AP Language Review

8/3/2019 AP Language Review

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Advanced PlacementEnglish LanguageAnd Composition

Exam ReviewApril 28, 2007

Broward County Schools


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A.P. English Languageand Composition

Multiple-Choice Questions

Broward C ou nt y R ev e wApril 28,2007

Virg n a Wa zCora Spr ngs H gh Schoo

Format of Me Section There are typically four passages There are on average 50-55 questions You have 60 minutes to respond Accounts for 45% of your exam score

B ro wa rd C ou nt y R ev e wApr 28, 2007


Specific Parts Questions Analysis of a paragraph's style Analysis of a primary purpose Analysis of tone Analysis of words or phrases Grammatical constructions Antecedents Relating one part of the passage to another Vocabulary in contextBroward County ReviewApril 28,2007


Types of Questions Whole Passage Specific Parts of the Passage

B ro wa rd C ou nt y R ev e wApril 28,2007


Whole Passage Questions The diction in the passage .... The passage most directly resembles ... Which of the following best describes thepassage ...

The intended audience for the passage ...

B ro wa rd C ou nt y R ev e wApril 28, 2007


Level of Difficulty MC questions vary in level of difficulty Questions are NOT arranged by order ofdifficulty as in some other tests (PSAT,SAT)

B ro wa rd C ou nt y R ev e wApril 28,2007



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Answering the Questions Complete all the questions that you intendto answer on one passage beforeproceeding to the next one.

Only return to unanswered questions ifyou have enough time remaining

Broward County ReviewApril 28,2007

Virginia WalzCoral Springs High School

New for 2007 Recognize the contribution and/orrhetorical purpose of footnotes used in apassage

NOT required to have memorized anyparticular styles (for example, MLA,Chicago, APA, etc.)

Responsible for gleaning information fromcitations

Broward County ReviewApril 28,2007

Virginia WalzCoral Springs High School


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Types of Multiple-Choice QuestionsQuestions on the whole passage

Which of the following best describes the passage?(A) An appeal for the reader's sympathy and admiration(B) A brief overview of the methods that the author used(C) A summary of the principles according to which the author worked(D) A warning to the reader about the complexity of the ensuing work(E) A challenge to those who would doubt the accuracy of the author's workThe diction in the passage is best described as(A) technical and abstruse(B) lofty and learned(C) pedestriasn(D) colloquial(E) scientificThe intended audience for this passage is most probably(A) pious readers(B) educated adults(C) amateur writers(D) professional poets(E) book publishersThe passage most directly resembles the speaker's sense of Parker's style in its(A) juxtaposition of disparate elements(B) lyrical description of religion and art(C) blatant mimicry of other writers' techniques(D) relentless insistence on a single theme(E) reliance on abbreviated, staccato phrases

Questions on specific parts of the passageAnalysis of a paragraph

One prominent stylistic characteristic of the first paragraph is the use of(A) metaphor (B) understatement (C) parallel syntax(D) personification (E) euphemismIn the third paragraph, the speaker's primary purpose is to(A) assert her own qualifications(B) develop an argument for more honesty in writing(C) create an elaborate analogy(D) introduce a new topic for consideration(E) establish a hypothetical situation for analysisThe tone of lines 59-72 can best be described as(A) tentative and prudent(B) detached and ironic(C)(D)(E)

fervent and emphaticdefensive and self-awaresupportive and reassuring


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Analysis of words or phrasesWhich of the following best describes Johnson's use of the terms "slave orscience" and "pioneer of literature" (lines 10-11)?(A) The contrast between the two terms emphasizes the variety of possible responses to the

dictionary.(B) Both sensationalize the difficulty of the lexicographer'S research.(C) The difference between the two terms illustrates the range of the lexicographer's experience.(D) Both exaggerate the public's lack of admiration for lexicographers.(E) Each illustrated what is meant later in the sentence by "Learning and Genius."The "arrow" in line 38 is a metaphorical reference to(A) unrequited love(B) the envy of other female writers(C) the self-doubt that writers sometimes experience(D) a painful memory(E) criticism from men

Grammatical constructionsIn line 12, "who" refers to(A) "unhappy mortals" (line8) (B) "mankind" (line 9)(C) "pupil" (line 10) (D) "the slave" (line 10) and "the pionier"(line 10) (E) "Learning and Genius" (line 12)Which words, when inserted between "but" and "capable" (lines 7-8), best clarify the meaning of thesecond sentence?(A) as if(B) becoming more(C) by being(D) which were(E) that are

AntecedentsIn line 17, "this negative recompense" refers to(A) freedom from criticism(B) gratitude from future generations(C) personal satisfaction(D) diligence as its own reward(E) absence of recognition

Relating one part of the passage to another partHow is the second paragraph related to the first?(A) Itqualifies the generalization made in the first paragraph by challenging the scope of theassertions.(B) It refutes the assertion made in the first paragraph by presenting a contrary example.(C) Itcontinues the generalization made in the first paragraph by giving it a particular

application.(D) Itsupports the assertion made in the first paragraph by citing the testimony of authority.(E) It reiterates the ideas in the first paragraph while noting a possible exception.

Vocabulary in contextAs used in line 46, "wanting" is best interpreted to mean(A) desiring (B) capturing (C) lacking


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(D) faulting (E) huntingUse of FootnotesThe purpose of footnote 4 is to inform the reader that the quotation in line 49

(A) has been attributed to three different designers(B) was first cited in 1918(C) was the inspiration for an exhibit at the Brooklyn Museum(D) is an article in The Machine Age in America 1981-1941 written by Harry N. Abrams, Inc.


