Conjunctions, Conjunctive Adverbs, Clauses and Phrases

8/13/2019 Conjunctions, Conjunctive Adverbs, Clauses and Phrases

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C O O R D I N AT I N G C O N J U N C T I O NS

Use a coordinating conjunction when you want to giveequal emphasis to two main clauses. The pattern forcoordination looks like this:

main clause , + coordinating conjunction + main clause.

A N D

a. To suggest that one idea is chronologicallysequential to another: "Tashonda sent in herapplications and waited by the phone for aresponse."

b. To suggest that one idea is the result of another:"Willie heard the weather report and promptlyboarded up his house."

c. To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another(frequently replaced by but in this usage):"Juanita is brilliant and Shalimar has a pleasantpersonality.

d. To suggest an element of surprise (sometimes

replaced by yet in this usage): "Hartford is a richcity and suffers from many symptoms of urbanblight."

e. To suggest that one clause is dependent uponanother, conditionally (usually the first clause isan imperative): "Use your credit cards frequentlyand you'll soon find yourself deep in debt."

f. To suggest a kind of "comment" on the firstclause: "Charlie became addicted to gambling — and that surprised no one who knew him."

B U T

a. To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in lightof the first clause: "Joey lost a fortune in thestock market, but he still seems able to live quitecomfortably."

b. To suggest in an affirmative sense what the firstpart of the sentence implied in a negative way(sometimes replaced by on the contrary ): "Theclub never invested foolishly, but used theservices of a sage investment counselor."

c. To connect two ideas with the meaning of "withthe exception of" (and then the second wordtakes over as subject): "Everybody but

Goldenbreath is trying out for the team."

O R

a. To suggest that only one possibility can berealized, excluding one or the other: "You canstudy hard for this exam or you can fail."

b. To suggest the inclusive combination ofalternatives: "We can broil chicken on the grilltonight, or we can just eat leftovers.

c. To suggest a refinement of the first clause:"Smith College is the premier all-women's collegein the country, or so it seems to most Smith

College alumnae."d. To suggest a restatement or "correction" of thefirst part of the sentence: "There are norattlesnakes in this canyon, or so our guide tellsus."

e. To suggest a negative condition: "The NewHampshire state motto is the rather grim "Livefree or die."

f. To suggest a negative alternative without the useof an imperative (see use of and above): "Theymust approve his political style or they wouldn'tkeep electing him mayor."

T h e O t h e r s . . .

The conjunction NOR is not extinct, but it is not usednearly as often as the other conjunctions, so it might feela bit odd when nor does come up in conversation orwriting. Its most common use is as the little brother in thecorrelative pair, neither-nor (see below ):

He is neither sane nor brilliant.

That is neither what I said nor what I meant.

>It can be used with other negative expressions:

That is not what I meant to say, nor should youinterpret my statement as an admission of guilt.

It is possible to use nor without a preceding negativeelement, but it is unusual and, to an extent, rather stuffy:

George's handshake is as good as any writtencontract, nor has he ever proven untrustworthy.

The word YET functions sometimes as an adverb andhas several meanings: in addition ("yet another cause oftrouble" or "a simple yet noble woman"), even ("yet moreexpensive"), still ("he is yet a novice"), eventually ("theymay yet win"), and so soon as now ("he's not here yet"). Italso functions as a coordinating conjunction meaningsomething like "nevertheless" or "but." The word yet seems to carry an element of distinctiveness that but canseldom register.

John plays basketball well, yet his favorite sportis badminton.

The visitors complained loudly about the heat, yetthey continued to play golf every day.

In sentences such as the second one, above, thepronoun subject of the second clause ("they," in thiscase) is often left out. When that happens, the commapreceding the conjunction might also disappear: "Thevisitors complained loudly yet continued to play golf everyday."

Yet is sometimes combined with other conjunctions, but or and . It would not be unusual to see and yet insentences like the ones above. This usage is acceptable.

The word FOR is most often used as a preposition, ofcourse, but it does serve, on rare occasions, as acoordinating conjunction. Some people regard theconjunction for as rather highfalutin and literary, and itdoes tend to add a bit of weightiness to the text.Beginning a sentence with the conjunction "for" isprobably not a good idea, except when you're singing"For he's a jolly good fellow. "For" has serious sequentialimplications and in its use the order of thoughts is moreimportant than it is, say, with because or since. Itsfunction is to introduce the reason for the precedingclause:

John thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was on the company's board oftrustees.

Most of the visitors were happy just sitting aroundin the shade, for it had been a long, dusty journeyon the train.

