AP BIOLOGY REVIEWAP BIOLOGY REVIEW

NOTE:NOTE:

1)1)The packet is the best thing to study (and The packet is the best thing to study (and an AP REVIEW BOOK!!) an AP REVIEW BOOK!!)

Chemistry of LifeChemistry of Life The main atoms of life:The main atoms of life:-hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen-hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen

-What’s so great about carbon?-What’s so great about carbon?

-H + O2 makes water. Water is essential because:-H + O2 makes water. Water is essential because:-cohesion, adhesion, capillary action-cohesion, adhesion, capillary action-high heat capacity (it can store a lot of heat!)-high heat capacity (it can store a lot of heat!)-Remember: hydrogen bonds gives water it’s -Remember: hydrogen bonds gives water it’s

ability for almost everything. Hydrogen bonds is ability for almost everything. Hydrogen bonds is one water sticking to another water.one water sticking to another water.

-The action of water holding together itself is called -The action of water holding together itself is called polar covalent.polar covalent.

More Chemistry of LifeMore Chemistry of Life

pH on a scale from 1-14pH on a scale from 1-14 Where is it acidic? Basic (alkaline)?Where is it acidic? Basic (alkaline)?

Functional GroupsFunctional Groups Amino= NH2Amino= NH2 Carboxyl= COOHCarboxyl= COOH Carbonyl= CO (aldehyde or ketone?)Carbonyl= CO (aldehyde or ketone?) Hydroxyl= OHHydroxyl= OH

Major Organic MoleculesMajor Organic Molecules

1. Carbohydrates1. Carbohydrates(monosaccharide= glucose, fructose)(monosaccharide= glucose, fructose)(disaccharide= sucrose…held by glycosidic (disaccharide= sucrose…held by glycosidic

bond)bond)(polysaccharides= storage like starch or (polysaccharides= storage like starch or

structure like cellulose)structure like cellulose)

Remember carbs are a great source of Remember carbs are a great source of energy!energy!

Major Organic MoleculesMajor Organic Molecules

2. Proteins (amino acids linked together by 2. Proteins (amino acids linked together by PEPTIDE bonds)PEPTIDE bonds)

Primary- just the codePrimary- just the code Secondary- influenced by H+ bondsSecondary- influenced by H+ bonds Tertiary- influenced by R groupsTertiary- influenced by R groups Quaternary- influenced by subunits of Quaternary- influenced by subunits of

proteins binding togetherproteins binding together

Major Organic MoleculesMajor Organic Molecules

LipidsLipids

1.1. Consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but not the 1:2:1 ratio of carbs. but not the 1:2:1 ratio of carbs.

2.2. They have glycerol + fatty acids.They have glycerol + fatty acids.

3.3. Lots of H+= saturated.Lots of H+= saturated.

Examples: fats, oils, phospholipids, and Examples: fats, oils, phospholipids, and STEROIDSSTEROIDS

Major Organic MoleculesMajor Organic Molecules Nucleic AcidsNucleic AcidsThis includes DNA, RNA, and actually ATP.This includes DNA, RNA, and actually ATP.

Remember that DNA is double stranded and Remember that DNA is double stranded and more stable than RNA.more stable than RNA.

Remember ATP is an energy molecule Remember ATP is an energy molecule involved in energy requiring/making steps. involved in energy requiring/making steps. It’s energy can easily be transferred to do It’s energy can easily be transferred to do cellular work.cellular work.

Prokaryote, Plant Eukaryote, Animal Prokaryote, Plant Eukaryote, Animal EukaryoteEukaryote

ONLY BACTERIA ARE PROKARYOTES!!ONLY BACTERIA ARE PROKARYOTES!!Prokaryote= no nucleus, no organelles, cell wall, Prokaryote= no nucleus, no organelles, cell wall,

ribosomesribosomes

Plant Eukaryote= square, has nucleus + organelles, Plant Eukaryote= square, has nucleus + organelles, ribosomes, cell wall, chloroplasts, cell plate during ribosomes, cell wall, chloroplasts, cell plate during mitosismitosis

Animal Eukaryote= circle, has nucleus + organelles, Animal Eukaryote= circle, has nucleus + organelles, ribosomes, NO cell wall, lysosomes, centrioles, ribosomes, NO cell wall, lysosomes, centrioles, cleaveage furrow during mitosiscleaveage furrow during mitosis

Junction, Junction…what’s your Junction, Junction…what’s your function? function?