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Terminology from past AP Tests Multiple Choice QuestionsD. Fettrow

Literary Terms/Rhetorical Strategies/Analysis/Purposeabstraction dictionaction verballiterationallusion (literary,historical)analogyanalysisanecdoteantithesisappeal to authorityapostropheargumentassertioncharacterizationciting of authoritiescolloquial expressioncommentarycomparisonconcrete examplescontextcounterbalancecritiquecriticismdatadeductiondescriptiondeveloping an argumentTone/Style WordsabashedabhorringabstractadmiringadoringaffectionateagitatedambiguousambivalentangryannoyedantagonisticanxIOUSapatheticapprehensivearchawkwardbitingbluntboring

digressiondiscussiondistinguishemphasisenumerateenunciateexpand onexpositoryextending an examplefallacyextending a metaphorgeneralizationshypothesizingilluminateillustrateImageimpliesIronyIssuesjustifyjuxtapositionnarrationonomatopoeiaoverstatementoxymoronparadox

brusquecandidcelebratorycholericcombativecomplexconfusingcontemplativeconfidentconciliatorycondescendingcontemptuouscynicismdangerousdefensivederisivedespairingdesperatedetacheddidactic

parallelismparodypathospersonal observationpersonificationpraiseproposalpunqualifyingrebuttalrefuterevealscientific termsimilespeculationsubordinate clausesummary (ize)symbolthesistransitionsundercutunderstatementunfoldtaking exceptionunqualified assertionverbal irony

diffidentearnesteffusiveelegiacempatheticemphaticenigmaticentrappederraticeuphoricfatalisticfatefulferventflippantforebodinggloomygrowthhopefulhopelesshostile


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Terminology from past AP Tests Multiple Choice QuestionsD. Fettrow

InCISIVe nostalgic self-awareindecisive objective sentimentalinflammatory ornamental skepticalinformative parochial solemnityinnovative passionate speculativeinsolent personal straightforwardintimate pessimistic strugglingintrospective pointed subtleironic prudent supportiveisolated reassuring sympatheticjocund refined SUSpICIOUSjovial reflective tentativelaudatory resigned vitrioliclethargic resentful vividlugubrious respectful whimsicallyrical reticent wistfulmock solemnity sanguine wrymodest self-assured zealousnaive self-deprecatingGrammatical Constructionantecedent parallel structuresubject of sentence prepositionsGeneral Vocabularyadmonitions emitting pervasrveadvisability entrepreneur phenomenaamplifying erratic precedingappease exalted predecessorsascertain exclusive pretextawesome fateful profoundbarrenness foreknowledge regalblatant futility relentlessburdensome hostile resolveconcept inanimate sensibilityconspicuous interlocked serenitycontradictions intimidate staccatocontrived invalid subtledepiction linguistic subjectivedefinitive jeremiads surpassdigressive magnanimity tentativediscredit mimicry treacherydiscursive monarch undaunteddispense with nomenclature undercutdiverse objective uniquedubious particular unrequiteddyspeptic perspective unsophisticated


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D. F et tr owIt is the fate of those who toil at the lower employ-

ments of life, to be rather driven by the fear of evil,than attracted by the prospect of good; to be exposedto censure; without hope of praise; to be disgraced by

(5) miscarriage, or punished for neglect, where successwould have been without applause, and diligencewithout reward.

Among these unhappy mortals is the writer ofdictionaries; whom mankind have considered, not as

(10) the pupil, but the slave of science, the pionier of litera-ture, doomed only to remove rubbish and clear obstruc-tions from the paths of Learning and Genius, who pressforward to conquest and glory, without bestowing asmile on the humble drudge that facilitates their pro-

(15) gress. Every other author may aspire to praise; thelexicographer can only hope to escape reproach, andeven this negative recompense has been yet grantedto very few.

I have, notwithstanding this discouragement,(20) attempted a dictionary of the English language, which,

while it was employed in the cultivation of every speciesof literature, has itself been hitherto neglected, sufferedto spread, under the direction of chance, into wild exu-berance, resigned to the tyranny of time and fashion,

(25) and exposed to the corruptions of ignorance, andcaprices of innovation.

In this work, when it shall be found that much isomitted, let it not be forgotten that much likewise isperformed; and though no book was ever spared out

(30) of tenderness to the author, and the world is little solici-tous to know whence proceeded the faults of that whichit condemns; yet it may gratify curiosity to inform it,that the English Dictionary was written with little assis-tance of the learned, and without any patronage of the

(35) great; not in the soft obscurities of retirement, or underthe shelter of academic bowers, but amidst inconve-nience and distraction, in sickness and in sorrow; andit may repress the triumph of malignant criticism toobserve, that if our language is not here fully displayed,

(40) I have only failed in an attempt which no human powershave hitherto completed. If the lexicons of ancienttongues, now immutably fixed, and comprised in afew volumes, be yet, after the toil of successive ages,inadequate and delusive; if the aggregated knowledge,

(45) and cooperating diligence of the Italian academicians,


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D. Fettrow

did not secure them from the censure of Beni, if the em-bodied criticks of France, when fifty years had beenspent upon their work, were obliged to change iteconomy, and give their second edition another form,(50) I may surely be contented without the praise of perfec-tion, which, if I could obtain, in this gloom of solitude,what would it avail me? I have protracted my work tillmost of those whom I wished to please have sunk intothe grave, and success and miscarriage are empty sounds:

(55) I therefore dismiss it with frigid tranquility, having littleto fear or hope from censure or from praise.

Samuel Johnson, Preface to A Dictionarya/the English Language (1755)

1. Which of the following best describes the passage?(A) An appeal for the reader's sympathy and admiration(B) A brief overview of the methods that the author used(C) A summary of the principles according to which the author worked(D) A warning to the reader about the complexity of the ensuing work(E) A challenge to those who would doubt the accuracy of the author's work

2. One prominent stylistic characteristic of the first paragraph is the use of(A) metaphor (B) understatement (C) parallel syntax(D) personification (E) euphemism

3. Which of the following best describes Johnson's use of the terms "slave of science"and "pionier of literature" (lines 10-11)?

(A) The contrast between the two terms emphasizes the variety of possibleresponses to the dictionary.