Be careful of the conjunction SO . Sometimes it canconnect two independent clauses along with a comma,but sometimes it can't. For instance, in this sentence,

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Soto is not the only Olympic athlete in his family,so are his brother, sister, and his Uncle Chet.

where the word so means "as well" or "in addition," mostcareful writers would use a semicolon between the twoindependent clauses. In the following sentence, where so is acting like a minor-league "therefore," the conjunctionand the comma are adequate to the task:

Soto has always been nervous in largegatherings, so it is no surprise that he avoidscrowds of his adoring fans.

Sometimes, at the beginning of a sentence, so will act asa kind of summing up device or transition, and when itdoes, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence witha comma:

So, the sheriff peremptorily removed the childfrom the custody of his parents.

SHORTCUT:

For - Explains reason or purpose (just like ―because‖)I go to the park every Sunday, for I love to watch theducks on the lake.

And - Adds one thing to anotherI go to the park every Sunday to watch the ducks onthe lake and the shirtless men playing soccer.

Nor - Used to present an alternative negative idea toan already stated negative ideaI don’t go for the fresh air nor really for the ducks.

Honestly, I just like the soccer.

But - Shows contrastThe soccer in the park is entertaining in the winter,but it’s better in the heat of summer.

Or - Presents an alternative or a choiceThe men play on teams: shirts or skins.

Yet - Introduces a contrasting idea that follows thepreceding idea logically (similar to ―but‖)I always take a book to read, yet I never seem to turna single page.

So - Indicates effect, result or consequenceI’ve started dating one of the soccer players, so now Ihave an excuse to watch the game each week.

Using Commas with Coordinating Conjunctions

You’ll notice that in the example sentences, some of the

coordinating conjunctions are preceded by a comma

while others are not. There is a very simple reason for

this. If a coordinating conjunction is joining together two

independent clauses (things that could feasibly stand

alone as complete sentences), it needs to have a commawith it. If the conjunction is connecting two phrases

(incomplete sentences) or words (as in a list), it does not

need a comma.

The soccer in the park is entertaining in the winter

(independent clause) + it’s better in the heat of summer

(independent clause) – Because these are two

independent clauses, they must be joined together by a

comma and a coordinating conjunction.

the ducks on the lake (phrase) + the shirtless men

playing soccer (phrase) – Because these are not

complete sentences (independent clauses), they can be

connected with only a conjunction. No comma is

necessary.

Some people will tell you that in a list of three or more

items or phrases, you need a comma and a conjunction

before the final item or phrase. The truth is, you don’t

have to use a comma there, but you can if you want to,

and if you think a comma will clear up any possible

confusion, go ahead and use it. Otherwise, it’s really not

necessary (see this article for more information on

comma usage). The only coordinating conjunction that

doesn’t seem to be able to connect sentence fragments

(words and phrases) is ―for.‖ When ―for‖ comes between

words or short phrases, it is typically acting not as a

coordinating conjunction, but as a preposition.

Punctuate coordinating conjunctions correctly.

Three patterns in writing use coordinating conjunctions. Add commas when required.

Pattern 1 — Connecting two main clauses

When you connect two main clauses with a coordinatingconjunction, use a comma. The pattern looks like this:

main clause + , + coordinating conjunction + main clause.

Here is an example:

While I am at work, my dog Floyd sleeps on the bed , andmy cat Buster naps in the bathtub.

Pattern 2 — Connecting two items

You can also use a coordinating conjunction to connectany two items. These items can be any grammatical unitexcept main clauses. The pattern looks like this:

item + Ø + coordinating conjunction + item

Here are some examples:

My dog Floyd has too many fleas and too much hair.

My cat Buster has beautiful blue eyes but a destructivepersonality.

Pattern 3 — Connecting three or more items in a series

When you have three or more items in a series, yougenerally use a comma before the coordinatingconjunction. Some handbooks and style guides will tellyou that this comma is optional, but my advice is to put it

in. The pattern looks like this:

item + , + item + , + coordinating conjunction + item

Here is an example:

Swatting olives off the kitchen counter, dragging toiletpaper streamers through the house, and terrorizingJacques Cousteau, the parakeet, have consumedanother of Buster's days.


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Yes, you can begin a sentence with a coordinatingconjunction!

Some teachers warn that beginning a sentence with acoordinating conjunction is wrong. Teachers will typicallytell you this because they are trying to help you avoidwriting fragments. Other times teachers give this advicebecause their preference is that a sentence not beginwith a coordinating conjunction.

What you should remember is that you break nogrammar rule if you begin a sentence with a coordinatingconjunction. Because you might be breaking yourinstructors' rules, however, you should ask what their preferences are.

If you decide to begin a sentence with a coordinatingconjunction, keep these three things in mind:

Be sure that a main clause follows thecoordinating conjunction.

Do not use a coordinating conjunction to

begin every sentence. Use this optiononly when it makes the flow of your ideasmore effective.

Do not use a comma after thecoordinating conjunction. Coordinatingconjunctions are not transitionalexpressions like for example or first of all .You will rarely use punctuation afterthem.