Desomosome= holds adjacent cells togetherDesomosome= holds adjacent cells together Gap Junction= in animal cells, allows Gap Junction= in animal cells, allows

communication between cytoplasm of communication between cytoplasm of adjacent cellsadjacent cells

Tight Junction= tight connection between Tight Junction= tight connection between membranes of cellsmembranes of cells

Plasmodesmata= only in plant cells, it’s Plasmodesmata= only in plant cells, it’s basically a gap junction in plant cellsbasically a gap junction in plant cells

If you have these to pick fromIf you have these to pick from A) NAD+A) NAD+ B) NADP+B) NADP+ C) OxygenC) Oxygen D) FADH2D) FADH2 E) Cytochrome…could you name their E) Cytochrome…could you name their

functions?functions?

PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis

Light dependent reactions make ATP, NADPH, Light dependent reactions make ATP, NADPH, and O2. They occur in the thylakoids.and O2. They occur in the thylakoids.

P680 (photosystem II, makes ATP + NADPH) and P680 (photosystem II, makes ATP + NADPH) and P700 (photosystem I, makes ATP only…if this is P700 (photosystem I, makes ATP only…if this is the only one that goes it’s called CYCLIC)the only one that goes it’s called CYCLIC)

Light independent reaction (Calvin cycle) uses the Light independent reaction (Calvin cycle) uses the ATP and NADPH + CO2 to make glucose.ATP and NADPH + CO2 to make glucose.

Remember rubisco (RuBP) fixes CO2 in the Remember rubisco (RuBP) fixes CO2 in the Calvin…unless it’s a C4 plant. Then it’s PEP.Calvin…unless it’s a C4 plant. Then it’s PEP.

PhotorespirationPhotorespiration= BAD thing, it’s the fact that = BAD thing, it’s the fact that rubisco fixes O2 and CO2rubisco fixes O2 and CO2

PlantsPlants

Bryophytes= early plants like mosses, liverworts, Bryophytes= early plants like mosses, liverworts, no vascular tissueno vascular tissue

Anything that has vascular tissue is called a Anything that has vascular tissue is called a TRACHEOPHYTE. Have seen this used on the AP TRACHEOPHYTE. Have seen this used on the AP test*test*

Plants reproduce in an alternation of generations. Plants reproduce in an alternation of generations. (What does that mean?)(What does that mean?)

Haploid= gametophyte (when it’s sperm, when it’s Haploid= gametophyte (when it’s sperm, when it’s an egg)an egg)

Diploid= sporophyte (when it’s a zygote, when it’s Diploid= sporophyte (when it’s a zygote, when it’s an embryo)an embryo)

Plants Cont.Plants Cont.

$$$$Double fertilizationDouble fertilization just means normal plant just means normal plant fertilization…it makes one embryo and one fertilization…it makes one embryo and one endosperm$$endosperm$$

Plant Hormones:Plant Hormones:

-Cytokinin-Cytokinin

-Auxin-Auxin

-Abscisic Acid (ABA-Abscisic Acid (ABA

-Giberellin-Giberellin

-Ethylene-Ethylene

Molecular GeneticsMolecular Genetics

Replication vs. Transcription vs. Translation…Think Replication vs. Transcription vs. Translation…Think about where these are involved!about where these are involved!

A)A) DNA polymeraseDNA polymeraseB)B) RNA polymeraseRNA polymeraseC)C) DNA ligaseDNA ligaseD)D) Okazaki fragmentsOkazaki fragmentsE)E) Restriction EnzymeRestriction EnzymeF)F) Reverse TranscriptaseReverse TranscriptaseG)G) PrimerPrimerH)H) Promoter Promoter I)I) HelicaseHelicase

Frequently Missed Genetic WordsFrequently Missed Genetic Words

Epistasis (example: albinism)Epistasis (example: albinism) Pleiotrophy (example: siamese cat color and Pleiotrophy (example: siamese cat color and

cross eyed)cross eyed) Polygenic Inheritance (example: skin)Polygenic Inheritance (example: skin) Complete Dominance vs. Incomplete Complete Dominance vs. Incomplete