(B) Both sensationalize the difficulty of the lexicographer's research.(C) The difference between the two terms illustrates the range of the

lexicographer's experience.(D) Both exaggerate the public's lack of admiration for lexicographers.(E) Each illustrates what is meant later in the sentence by "Learning and

Genius."4. In line 12, "who" refers to

(A) "unhappy mortals" (line 8) (B) "mankind" (line 9)(C) "pupil" (line 10) (D) "the slave" (line 10) and "the pionier" (line 10)(E) "Learning and Genius" (line 12)

5. In line 17, "this negative recompense" refers to(A) freedom from criticism


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D. Fettrow(B) gratitude from future generations(C) personal satisfaction(D) diligence as its own reward(E) absence of recognition

6. Johnson's emphasis in the first two paragraphs is on the(A) difficulty of his work(B) ephemeral quality of his work(C) benefit to be derived from his work(D) lack of public comprehension of his work(E) lack of critical acclaim for his work

7. How is the second paragraph related to the first?(A) It qualifies the generalization made in the first paragraph by challenging the

scope of the assertions.(B) It refutes the assertion made in the first paragraph by presenting contrary

example.(C) It continues the generalization made in the first paragraph by giving it aparticular application.

(D) It supports the assertion made in the first paragraph by citing the testimonyof authority.

(E) It reiterates the ideas in the first paragraph while noting a possibleexception.8. In the third paragraph, Johnson primarily does which of the following?

(A) Establishes his credentials.(B) Appeals to the reader's emotions.(C) Anticipates the reader's objections.(D) Asserts the need for what he has done.(E) Argues that his work will find its audience.

9. In line 22, "itself' refers to(A) "this discouragement" (line 19)(B) "a dictionary" (line 20)(C) "the English language" (line 20)(D) "cultivation" (line 21)(E) "species of literature" (lines 21-22)

10. The sentence "If ... me" (lines 41-52) contains all of the following EXCEPT(A) parallel clauses (B) qualifying phrases(C) a rhetorical question (D) historical allusions (E) simile

11. The diction in the passage is best described as(A) technical and abstruse (B) lofty and learned(D) colloquial (E) scientific (C) pedestrian


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D. Fettrow12. The phrase "the praise of perfection" (lines 50-51) is best interpreted to mean

(A) the commendation of the best minds(B) recognition from God(C) the opinion that the work is flawless(0) the fruits of revision(E) a reward for having completed the task

13. In comparing the compilation of the English Dictionary with that of the French andItalian dictionaries, Johnson emphasizes the

(F) superior powers of academicians(G) solitary nature of his own work(H) relative complexity of the English language(I) comparative fair-mindedness of foreign critics(J) relative simplicity of his task

14. Johnson's rhetorical stance seems primarily designed to(A) anticipate and deflect criticism(B) establish his academic credentials(C) alert the reader to specific flaws in the work(0) argue for linguistic reform(E) expose the pretentiousness of other lexicographers.

15. In the passage, Johnson makes all of the following assumptions about his readersEXCEPT:

(A) Few care how the work was developed.(B) Most will be dissatisfied with the work.(C) Few are people whose opinion Johnson values.(0) Most will disparage the usefulness of any dictionary.(E) Few would praise Johnson even if the work were flawless.

Passage One1.A 6.02. E 7.C3. B 8. B4. C 9. E5. C 10. B

11. B12. 0

Passage Two1. A 6. E2. C 7. C3.0 8.04. E 9. C5. A 10. E

11. B12. C13. B14. A15. 0

Answer Key

""""~--


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Sample Footnote Questions1. Which of the following is an accurate reading of footnote 2?

(A) An article by John F. Kasson appears on page 427 of Engineering.(B) "Machine Tools at the Philadelphia Exhibition" was published in New York.(C) The article "Engineering" can be found on page 427 of "Machine Tools at the

Philadelphia Exhibition."(D) "Machine Tools at the Philadelphia Exhibition" is an article published in the May

26, 1876, issue of Engineering.(E) Engineering is an article cited by John F. Kasson.

2. The purpose of footnote 4 is to inform the reader that the quotation in line 49(A) has been attributed to three different designers(B) was first cited in 1918(C) was the inspiration for an exhibit at the Brooklyn Museum(D) is an article in The Machine Age in America 1981-1941 written by Harry N.

Abrams, Inc.(E) appears in a book written by Wilson, Pilgrim, and Tashjian and published in 1986

3. Taken as a whole, the footnotes suggest that(A) the author of the passage wants the text to present highly technical material(B) the author of the passage relies heavily on Kasson's book(C) very little was written about the topic of machinery and ornamentation prior to

1976(D) engineering magazines are an essential source for technical writers(E) except in rare cases, it is best to use the latest published work when documenting

an idea or concept

Answer Key:1. D 2. E 3. B


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Table 4.2 - AP English Language and Composition Scoring Worksheet

--. aver~e reltd er

[ ~ 7 - 0/4 X 27 ) ] X 1.2500= ~O~3tAJ ;;Number correct Number wrong Multiple-Choice(out of 54) Score~ (If less than zero,~ 7 -- c .7J M, ~J enter zero.)

Section I: Multiple Choice

Section II: Free Response

Question I Z X 3.0556 = u.Jr 2 . , 1(out of 9) (Do not round)Question 2 c X 3.0556;; If ..333{.(out of 9) (Do not round)Question 3 7 X 3.0556 = ;A I .. JF1.l(out of 9) (Do not round)

Sum;; r ; I , 1 1 : 1WeightedSection IIScore(Do not round)

~~, 31~~WeightedSection IScore

AP G rade Conversion ChartEng lish language andComposit ionComposite AP GradeScore Ran e*

93-107108-150 5

Composite Score

WeightedSection IScoreWeightedSection IIScore

Composite Score(Round to nearestwhole number.)

0-42

4c p1

*The students' scores are weightedaccording to formulas determined in advanceeach year bythe Development Committeeto yield raw composite scores; the ChiefFaculty Consultant is responsible forconverting composite scores to the 5-pointAP scale.