Here are some examples:

While I was answering the telephone, Buster, my cat,

jumped onto the kitchen counter and swatted all of my jalapeño-stuffed olives onto the dirty kitchen floor. So Ihad to rinse off the cat hair and crumbs sticking to thesedelicacies before I could add them to the salad.

Flying down the bumpy path, Genette hit a rock with thefront wheel of her mountain bike, flew over thehandlebars, and crashed into a clump of prickly palmettobushes. Yet even this accident would not deter her fromcompleting the race.

Only when an interrupter immediately follows thecoordinating conjunction do you need to use commas.Read this example:

We hoped that decorating the top of Christine's cupcakewith a dead grasshopper would freak her out. But, to ouramazement, she just popped the whole thing in hermouth, chewed, and swallowed.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

A subordinating conjunction always introduces a

dependent clause, tying it to an independent clause. The

clauses can go in any order; that is, the independent or

the dependent clause can come first in the sentence, but

in either order, the first word of the dependent (or

subordinate) clause will be the subordinating conjunction.

Generally, the patterns look like these:

main clause + subordinating conjunction +subordinate clause.

Subordinating conjunction + subordinate clause + , +

main clause.

Common Subordinating Conjunctions

Cause:

as

because

in order that

since

so that

Contrast and Comparison:

although

as

as thougheven though

just as

though

whereas

while

Condition:

even if

if

in case

provided thatunless

Place:

where

wherever

Time:

after

as soon as

as long as

before

once

still

till

until

when

whenever

while

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After - later than the time that : later than when.

Example: ―Call me after you arrive at work‖

Although - despite the fact that : used to introduce a fact

that makes another fact unusual or surprising.

Example: ―Although she was tired, she couldn’t sleep‖

As - used to introduce a statement which indicates that

something being mentioned was known, expected, etc.Example: ―As we explained last class, coordinating

conjunctions are sentence connectors‖

Because - for the reason that.

Example: ―I painted the house because it was a horrible

colour‖

Before - earlier than the time that : earlier than when.

Example: ―Come and visit me before you leave‖

How - in what manner or way.

Example: ―Let me show you how to knit‖

If -used to talk about the result or effect of something that

may happen or be true.

Example: ―It would be fantastic if you could come to the

party‖

Once - at the moment when : as soon as.

Example: ―Once you’ve learnt how to cycle, it’s very

easy‖

Since - used to introduce a statement that explains the

reason for another statement.

Example: ―Since you’ve studied so well, you can go

outside and play‖

Than - used to introduce the second or last of two or

more things or people that are being compared — used

with the comparative form of an adjective or adverb.

Example: ―My sister is older than I am‖

That - used to introduce a clause that states a reason or

purpose.

Example: ―Olivia is so happy that it’s summer again‖

When - at or during the time that something happened.

Example: ―A teacher is good when he inspires his

students‖

Where - at or in the place that something happened.

Example: ―We went to the bar where there most shade‖

Whether -used to indicate choices or possibilities.

Example: ―Bruno wasn’t sure whether to go to India or

Thailand‖

While - during the time that something happened‖

Example: ―While we were in Paris, it snowed‖

Until - up to the time or point that something happened‖

Example: ―We stayed up talking until the sun came up‖

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

A conjunctive adverb is an adverb that connects two main

clauses. Conjunctive adverbs show cause and effect,

sequence, contrast, comparison, or other relationships.

Notice, however, that you need a semicolon, not a

comma, to connect the two clauses:

main clause + ; + conjunctive adverb + , + main clause.

Common Conjunctive Adverbs:

accordingly

additionally

afterward

again

almost

also

anyhow

anywayas a result

at last

at the same time

besides

certainly

consequently

contrarily

conversely

earlier

equally

eventually

finally

furthermore

for example

for instance

further

furthermore

hence

henceforth

however

in addition

in comparison

in contrastin fact

in any case

incidentally

indeed

instead

in short

instead

in the meantime

later

likewise

meanwhile

moreover

namely

nevertheless

next

nonetheless

now

on the contrary

on the other hand

otherwise

perhaps



similarly

still

subsequently

that is

then

thereafter

therefore

thus

undoubtedlyunfortunately

uniquely

Examples:

The due date for the final paper has passed; therefore, I

could not submit mine on time.

There are many history books; however, none of them

may be accurate.

It rained hard; moreover, lightening flashed and thunderboomed.

The baby fell asleep; then, the doorbell rang.

The law does not permit drinking and driving anytime;

otherwise, there would be many more accidents.

TYPES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

Functions of Subordinate Clause.

A subordinate (dependent) clause may function as a

noun, an adjective or an adverb in sentence. On the

basis of their function in a sentence, subordinate clauses

can be divided in to following types.