Dominance vs. Multiple AllelesDominance vs. Multiple Alleles

ClassificationClassification

Recall:Recall:– KK PP CC OO FF GG SS– Remember that it’s from leastRemember that it’s from least most specific most specific6 Kingdoms:6 Kingdoms:-archabacteria-archabacteria-eubacteria-eubacteria-protista-protista-fungi-fungi-plantae-plantae-animalia-animalia

The “Favorite” PhylumsThe “Favorite” Phylums Expect 1-2 questions related to this out of the Expect 1-2 questions related to this out of the

100 multiple choice questions. These are in your 100 multiple choice questions. These are in your AP Review Packet…AP Review Packet…

Porifera (sponges)Porifera (sponges) Cnidaria (jellyfish, sea anemones, corals)Cnidaria (jellyfish, sea anemones, corals) Mollusca (snails, octupus, squid)Mollusca (snails, octupus, squid) Annelida (segmented worms)Annelida (segmented worms) Arthropoda (insects, spiders, crustaceans)Arthropoda (insects, spiders, crustaceans) Echniodermata (star fish, sea urchins)Echniodermata (star fish, sea urchins) Chordata (animals that have notochord Chordata (animals that have notochord

{becomes brain + spinal cord}, gill slits, muscular {becomes brain + spinal cord}, gill slits, muscular tail)tail)

A word about symmetry…A word about symmetry…

Symmetry is important in the sense that it Symmetry is important in the sense that it has to do with lower/higher organisms has to do with lower/higher organisms (milestone)(milestone)

RADIAL symmetry- circular, disk shaped. RADIAL symmetry- circular, disk shaped. Simple. Echnioderms + PoriferaSimple. Echnioderms + Porifera

BILATERAL symmetry- if organism cut in BILATERAL symmetry- if organism cut in half, they have symmetric halves. More half, they have symmetric halves. More complex. Compartmentalized.complex. Compartmentalized.

A word about animal behavior…A word about animal behavior…

ImprintingImprinting (geese) vs. (geese) vs. ClassicalClassical Conditioning (dog slobber) vs. Conditioning (dog slobber) vs. OperantOperant Conditioning (shocking mice)Conditioning (shocking mice)

Insight (reasoning)- for higher organismsInsight (reasoning)- for higher organisms

Kinesis vs. TaxisKinesis vs. Taxis

FROM BIO I…Ecology (in eco FROM BIO I…Ecology (in eco packet)packet)

Four levels of organization:Four levels of organization: Biosphere- (think BIG)- this is the entire part Biosphere- (think BIG)- this is the entire part

of the earth where living things live of the earth where living things live Ecosystem- interaction of living/nonliving Ecosystem- interaction of living/nonliving

thingsthings Community- Group of populations Community- Group of populations

interacting in same areainteracting in same area Population= group of individuals of same Population= group of individuals of same

species interbreedingspecies interbreeding

Three Forgotten Biomes (Ecology Three Forgotten Biomes (Ecology cont.)cont.)

Tundra (northernmost regions)Tundra (northernmost regions)Flora (plants) = not much, some trees, grassFlora (plants) = not much, some trees, grassFauna (animals) = arctic foxes, snowy owls, reindeerFauna (animals) = arctic foxes, snowy owls, reindeer

-Taiga (northern forests)-Taiga (northern forests)Flora=conifersFlora=conifersFauna= caribou, wolves, moose, rabbitsFauna= caribou, wolves, moose, rabbits

Temperate Deciduous ForestsTemperate Deciduous ForestsFlora= Trees that drop their leaves in winterFlora= Trees that drop their leaves in winterFauna= deer, wolves, Fauna= deer, wolves,

Eco…the most IMPORTANT (and Eco…the most IMPORTANT (and from the packet)from the packet)

-r strategists (think they breed like cRazy)--r strategists (think they breed like cRazy)-they live in uncertain environments, breed they live in uncertain environments, breed

fast, don’t care for young, short life span, fast, don’t care for young, short life span, small (example: bacteria, weeds)small (example: bacteria, weeds)

-k strategists- live in stable environments, -k strategists- live in stable environments, long life span, care for young (example: long life span, care for young (example: elephant, humans)elephant, humans)

-Carrying Capacity= the max number of -Carrying Capacity= the max number of individuals of a species that a habitat can individuals of a species that a habitat can supportsupport

Reproductive BarriersReproductive BarriersLeading to SpeciationLeading to Speciation

