Gal’s studyq y

leans heavily towards evolutionism; peasantry has no place in

modern-day society and is doomed for extinction and with itmodern-day society and is doomed for extinction and with it

any associated language (here: Hungarian) (Williams 1992: 116)

plays up the degree of freedom to choose language as rational plays up the degree of freedom to choose language as rational

beings according to their chosen cultural identity and plays

down the operation of inequalities of power (M ti J 1989down the operation of inequalities of power (Martin-Jones 1989:

114)

I t ti b t i t lI t ti b t i t lInterconnections between societal Interconnections between societal factors and language practices 4factors and language practices 4

Critique of Gal’s study (cont.)q y ( )

indexicality between social identity and language, between

‘peasantness’ and Hungarian e g code-switching amongpeasantness and Hungarian, e.g. code-switching among

middle-generation bilinguals is a sign of being “committed

neither to the peasant nor to the worker way of life” (21)neither to the peasant nor to the worker way of life (21)

states categorically that code-switching mirrors the process of

language shift implying that language is normally and ideallylanguage shift implying that language is normally and ideally

monolingual, even in bilingual speech communities (Musk 2006a: 73-74)(Musk 2006a: 73 74)

Page 10: Bilingualism 2 [Kompatibilitetsläge] - Linköping University · Bilingualism & Bilingualism & diglossiadiglossia bilingualism: “The capacity to make alternate (and sometimes mixed)

ModelsModelsModels Models of of

analysisanalysis(Martin(Martin Jones 2001)Jones 2001)(Martin(Martin--Jones 2001)Jones 2001)

Accounting for language shift/Accounting for language shift/Accounting for language shift/ Accounting for language shift/ language maintenancelanguage maintenance

Three categories of accounts (H lt t & St d 1996 568 73)Three categories of accounts (Hyltenstam & Stroud 1996: 568-73)

1. Studies focussing on macro-societal framing conditions

2. Studies focussing on the connections between societal

factors speaker perceptions & actual language practicesfactors, speaker perceptions & actual language practices

3. Studies focussing on speakers’ language competence & the

structural (linguistic) consequences

L t & t t lL t & t t lLanguage competence & structural Language competence & structural consequences 1consequences 1

Linguistic perspective - how the social processes operating in situations g p p p p g

of language contact & language shift impact on the linguistic

resources of a minority languagey g g

convergent innovations – changes analogous with

dominant contact languagedominant contact language

divergent innovations – changes not analogous with

d i t t t ldominant contact language

Yet both types may be responsive to the presence of a more

dominant language (Woolard 1989: 363)

L t & t t lL t & t t lLanguage competence & structural Language competence & structural consequences 2consequences 2

Nancy Dorian’s (1981) study of language death in East Sutherlandy ( ) y g g

(a dialect of Scottish Gaelic) in three coastal fishing villages

Participants divided into three groups according to their languageParticipants divided into three groups according to their language

competence (traditional linguistic features present among the older

Gaelic speakers):Gaelic speakers):

1. older fluent speakers

2. younger fluent speakers

3. semi-speakers (criteria: conditions of transmission,

competence & language use)

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Deviant (“incorrect”) marking of Deviant (“incorrect”) marking of gender in East Sutherland Gaelic gender in East Sutherland Gaelic (Dorian 1981: 124(Dorian 1981: 124--129)129)

100

90

100

7170

80

90

Incorrect mutation after definiteti l (f )

4133.5

52.5

33.540

50

60

%

article (fem. nouns)

Incorrect mutation of attrib. adj.after fem. noun

Masc pronoun to replace fem

7

20

10

20

30Masc. pronoun to replace fem.noun

00

10

Semi-speakers Younger fluentspeakers

Older fluentspeakersspeakers speakers

Speaker category

L t & t t lL t & t t lLanguage competence & structural Language competence & structural consequences 3consequences 3

Conclusions of Dorian’s (1981) studyy

“There have been no startling departures to report in terms of types

of change. […] But if the types of change are not unusual, it seems g [ ] yp g ,

possible that the amount of change is.” (151, my highlighting)