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Table 4.2 - AP English Language and Composition Scoring Worksheet-Section I' Multiple Choice

(l/4X 11 )]X 1.2500= J7. /~S; ; J2alMNumber wr.~ng Multiple-Choice WeightedC . " ' . 7S) Score Section I(If le ss th an z er o, Score'( . 7s -:::0. lJ e n te r z e ro .)

Section II Free Response

Question 1 f) X 3.0556;; lS ! xuout of 9) (Do not round)Question 2 ~ X 3.0556;; Jt, 1 7i(out of9) (Do not round)Question 3 t) X 3.0556 = It. A 7 ~(out of 9) (Do not round)

AP Grade Conversion ChartEnglish l.anquaqe ami

CumpusitiouComposite AP GradeScore Ran *108-150 593-107 472-92 C D43-71 20-42 1

* T he s tu d en ts ' s c or es a re we ig h te da c co rd in g to fo rmu la s de te rm in e d in ad van cee a ch ye ar b y th e De velo pmen t Comm it te eto y ie ld ra w c omp os ite s co re s; th e C h ie fFacu lt y Consu lt ant i s r e spons ib le f orc o nve rt in g compos it e s cor es to th e 5 -p o in tAP scale .

Sum = l iS, 83 YWeightedSection IIScore(Donot round)

Corripo sitc Score

3 7 , 8 " 1 1 5 : l IS.f:JY = t2- ~'f ,SWeightedSection IScore

WeightedSection IIScoreComposite Score( R ou nd to n ea re stwhole number.)

79 ]


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Table 4.2 - AP English Language and Composition Scoring Worksheet

[ - (1/4X )] XNumber correct Number wrong(out of 54)

1.2500 = :;: _Multiple-ChoiceScore(If less than zero,enter zero.)

WeightedSection IScore

Section I: Multiple Choice

Section" Free Response

{tl x 3.0556:;: /. ~13,(Do not round)Question 1

A P Grade Conve rs ion ChartEng lish l.an 0 II (1 !IC an dComposi tionComposite AP GradeScore Ran *108-150 593-107 472-92 343-71 20-42 1

(out of 9)

Question 2 l C . 333"3.0556 = --=f"__ ----,-_;_.,(Do not round)

*The students' scores are weighteda cco rd in g to fo rmula s d ete rm in ed in a dv an ceeach year by the Development Committeeto yield raw composite scores; the ChiefFaculty Consultant is responsible forconverting composite scores to the !i-pointAP s ca le .

(out of9)

Question 3 X 3.0556= If.33 .3 ,(Do not round)out of 9)7') lOts. f o y ' "-t's,o O o S 'J' . 'J9~~n e e . . d e . d G I\ Sum = st.OO(/?MC . Weighted

Section IIScore(Do not round)

Composite Score

-----+-----WeightedSection IScoreWeightedSection IIScore


! , .- '- ;

79 ]


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Table4.2 - AP English Language and Composition Scoring Worksheet

3Section I' Multiple Choice

x 1.2500 = l7 .5" = _ . : : . . _ I _ 7 , _ S _Multiple-Choice WeightedScore Section I(If le ss th an z ero , Score

enter zero.)

[ 2 ~ - (1/4 X Ja )Number correct Number wron(out of 54) r~'l- y ~ 1,/Section II Free Response

Question 1(out '9) X 3.0556 = f ~ 1 333,Do not round)

Question 2 , X 3.0556 = IF.333,(out of 9) (Do not round)Question 3 c X 3.0556 = / f . a j 3 ( ,(out of9) (Do not round)7 " rt.s. fo~ j o v e v - a . 1 1SS,ooe'I e , , qlJ J Sum = St' ..0001'V l ~(. e ~ 0#,\ Me Weighted


A P Grade Conve rsion ChartEng lish Lanq LJa~ IC andCourpusitiun

Composite AP GradeScore Ran *108-150 593-107 42-92 3

20-42 1

Composite Score

Th e s tu d en ts ' s c or es a re we ig h te da c co rd in g to f ormula s de te rm in e d in ad van cee a ch ye ar b y t he De velo pmen t Comm itt eeto y ie ld r aw c omp os ite s co re s; th e C h ie fFacu lt y Consu lt an t i s r e spons ib le f orc o nve rtin g compos ite s cor es t o t he 5 -p o in tA P s ca le .

WeightedSection IScoreWeightedSection IIScore

Composite Score(Round to nearestwhole number. '

79


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WeightedSection IScore

1.2500 = = _Section I Multiple Choice

[ - (1/4 X )] XNumber correct Number wrong(out of 54) Multiple-ChoiceScore(If less than zero,enter zero.)

Section II Free Response

Question 2

5 X 3.0556 = 1~_~7$(out of 9) (Do not round)~ X 3.0556 = It, 17&(out of 9) (Do not round)6 X 3.0556 = IS , ' J . . ? r ;(out of 9) (Do not round)f o r 3 o v e v - c . . ( l

Question 1

Question 3

7 ' ) . . pts .:: if$', f f3 l(~ ,." , Weighted


Cornpositc Score

! -

- - - - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - - -WeightedSection]ScoreWeightedSection IIScore


,

A P Grarle Conve rs ion Char1Ell y IIS h La n ~ JII a ~ Je a II dCompusi tionComposite APGradeScore Ran e*108-150 593-107 472-92 343-71 20-42 1

*The students' scores ere weightedaccording to formulas determined in advanceeach year by the Development Committeeto yield raw composite scores; the ChiefFaculty Consultant is responsible forconverting composite scores to the 5-pointAP scale.

79


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Section I MUltiple Choice

[ ~~ -Number correct(ou t o f 54) (1/4 X ~, ~X 1.2500 = ~ " 67JNumber wrong Multiple-Choice,,~ &ore(If le ss th an z ero ,e , . S:: ~/. 5 e nte r z ero .)