Prezygotic BarriersPrezygotic Barriers

Postzygotic BarriersPostzygotic Barriers

1.1. Habitat IsolationHabitat Isolation2.2. Temporal IsolationTemporal Isolation3.3. Behavioral IsolationBehavioral Isolation

MatingMating4.4. Mechanical IsolationMechanical Isolation5.5. Gametic IsolationGametic Isolation

FertilizationFertilization6.6. Reduced Hybrid viabilityReduced Hybrid viability7.7. Reduced Hybrid fertilityReduced Hybrid fertility8.8. Hybrid breakdownHybrid breakdown

4% of a sheep population has black wool, 96% 4% of a sheep population has black wool, 96% white. If black wool is recessive what % of the white. If black wool is recessive what % of the

population is heterozygous?population is heterozygous?

qq22=.04=.04 q = q = √.04= .2√.04= .2 1-q = p1-q = p 1-.2= .81-.2= .8 So q= .2 p=.8So q= .2 p=.8 Substitute in 2pqSubstitute in 2pq 2 (.8) (.2) = .32 or 32%2 (.8) (.2) = .32 or 32%

4% of a sheep population has black wool, 96% 4% of a sheep population has black wool, 96% white. If black wool is recessive what % of the white. If black wool is recessive what % of the

population is heterozygous?population is heterozygous?

What % of the population is homozygous for What % of the population is homozygous for white wool?white wool?

Substitute in for pSubstitute in for p22

.8.822= .64 = 64%= .64 = 64%

PlantsPlants Meristems-generate cells throughout the plants life.Meristems-generate cells throughout the plants life.

– Apical- extend roots and shoots (Primary Growth)Apical- extend roots and shoots (Primary Growth)– Lateral- add girth (secondary growth)Lateral- add girth (secondary growth)

Transport tissuesTransport tissues– Xylem-water and mineralsXylem-water and minerals– Phloem- carry sugarPhloem- carry sugar

Phloem is made of:Phloem is made of:-Sieve tube cells and companion cells-Sieve tube cells and companion cells Xylem is made of: Xylem is made of:

– Tracheids- long thinTracheids- long thin– Vessel elements- wider, shorterVessel elements- wider, shorter– Both are dead at functional maturityBoth are dead at functional maturity

Movement of water from roots to leaves occurs byMovement of water from roots to leaves occurs by– Bulk-Flow- the movement of fluid driven by a pressure difference at opposite Bulk-Flow- the movement of fluid driven by a pressure difference at opposite

ends of a conduit.ends of a conduit.– The pressure difference is generated at the leaf end by transpirational pull ( lower The pressure difference is generated at the leaf end by transpirational pull ( lower

pressure) at the leaf end.pressure) at the leaf end.– Water pulled tight against the cell walls in the air spaces of the leaf cause the Water pulled tight against the cell walls in the air spaces of the leaf cause the

negative pressure which draws water up xylem.negative pressure which draws water up xylem.

Major Branches of the Animal KingdomMajor Branches of the Animal Kingdom

Animals

“Porifera”Sponges

SubkingdomEumetazoa

Radiata-”Cnidarians”Radial Symmetry

Bilateria(bilateral symmetry)Cephalization3 germ layers

Coelomate

Have a true coelom- a body cavity lined with tissue of mesodermal origin

Protostomes

Mollusks, Annelids and Arthropods

-Spiral Cleavage (cell divisions are along a diagonal line)

-Determinate (cell fate is established early)

Mouth forms from blastopore

Schizocoelus (solid masses of mesoderm form coelom)

Deuterostomes

Echinoderms and Chordates

-Radial Cleavage (cell divisions line up with the original cell divisions).

-Indeterminate (allows for identical twins!)

-anus forms from blastophore

-Enterocoelous (outpockets of the archenteron form the coelom)

Acoelomate

No cavity between the gut and the body wall.

Flatworm “Platyhelminthes”

Pseudocoelomatea

Rotifer-Coelom not completely lined by mesoderm

OperonsOperons

In ProkaryotesIn Prokaryotes Region of a chromosome where a set of Region of a chromosome where a set of

genes are transcribed at one time.genes are transcribed at one time. Allows all of the enzymes needed for a Allows all of the enzymes needed for a

pathway to be present at once.pathway to be present at once. Two TypesTwo Types

– Inducible are usually off but can be turned on. Inducible are usually off but can be turned on. Like the lac operon.Like the lac operon.