DevelopmentalDevelopmentalTheoryTheory

Theory of Psychosocial Development

Within Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, the stage that he discusses the most is the IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION stage. For Erikson believed that during the adolescent years, establishing one's identity is difficult but fundamental. In discussing identity development, there are three major factors that can affect it:

1. GENDER ROLES - They establish patterns for many types of behavior. For example, thirty years ago, traditional gender roles consisted of the husband working and the wife staying at home.

2. CHANGES IN GENDER ROLES - Obviously, traditional gender roles have dramatically changed today. For example, over 60% of mothers now work outside of the home. Also, the high rate of divorce has led to an increase in single-parent households. Last, in a growing number of families, both parents work.

3. GENDER TYPING VS. PSYCHOLOGICAL ANDROGYNY - Gender typed individuals endorse stereotyped conceptions of femininity or masculinity. Androgynous individuals possess both male and female characteristics.

SO... WOULD ERIKSON SAY GENDER STEREOTYPES ARE INHERITED OR

SOCIALLY MANUFACTURED?

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

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Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentSensorimotor stage Ages: Birth - Two Object Permanance

Deferred imitation

Preoperational stage Ages: Two - Seven Mastery of symbols Illogical thinking (i.e. irreversibility and egocentrism)

Concrete operational stage Ages: Seven - Eleven Generalization from concrete experiences

Unable to solve abstract problems

Formal operational stage Ages: Eleven - Adolescent Abstract thought; critical

thinking Capable of directing emotions

to abstract ideas (Ginsburg and Opper)

Adolescent thought centered around self (David Elkind) ** Eventually adolescents come to see that people are more concerned with their own problems than that of the adolescents'.

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Age Group CharacteristicsPreschool to Kindergarten

Physical Emotional Social Cognitive Extremely active Express feelings

openly Socially flexible Kindergartners are

skillful with language

Need frequent rest Extremely jealous Group is small Competence is encouraged through interaction, interest and affection

Good gross motor skills

Various type of play depending on Social Class and Gender

Fine motor skills need to be developed

Quarrels frequently

Developing hand-eye coordination

Aware of gender roles

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Age Group CharacteristicsPrimary Grades

Physical Social Emotional Cognitive Still extremely active More selective in their

choice of friends Sensitive to criticism and ridicule

Eager to learn

Need rest periods Prefers organized games in small groups

Eager to please the teacher

Verbal skills superior to writing skills

Large muscle control is superior to fine coordination

Quarrels frequently Sensitive to the feelings of others

Tattletales

May have difficulty focusing on small objects or print

Excellent control of their bodies

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Age Group CharacteristicsElementary Grades

Physical Social Emotional Cognitive Bodies become leaner and stronger

Peer group becomes powerful

Develop a self image Eager to learn

Obesity can become a problem

Friendships become more selective

Disruptive family relationships begin to affect the child

Cognitive styles are preferences for dealing with intellectual tasks

Gender differences in motor skill performance are apparent

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Age Group CharacteristicsMiddle School

Physical Social Emotional Cognitive Growth tends to be uneven and rapid

Greater understanding of the feelings of others develops

Storm and stress Gender differences in specific abilities

Pubertal development is evident

Desire to conform Egocentric thought Self-efficacy becomes an influence

Curious about sex

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Age Group CharacteristicsHigh School

Physical Social Emotional Cognitive Maturity level attained Parents influence

values and plans Psychiatric disorders become apparent

Capable of engaging in formal thought

Become sexually active

Peers influence status Depression Political thinking becomes more abstract

Girls experience anxiety about friends

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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

• Level 1: Preconventional Morality• Stage 1: Punishment-obedience orientation• Stage 2: Instrumental relativist orientation

• Level 2: Conventional Morality• Stage 3: Good boy-nice girl orientation• Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation

• Level 3: Postconventional Morality• Stage 5: Social contract orientation• Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation

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Are Gender Stereotypes Inherited or Socially Manufactured?

The inheritance of the X or Y chromosome results in the differentiation of sexual characteristics for each gender.

Some researchers believe this leads to behavior and social differences as well, due to the release and suppression of certain hormones.