= A'.G7~WeightedSection IScoreSection II Free Response

Question 1 f X 3.0556 = I S ' .rr f(out o f 9) (Do n ot ro un d)Question 2 S X 3.0556 = IS ' , ~ 2~(out o f 9) (Do n ot ro un d)Question 3 s : X 3.0556 = IS ', ~ 7 1 '(out o f 9) (Do n ot ro un d)7~ pi's" lOr 3 allev-a,ll- 'fo,f3 '{a'" I ( ; C . Sum = L f S , r r 3 y

WeightedSection IIScore(D o not ro und)

A P Grade Convers ion ChartEnglish l.anquaqe andCompos It lOll

Composite APGradeScore Ran e*108-150 593-107 42-92 343-71 20-42 1

Cornposite Score

J J " 8 - 7.t + 45 , f.3 Y = 7 " . . 70 'IWeightedSection IScore

WeightedSection IIScoreComposite Score( Ro un d to n ea re stwhole number.)

*The students' s co re s a re w e ig hte da cc ord in g to fo rm ula s d ete rm in ed in a dv an cee ac h y ea r b y th e D ev elo pm e nt C omm itte eto y ie ld ra w c om po site s co re s; th e C hie fF ac ulty C o ns ulta nt is re sp on sib le fo rc on ve rtin g c om p os ite s co re s to t he 5 -p oin tAP sca le.

! ,- ( ;

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A.P. English Languageand Composition

Effective Essay Writing forRhetorical Analysis and

Argumentation

Types of Prompts Analysis (Rhetorical/Argument) Argumentation Synthesis

"Students should read essay prompts as texts,making certain they have understood what they are

being asked to do." - M. Elkins8roward County ReviewApril 28, 2007

VirginiaWalzC or al S pr in gs H ig h S ch oo l

Sample Prompts w/Notation See Handouts Annotate the Prompt to discover and stayfocused on your TASK(S)

Annotate the passage according to theTASK(S)

Determine the Author's IntenUPurpose inthe passage.

B ro w a rd C o un t y R e vi ewApri12B,2007 VirginiaWalzCoral Springs High School

The Prompt The most wonderful essay ever writtenCANNOT score in the high range if itscontent is OFF PROMPT.

Make sure you are reading the promptcorrectly and addressing what it is askingof you.

B ro w ar d C ou nt y R ev ie wApril 28, 2007

V i r gi n ia W a l zCoral Springs High School

1. Read the Prompt Read the prompt Read the prompt again Underline key words/phrases Number those elements that must beaccomplished in the essay

Do everything the prompt suggests;address every part of the prompt

Broward County ReviewA p r il 2 8, 2 00 7

Virginia WalzC or al S pr in gs H ig h S ch oo l

Analysis Rhetorical- consider tone, attitude, pointof view, techniques, diction, imagery,syntax, language level

Argument - consider tone, attitude,strategies, emphasis, diction, imagery,syntax, appeals

B ro w ar d C ou nt y R ev ie wApril 28,2007 V i r gi n ia W a l zCoral Springs High School


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General Analysis Terms(Recent Exams)

"Crafts the Text" Rhetorical Strategies Most Compelling (Observation/Argument) Strategies Used (to Satirize) "Conveys the EffecUFeeling/etc ..."

8roward County ReviewApril 28, 2007

VirginiaWalzCora Spr ngs H gh Schoo

Consider Your Task Analyze techniques Convey/Define Attitude Achieve Purpose Effect on Audience/Reader Reveal Differences in Purpose

8 ro wa rd C ou nt y R ev e wApril 28, 2007

VirginiaWalzCora Spr ngs H gh Schoo

2. Read the Passage Annotate as you read Identify subject and examples used Mark diction - connotation and irony Use of/Choices in Imagery - parallelthemes and symbols Unusual Syntax and/or Punctuation Connection and/or Organization of ideas,paragraphs, sentences

Br ow ar d C ou nt y R ev e wApri12B,2007 11 VirginiaWalzCora Spr ngs H gh Schoo

Specific Terms Arguments Assumptions Sentence Structure; Syntax Tone Point of View Detail

B ro w ar d C ou nt y R ev ie wApr 28, 2007

V i r gi n ia W a l zCora Spr ngs H gh Schoo

Authorial Intent Consider Purpose Consider Audience Consider Occasion What is the RHETORICAL purpose of thepassage?

What techniques of LANGUAGE does thewriter use to achieve that purpose?

Br ow ar d C ou nt y R ev e wA p r il 2 8, 2 00 7

10 Virg n a Wa zCora Spr ngs H gh Schoo

3. Organization Think before you write DO NOT begin by restating, i.e., parroting,the prompt word for word

Thesis need to be specific - how do thepurpose and language interact

Characterize the elements under analysis,don't just list them

Br ow ar d C ou nt y R ev e wApr 28, 2007

12 V i r gi n ia W a l zCora Spr ngs H gh Schoo


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Use Details/Examples Quote from the passage liberally Use examples of diction, details,assumption, figurative language, etc ... Use short quotes - embed into your ownstatements

Always explain the writer's purpose inincluding these devices


13 VirginiaWalzCora Spr ngs H gh Schoo

Writing the Body,-r's Be thorough and specific: ANALYZE Do not simply "point out" strategies Explain how they are used Provide examples from the text Speculate as to why the author includedthem; what is their effect?

How do they support the purpose?8 ro wa rd C ou nt y R ev e wApril 28, 2007


A Good Length No magic number of paragraphs Divide into paragraphs - don't write one longparagraph - f ind natural breaks and indent

Find a pattern of organization: order ofappearance; words to phrases to paragraphs ... WATCH YOUR TIME - you want to includelanguage from the WHOLE passage


Write about what yOU know You cannot possibly explore everyrhetorical device/technique the author hasused

Select those for which you can explain thefunction and purpose

Look for connections between the variousdevices/strategies



Focus on Function Don't guess about the name of a device If you aren't sure if the name isonomatopoeia or oxymoron or metonymy,then don't use the term

But do include the "buzz" and "loudsilence" and "the crown" ...