Thus her crucial point is that “change in six rather prominent categories of p g p g

the nominal and verbal grammar” taking place at about the same

time may be symptomatic of language death (152 , my highlighting)y y p g g

Nevertheless, “sociolinguistic factors, rather than purely linguistic features,

distinguish change in dying languages from change in healthy g g y g g g g y

languages.” (154 , my highlighting)

Bibliography 1Bibliography 1

Coulmas, F. (2005) “Diglossia and bilingualism: functional restrictions on language choice.” Sociolinguistics. The study of speakers’ choices. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 126-139. Dorian, N. C. (1981) Language Death. The life cycle of a Scottish Gaelic dialect. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Fasold, R. W. (1990 [1984]). The Sociolinguistics of Society. Oxford: Blackwell.Fi h J A (2000 [1967]) “Bili li ith d ith t di l i di l i ith d ith tFishman, J. A. (2000 [1967]) “Bilingualism with and without diglossia; diglossia with and without

bilingualism.” Ed. L. Wei. The Bilingualism Reader. London: Routledge, 89-106.Ferguson, C. A. (2000 [1959]) “Diglossia.” Ed. L. Wei. The Bilingualism Reader. London: Routledge,

65-80.65 80Gal, S. (1979) Language Shift: Social Determinants of Linguistic Change in Bilingual Austria. New

York: Academic Press.Giles, H., R. Bourhis & H. Taylor. (1997) “Towards a Theory of Language in Ethnic Group Relations.”

Language, Ethnicity and Intergroup Relations. Ed. H. Giles. London: Academic Press, 307-349.Grosjean, F. (2002) An interview of François Grosjean on bilingualism. By J. Navracsics (14 April

2006) <http://www.unine.ch/ltlp/pub/grosjean_interview.rtf>H J F & M H A Bl (2000 2nd diti ) Bili lit d Bili li C b idHamers J. F. & M. H. A. Blanc. (2000, 2nd edition) Bilinguality and Bilingualism. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Bibliography 2Bibliography 2

Haugen, E. (1953) The Norwegian Language in America: a Study in Bilingual Behavior. Vol 1 The Bilingual Community Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania PressVol. 1, The Bilingual Community. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Hudson, A. (2002) “Outline of a theory of diglossia.” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 157: 1-48.

Hyltenstam, K. & C. Stroud. (1996) “Language maintenance.” Kontaktlinguistik. Contact Linguistics. Linguistique de contact. Ein internationales Handbuch zeitgenössischer Forschung An International Handbook of Contemporary Research ManuelForschung. An International Handbook of Contemporary Research. Manuel international des recherches contemporaines. Eds. Goebl, Nelde, Stary & Wölck. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 567-578.

Martin-Jones, M. (1989) “Language, power and linguistic minorities: the need for an alternative approach to bilingualism, language maintenance and shift.” Social Anthropology and the Politics of Language. Ed. R. Grillo. London: Routledge, 106-p gy g g g ,125.

Page 12: Bilingualism 2 [Kompatibilitetsläge] - Linköping University · Bilingualism & Bilingualism & diglossiadiglossia bilingualism: “The capacity to make alternate (and sometimes mixed)

Bibliography 3Bibliography 3

Martin-Jones, M. (2001). Unpublished lecture notes accompanying the course modules: “Bilingual Education: ED30810” & “Bilingualism: ED32220” at the University ofBilingual Education: ED30810 & Bilingualism: ED32220 at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth.

Musk, N. (2006a, Final Seminar Draft) Performing Bilingualism in Wales with the Spotlight on Welsh. Linköping: Linköping University.

Musk, N. (2006b) Performing Bilingualism in Wales with the Spotlight on Welsh. Linköping: LiU-Tryck <http://www liu se/isk/research/avhandlingar/#Musk>Linköping: LiU-Tryck. <http://www.liu.se/isk/research/avhandlingar/#Musk>

Williams, G. (1992) Sociolinguistics. A Sociological Critique. London: Routledge.

Woolard, K. (1989) “Language convergence and language death as social processes.” Investigating obsolescence. Studies in language contraction and death. Ed. N. Dorian. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 41-59.