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Kohlberg’s Cognitive - Development Theory

Some researchers believe that it is social influences, biases, and pressures that form gender roles.

Identity

Gender Stability

Gender Consistency

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Gilligan’s Stages of Female Moral Reasoning

Level 1: The Orientation Toward Self-Interest

• At the simplest level of moral reasoning, woman are pragmatically and egocentrically preoccupied with self-interest and survival.

Level 2: Identification of Goodness with Responsibility for others.

• Self interest falls into the background and and the need to please others surfaces.

Level 3: Focusing on the dynamics between self and others.

• Self interest reemerges combined with the need to please others.

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Justice vs. Care Argument

• Men tend to use a Justice orientation to make decisions regarding moral dilemmas.

• Women tend to use a Care orientation to make decisions about moral dilemmas.

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Schemes

FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE

CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGEAssimilation/Accommodation

PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE

SENSORIMOTOR STAGE

Object Permanence Organization/Adaptation

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Piaget's Cognitive Development

Basic Principles

• Basic Tendencies

1. Organization - combine processes into general systems

2. Adaptation - adjustment to environment

• Schemes

1. Assimilation - fitting in new experiences with existing schemes

2. Accommodation - changing or creating schemes

3. Equilibration - organizing schemes to fit conception of the world

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Piaget's View

1. Peer interaction spurs more cognitive development than adult interaction.

Vygotsky's View

1. Children's earliest psychological tools develop through interaction with parents.

2. Later tools and schemes are developed through formal instruction.

Piaget and Vygotsky

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Similarities

1. Research based on Piaget's theories shows that schemes can be refined faster through the use of quality instruction at a slightly higher level than the child already functions.

2. Vygotsky also believed that children should be taught at a higher level than they are presently at, citing that older, adolescent children will give up altogether if the work is not sufficiently challenging.

Piaget and Vygotsky (cont.)

NOTES, RESEARCH

STUDIES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES

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A much debated issue with equal rights activists and educators has been about gender stereotypes and roles. The main question of the debate is if gender differences are inborn traits or socially determined characteristics. Also, parents and educators play a role in the development of gender identity and stereotypes. Last, they can both help to ensure that each child becomes a secure and productive adult. One explanation for inherited sex differences is the biological variations between the two sexes. The first major event during conception is the inheritance of an X or Y chromosome. Next, the chromosome and hormones produce the appropriate sex organs. For example, if the child receives a Y chromosome(male), testosterone will be produced and will lead to the growth of a penis and scrotum. However, female sex organs will form if testosterone is not produced. Through many experiments, there is evidence with animals and humans that hormones determine activity levels, maternal behavior, and aggression. Once a child is born, the process of socialization has begun. They are brought home to live in a room that is very male or female-like. Sex roles develop early when parents bombard their children with gender appropriate clothing, toys, and hairstyles. In a study, 98% of shoppers bought boys "male" toys like trucks and blocks. Infants, from the get go, are treated in gender specific ways. Within Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Development theory, he believes that a child’s cognitive ability to comprehend gender and its effect on themselves determines sex role development. Also, he says that children play major roles in socializing themselves and that they go through three Stages. The stages are gender identity, gender stability, and gender consistency. Last, Kohlberg believes that a child seeks out gender specific toys and behaviors after they’ve reached the third stage and have developed a strong sense of gender. Problems related to gender differences appear to arise from devaluing one set of characteristics from the other. In schools, teachers treat boys and girls differently. Starting from preschool, boys and girls begin to learn distinctively different academic skills. Research has also found that teachers call on boys more often and they also give praise and correct feedback to them more than girls. More often, teachers give more attention to the most aggressive students, which is usually the boys. Also, other problems have been stereotyped pictures of women in books and the lack of female role models. Last, boys are expected to do well in math and science, while girls are expected to do well in reading and social skills. It is obvious why there is an under-representation of males and females in certain careers. There are several things that parents and educators can do to help their child become a productive adult no matter what their sex is. First, they must be aware of their personal stereotypes. Second, teachers must alter their curriculum to promote a non-gender bias environment. Both boys and girls should be able to play with dolls and trucks. Next, teachers’ curriculums should meet the needs of all students. They are individuals with individual needs. Therefore, everyone must have awareness and want to change the unequal treatments.