And then discuss HOW they contribute tothe selection


ts Virg n a Wa zCora Spr ngs H gh Schoo

Style and Voice Write to express, not to impress - usenatural language

Demonstrate that you understand style -show how the author developed theselection to create a desired effect

Maintain an economy of language - saymuch with few words - CONCISION

Br ow ar d C ou nt y R ev e wApril 28, 2007



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Style and Voice (cont'd) Best to use third person (he, she, they),rather than first person Try to use present tense when discussingliterature/written text

Write legibly - the readers cannot rewardyou for what you do well if they cannotread it Let your work stand on its own merits - nopity notes ("I was up all night," etc ...8roward County ReviewApril 28, 2007


Argumentation Defend - Support - agree completely Challenge - Dispute - disagreecompletely

Qualify - means to agree or disagreeexcept in certain circumstances

Choose the approach for which you canfind the most evidence. Take a stand.Don't straddle the fence.

8 ro wa rd C ou nt y R ev e wApril 28, 2007


Finding Evidence (details) If appropriate, find details from a variety ofsources

Use history Use science Use literature Use current events Use personal observationBr ow ar d C ou nt y R ev e wApri12B,2007 23 VirginiaWalzCora Spr ngs H gh Schoo

Verbs that contribute Chronicles Delineates Demonstrates Depicts Exemplifies Features Illuminates

Portrays Reflects Specifies Suggests Illustrates DO NOT USE- goes, shows, tells



Step One Determine the point of the author in thepassage

Develop you own position on that point(Agree, Disagree, Qualify)

Choose the side for which you have themost detail for support

This provides the details for youintroduction


22 Virg n a Wa zCora Spr ngs H gh Schoo

Be Specific with Details Reasons - use illustrations Examples - include names, titles Incidents - include dates, places Facts/Statistics - DO NOT make them up! Personal Experience - don't generalize;use names, places




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Use Quality Detail Avoid inaccuracies - BE RIGHT!! Add as many specifics as possible -specific names, specific dates, specifictitles

Be coherent - include only RELEVANTdetails more is NOT necessarilymerrier don't include details that don'tdirectly support your point



Argument Intro Write a short intro in which you ... Explain the position of the author Present your position and any backgroundthe reader needs to know

Include a strong thesis - one that clearlypresents the position (defend, challenge,qualify)

Do NOT repeat the prompt8 ro wa rd C ou nt y R ev e wApril 28, 2007


The Body Start with the weakest and end with thestrongest

Divide your assertions into paragraphswith the appropriate support in each

Apply effective transitions to match theorganization of the content


Organize the Argument Write a strong thesis - state your positionclearly Formulate 3-4 paragraphs

Admit the opposition - acknowledge theopposing argument

Make your points relevant and accurate Add a conclusionB ro w ar d C ou nt y R ev ie wApr 28, 2007


Concession Think of the argument the opposing sidemight propose

Be willing to concede a point Think of ways to acknowledge thosearguments and refute them

Might place after your introduction; don'tspend more than two sentences


2. Virg n a Wa zCora Spr ngs H gh Schoo

Conclusion Write a brief conclusion in which youreturn - with force - to your position

Try to come full-circle - return to idea youused/mentioned in your introduction

Consider analogies to your point in theintroduction to avoid merely repeating theintroduction




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Voice and Style - redux Generally, use a less formal style thanwith analysis essays Use first person, if it seems natural

AVOID second person - "you" Write naturally, past tense is okay Use exact diction (avoid non-specificlanguage "one," "thing," etc ... )


31 VirginiaWalzCoral Springs High School

Answer the Question Look for key words Choose only one approach Use a variety of evidence Be specific

B ro w ar d C ou nt y R ev ie wApril 28,2007 32

V i r gi n ia W a l zCoral Springs High School


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The study of rhetoric stretches back to classical Greece. Today the term is most commonly takenpejoratively, meaning bombastic or exaggerated language. But rhetoric also has a neutralmeaning,-rhetoric as the art or science of persuasion by meansof stylistic and structural techniques. The study of rhetoric isuseful because it encourages us to think of writing (and speaking,for that matter) as a series of strategic choices. Every attempt toput words together includes choices about which words to useand how to arrange them. In this sense all writers, like it or not, use rhetoric.

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Even simplicity is a rhetorical and political choice: George Orwell, for instance, was a master of theplain style, and used it to devastating effect in his political journalism and novels like 1984 and

Animal Farm (for more on the rhetoric ofsimplicity, see Hugh Kenner, "The Politics ofthe Plain Style," in Literary Journalism in theTwentieth Century, ed. Norman Sims [NewYork: Oxford University Press, 1990]).

Rhetoric is also useful because it encourages thinking about one's audience. Different audiencesrequire different rhetorical choices. In the following section, I'll list some of the most pertinentrhetorical techniques, or tropes, when writing for academic audiences.DictionPerhaps the first rhetorical choice a writer makes-and all writers make this choice, whether theyrealize it or not-is diction, or what words to use. Different words, even if they ostensibly mean thesame thing, have different connotations, as the poet W. H. Auden well understood. And differentaudiences have different expectations about appropriate diction. Academic writing requires a moreformal diction than everyday talk or journalism, and within academe writing in the natural sciencesrequires a more formal diction than writing in the humanities. I'm no great fan of formality inwriting, but on the other hand one does need to know and respect the conventions of academe andother professional forums for serious writing:

ORIGINAL REVISION

The layers of dirt were not messed up at all. The sedimentary levels were undisturbed.

In general, the more specialized training a profession requires, the more it develops its own jargonas a way of differentiating those who have acquired the proper training from those who have not.Twist a policeman's arm, for instance, and you still probably couldn't get him to say car or robberor gun or hit or saw: long professional training has habituated him to vehicle, alleged perpetrator,firearm, strike, and observed. This kind of Official Style diction is all around us. Students tend tolearn it as the epitome of "adult" discourse, and to go too far in incorporating it into their ownwriting.