1. Noun Clause

2. Adjective Clause.

3. Adverb Clause

Noun Clause

―A dependent clause that functions as a noun in a

sentence is called noun clause.‖

A noun clause performs same function like a noun in a

sentence.

A noun clause can be used like a noun. It can be a

subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive,indirect object, or object of the preposition. Some of the

English words that introduce noun clauses are that,

whether, who, why, whom, what, how, when, whoever,

where, and whomever. Notice that some of these words

also introduce adjective and adverbial clauses. A clause

is a noun clause if a pronoun (he, she, it, or they) could

be substituted for it.

Example

What he did made a problem for his family.

In above sentence the clause ―what he did‖ functions as a

noun, hence it is a noun clause. A noun clause works as

a noun that acts as a subject, object, or predicate in a

sentence. A noun clause starts with words ―that, what,

whatever, who, whom, whoever, whomever‖.

Examples

Whatever you learn will help you in future. (noun clause

as a subject)

What you said made me laugh. (noun clause as a

subject)

He knows that he will pass the test. (noun clause as anobject)

Now I realize what he would have thought. (noun clause

as an object)

Adjective Clause

―A dependent clause that functions as an adjective in a

sentence is called adjective clause.‖

An adjective clause works like adjective in a sentence.

The function of an adjective is to modify (describe) a

noun or a pronoun.

Example

He wears a shirt which looks nice.

The clause ―which looks nice‖ in above sentence is an

adjective clause because it modifies noun ―shirt‖ in the

sentence.

An adjective clause always precedes the noun it

modifies.



Examples.

I met the boy who had helped me.

An apple that smells bad is rotten.

The book which I like is helpful in preparation for test.

The house where I live consists of four rooms.

The person who was shouting needed help.

Adjective clause begins with relative pronoun (that, who,

whom, whose, which, or whose) and is also called arelative clause.

Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clause or

nonrestrictive clause

Adverb Clause

―A dependent clause that functions as an adverb in a

sentence is called adverb clause‖

An adverb clause is like an adverb describing a verb,

adjective or other adverb in a sentence. It modifies

(describes) the situation in main clause in terms of ―time,frequency (how often), cause and effect, contrast,

condition, intensity (to what extent).‖

The subordinating conjunctions used for adverb clauses

are as follows.

Time: when, whenever, since, until, before, after, while,

as, by the time, as soon as

Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as long as,

so, so that,

Contrast: although, even, whereas, while, though

Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if,

providing or provided that, in case

Examples.

Don’t go before he comes.

He takes medicine because he is ill.

Although he tried a lot, he couldn’t climb up the tree.

Unless you study for the test, you can’t pass it. I will go

to the school unless it rains.

You are safe as long as you drive carefully.

You can achieve anything provided that you struggle forit.

TYPES OF PHRASES

2. Prepositional phrase Prepositional phrases start with a preposition (such as in,at, by, for, to, over, etc.), have a noun or pronoun objectof the preposition, and may also have other modifiers.Prepositional phrases function as adjectives, adverbs, or

nouns. 2.1 The announcement for the play arrived after it wasover. (As adjective) 2.2 He walked into the meeting just as the presidentarrived. (As adverb) 2.3 For you to pass your test is the reason for having atutor. (As noun; in this case, the subject) 2.4 She gave the information to me. (As indirect object) 3. Participial phrase Participial phrases are formed from participles and all therelated words. Participles are formed from verbs and endin "ing" or "ed." Participles function as adjectives;therefore, participial phrases also function as adjectives.They often describe the subject of the sentence. 3.1 Laughing wildly, she ran down the path. (Describes"she") 3.2 The actor, pausing for a moment, looked at the

crowd. (Describes "actor") 3.3 He showed us the cabinet, painted a brilliant green.(Describes the object "cabinet") 4. Infinitive phrase An infinitive phrase is formed from an infinitive and otherrelated words. An infinitive is the word "to" followed by averb. This type of phrase functions as a noun, anadjective, or an adverb. 4.1 To get an appointment with him requires a greatamount of patience. (As a noun subject) 4.2 He wanted to see the Eiffel Tower, but he didn't knowwhere it was. (As a noun direct object) 4.3 He wrote a letter to raise funds for the foundation.(As an adverb) 4.4 The decision to eliminate vacations was veryunpopular. (As an adjective) 5. Gerund phrase A gerund phrase if formed from a gerund plus its relatedwords. A gerund is a verb with an "ing" ending thatfunctions as a noun. Gerund phrases look like someparticipial phrases. The difference is that participialphrases function as adjectives; gerund phrases functionas nouns. 5.1 Juggling knives is not recommended as a relaxationtechnique. (As subject)



5.2 Sam hates getting a headache when he works late.(As direct object) 5.3 His favorite activity is sailing down the NahanniRiver. (As subject complement)

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Conjunctions, Conjunctive Adverbs, Clauses and Phrases