REFERENCES•Bentler, Peter M., O. Ivar Lovaas, George A. Rekers, and Alexander C. Rosen,(1976), Sex-Role Stereotypy and Professional Intervention for Childhood Gender Disturbance. Internet: http://www.leaderu.com/offices/rekers/docs/role.html

•Hom, Elizabeth,(1996), Effects of Gender Stereotypes in Children. Internet: http://www.ematusov.com/psych100G

•Nelson, Tracy L.,(1997), Gender Differences: Predetermined or Manufactured? Internet: Cd169

Notes

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AbstractIt is my personal belief that due to technological and sociological changes throughout the past 50 years that cognitive development is not reaching it full potential. Especially when you look at today’s youth and adolescent, it seems problem solving and thinking skills are not developing enough to sustain to complex issues people are facing at younger and younger ages.

My research on this idea has lead my to two pieces of literature. The first article stresses the lack of and need for teenagers to have such problem solving skills. The second is an alternative approach to how we as adults and as a society should consider teaching the principles of cognitive development.

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Facing life size issues— Empowering teens with problem solving skills

• 15 teens from 14-17 comment on issues and educational approaches to such issues.

• The article develops 3 ways to facilitate problem solving skills:

1. Caring

2. Dialog

3. Confirmation

• Implicit problems with school attitudes towards adolescents is identified.

American Montessori Society—Key Concepts and Practices

• Montessori promotes quality education from birth to age 18 through with unique criteria.

1. Key concepts

2. Teacher Background

3. Basic Characteristics

• All of this criteria promotes cognitive as well intellectual development.

References

Biehler, Robert, and Jack Snowman. Psychology Applied to Teaching. 8th ed. Boston/ New York: Houghton Mufflin Company, 1997.

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AbstractMany studies have been done investigating gender differences and how they affect moral development. The two most notable researchers at odds are Lawrence Kohlberg and Carol Gilligan. Gilligan accuses Kohlberg’s theory of the Stages of Moral Development of being biased against females. Gilligan feels that women cannot be evaluated by the same set of criterion that men are. Traditionally this argument has become known as the Justice vs. Care Orientation debate. The idea behind this argument is that men make more justice-based decisions, while females tend to make more care- based decisions. According to Gilligan, women cannot be rated, in terms of moral development, on the Kohlberg scale because his scoring mechanism, rates justice- based decisions higher than care- based decisions.

This implies that women are less capable of advancing on to the higher stages of moral development. Peter D. Lifton, staff at the University of North Carolina, summarizes Gilligans ideas well when he states; "Caring is defined as a morality of responsibility and relationship, a sensitivity to the needs of persons. For persons who base their moral judgements on the principle of caring, development progresses from concern of survival (caring for self), to concern for goodness (caring for others), to concern for truth (caring for self and others). Gilligan views men and women as preferring different, not superior or inferior, bases for their moral judgements (Lifton, 314). Researchers agree that it is unclear which theory best describes moral development. It is also unclear to what extent gender interferes with moral reasoning.

•It is clear however that no one theory can be used across the board, because different moral dilemmas involve unique sets of circumstances.

"Only by integrating these complimentary male and female orientations-justice and care- will we ever be able to realize our full human potential in moral and general development"(Muuss,233).

Bibliography

Biehler, R.F. & Snowman, J. (1997). Psychology Applied to Teaching (8th ed.) Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Gilligan, C. (1997). Moral Orientation and Moral Development. In Carol C. Gould (Ed.). Gender: Key Concepts in Critical Theory (pp.272-281). Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.

Lifton, P.D. (1985). Individual Differences in Moral Development: The Relation of Sex, Gender, and Personality to Morality. Journal of Personality, 53. 306-334.

Muuss, R.E. (1988). Carol Gilligan’s Theory of Sex Differences in the development of Moral Reasoning During Adolescence. Adolescence, 23. 229-243.

Wark, G.R. & Krebs, D.L. (1996). Gender and Dilemma Differences in Real- Life-Moral Judgement. Developmental Psychology, 32. 220-230.