My general advice regarding diction is to prefer plainto fancy unless the scholarly field expects a particularword. Since appropriate choices vary within specificdisciplines, and sometimes between individualscholars, my suggestion to students is to locate model

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authors within their chosen fields, and study those authors' diction and other rhetorical strategies.Your professors can help you find good models: ask them to recommend respected scholars whowrite well. There are always at least a few in every field.ParallelismParallelism is one of the most useful and flexible rhetorical techniques. It refers to any structurewhich brings together parallel elements, be these nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, or largerstructures. Done well, parallelism imparts grace and power to passage:

The prince's strength is also his weakness; his self-reliance is also isolation.

In Machiavelli's world, Sheldon Wolin observes, moral ends have been replaced byironies; answers have been replaced by questions.

The characters are all watching one another, forming theories about one another,listening, contriving ....

One side sees Lincoln as a bold and shrewd leader, sincerely committed to abolishingslavery; the other sees him as an opportunistic politician, concerned only to defend theunion in any way possible.

Problems with faulty parallelism are very common, because many people know (or think theyknow) what they want to say, and don't scrutinize what they actually write. In the followingexamples the parallel elements in the revisions are emphasized:

ORIGINAL REVISION

Someone acquiring knowledge is similar tofmding a new path in a dense forest.

Acquiring knowledge is similar to finding a newpath in a dense forest.

Machiavelli advocates relying on one's ownstrength, leaving as little to chance as possible,and the need to get rid of sentimentalattachments.

Machiavelli advocates relying on one's ownstrength, leaving as little to chance as possible,and ridding oneself of sentimental attachments.

Touchstone satirizes courtly manners, woosAudrey, and he tries to avoid marriage.

Touchstone satirizes courtly manners, woosAudrey, and tries to avoid marriage.

One frequent source of trouble is nested lists-when one sublist occurs within another list. Thewriter of this sentence lost track and thought the final comma signaled the last item in the main list:

Open faculty positions are advertised in all regional city and community newspapers, innational outlets such as the Higher Education Journal, the publications of the HispanicAmerican Association of Colleges and Universities, and the African American


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Association of Colleges and Universities.The trick is to recognize that this is actually a nested list and maintain parallelism within each list:

Open faculty positions are advertised in all regional city and community newspapers andin national outlets such as the Higher Education Journal and the publications of theHispanic American Association of Colleges and Universities and the African AmericanAssociation of Colleges and Universities.

The list is technically okay, but its complexity makes it a bit hard to read. One could rearrange thelist to emphasize different elements and allow some pauses.

Open faculty positions are advertised in all regional city and community newspapers, innational outlets such as the Higher Education Journal, and in targeted outlets like thepublications of the Hispanic American Association of Colleges and Universities and theAfrican American Association of Colleges and Universities.

Note that among other changes the revision adds the word targeted, which makes it easier to get thelist's logic. As ever, revision is equal parts rewriting and rethinking.

One other problem with parallelism is fairly common, though this is a stylistic rather than agrammatical lapse. Writers often repeat too much in the parallel elements, detracting fromparallelism's economical elegance:

ORIGINAL REVISION

Socrates led a private life, as opposed to a public Socrates led a private rather than a public life.life.

Parallelism can be employed in many different ways. One spin is inversion or chiasmus, in whichparallel elements are carefully reversed for emphasis. A famous example comes from PresidentJohn F. Kennedy's inaugural address (1961):

Ask not what your country can do for you-ask what you can do for your country.Inversion often gains power by focusing attention on the ends of sentences, where readers andlisteners naturally pause. Kennedy's example shows this, as does the next example, from a 19th-century religious leader defending his honesty despite his change of religion:

I have changed in many things: in this I have not.By putting the prepositional phrase in this at the beginning of the second clause, the speaker is ableto end on that emphatic final not.


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RepetitionRepetition is one of the most useful tools available to writers. Repetition allows a writer or speakerto hammer home an idea, image, or relationship, to force the reader or listener to pay attention. Twoclassic examples of the incredible power of repetition are Mark Antony's "They are all honorablemen" speech in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar (3.2), and Martin Luther King, lr.'s "I have a dream"speech at the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in 1963.But many writers, especially young writers, fear repetition, apparently believing that repeating aword within a single sentence or short passage is bad style. H. W. Fowler, author ofthe old but stillrecommended Fowler's Modern English Usage (Ist ed., 1926), called this tendency elegantvariation, and observed, "There are few literary faults so widely prevalent."Here's an example of a student working hard to avoid repeating words within a sentence. It doesn'twork well; the revision repeats words and reads more easily:

ORIGINAL REVISION

The test group got an average of seven testquestions correct; the mean for the controlcategory was thirteen valid responses.

The test group averaged seven correct answers;the control group averaged thirteen.

The original's nervous avoidance of repetition (for instance using first group and then category)makes it a bit hard to follow. The revision, by contrast, is easier to follow because it repeats wordsand syntactical structures. Note that repetition allows the writer to cut some repeated elements andfocus attention on the key information, the contrast.Practiced writers will also employ all sorts of variations on this pattern of repetition:

The test group averaged seven correct answers, the control group thirteen.

The test group averaged seven correct answers to the control group's thirteen.

Another example of a writer afraid of repetition:ORIGINAL REVISION

First the North Koreans made an incursionalmost all the way down the peninsula; thenAmericans and South Korean forces drove backinto the north.

First the North Koreans drove almost all the waydown the peninsula; then American and SouthKorean forces drove back into the north.


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In the revision, the writer realizes that repeating the verb drove helps reinforce the passage'ssymmetry.

Let's close with one of the classic

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instances of repetition, from a speechby Winston Churchill after the British evacuation from Dunkirk in 1940. France had fallen to NaziGermany, the United States was still neutral, and Britain stood alone:

We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans,we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defendour island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on thelanding grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills;we shall never surrender ....

Churchill's thundering we shall fights fall like hammerstrokes, building to that emphatic, defiant,and irresistible we shall never surrender. In 1940 Churchill's rhetoric was perhaps the mostimportant weapon deployed against Adolf Hitler.Using tenses consistentlyTense refers to the time (past, present, or future) in which actions occur. If you start a passage inone tense, don't change the tense without reason:

ORIGINAL REVISION

Though Machiavelli has said that religion isvital to politics, he dismisses Christianity asharmful.

Though Machiavelli says that religion is vital topolitics, he dismisses Christianity as harmful.

The historical presentOne convention in academic writing that often gives students difficulty is what tense to use whendiscussing a text. One's first inclination is probably to use the past tense when discussing a bookwritten in the past. But that's not what is usually done. Most textual analysis and commentary iswritten in the present tense, a convention sometimes called the historical present:

ORIGINAL REVISION

Machiavelli also said that Christianity madepeople slothful.

Machiavelli also says that Christianity makespeople slothful.

Hamlet told Ophelia he never loved her. Hamlet tells Ophelia he never loved her.

But just to complicate matters, you don't always use the present tense in discussing a work. Whenyou're presenting facts on its composition, you should use the past tense:


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ORIGINAL REVISION

Machiavelli writes The Prince in 1513. Machiavelli wrote The Prince in 1513.

This also often holds if you're simply mentioning a work in passing, as support for some otherargument:

ORIGINAL REVISION

A century before the U.S. Constitution waswritten, John Locke articulates a vision ofliberal government in his Second Treatise ofGovernment.

A century before the U.S. Constitution waswritten, John Locke articulated a vision ofliberal government in his Second Treatise ofGovernment.

But if you went on to discuss Locke's Second Treatise in some detail, you might then switch to thehistorical present after this initial mention:

Efforts to safeguard individual liberty have a long history. A century before the U.S.Constitution was written, John Locke articulated a vision of liberal government in hisSecond Treatise of Government. In this famous work, Locke locates the origins ofgovernment in the desire to safeguard individuals and their property against the violenceand insecurity of the state of nature ....

AlliterationAlliteration means beginning two or more stressed syllables with the same letter or sound:

Throughout the play we are made to witness the force of politics to shape and shatterlives.

As with any rhetorical techniques, alliteration doesn't make an argument more intelligent. Donewell, however, it can please your reader and help make him more receptive to your argument. Likea strong spice, alliteration should be used sparingly.The rule of threeThis is an old trick of the trade that doesn't get mentioned a lot nowadays (it's called tricolon inclassical rhetoric), but that crops up all the time in good Three Ir~ af~bef!nQ mDcgi'Clrfmbu.writing. The idea is simple: lists of all kinds (of things, Sn~mlll im!.B!lIbt O'9lg. . . )qualities, actions, reasons, examples, etc.) tend to comeacross most powerfully when they contain three items. Of course that doesn't mean you shouldmanipulate your material to make it fit. Sometimes you'll want to put two, four, or more items in alist. But when you've got flexibility in what to say, keep the rule of three in mind:

Coriolanus doesn't hide his contempt for the commoners, he doesn't flatter them, he


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doesn't try to soften his image.

A generation ago most scholars believed that an overarching worldview-conservative,deeply Christian and essentially medieval in its commitment to order and hierarchy-shaped the concerns and defined the intellectual limits of Shakespeare and otherElizabethan dramatists.

The third term is often slightly larger in its focus than the first two, enfolding them to make a moregeneral point.HumorHumor and other flourishes like slang should be used sparingly. Academic writing has room for wryobservation and ironic observations, but belly laughs and outright jokes don't tend to go over verywell. Something that seemed hilarious when you were writing it will likely seem foolish in the coldlight of day.First and second personAre the first and second person (/, me, my; we, us, our; you, your) appropriate in academic writing?As for the first person, yes, as long as it is used properly. It occurs in much writing even in the hardsciences. Scientists frequently speak of "our research" and "our findings" (though some teachers andeditors agree with Mark Twain's disdain for the editorial "we"). As for the first person singular, onefmds it even in the most serious scientific writing. E. O. Wilson, a prominent Harvard biologist,notes his formal use of the first person, but also the limits he observed: "very little emotion wasexpressed beyond the occasional 'I was interested in the problem of ... ' or 'It turned out, to mysurprise, that. ... ' , , * ' Thus both sides of the debate over the propriety of the first person are in asense right: it's okay to use Ieven in the most formal settings, but not to venture into editorializingand emotion. In less formal academic settings (including student writing, by and large) and in somefields like literary studies, it's even acceptable to write with a certain amount of personal reactionand feeling. The right amount of "me-ness" in one'swriting will vary from field to field, journal tojournal, teacher to teacher: as you gain expertise ina particular field, you'll learn what the rules are.

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You is rather a different kettle of fish. It really doesn't belong in the most formal academic writing.Directly addressing the reader changes the dynamic of the essay or paper. In the hard sciences thiswould rarely be appropriate, though in the humanities one finds the second person more often. Ihappen to use it a fair amount (in part because one of my favorite old authors, Machiavelli, used itvery cleverly), but others will see it differently.


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Questions and exclamationsDirect questions work well in academic writing, but exclamations don't. See the discussion inPunctuation for further thoughts.Placing emphasisIf you want to summon up emphasis, a far better technique than exclamation marks is to takeadvantage of the natural rhythm of English sentences. Here's an important rule good writers knowexplicitly or implicitly: he end of a sentence packs the most wallop. The most common sentencepatter puts familiar information at the beginning of sentences, and new information at the ends ofsentences. Thus each sentence can be seen to be a kind of little bridge to what has already beenpresented: the sentence starts out on familiar ground and then takes a step forward. Good writingconsists of linking these many little steps into a sustained argumentative journey (of course with afew bold exceptions every so often).These two paragraphs are identical except for their final sentences:

ORIGINAL

True capitalists distrust governments, and don'tthink they make good arbiters of morality. Theybelieve that individuals are best qualified tomanage their own lives and pursue happiness intheir own way. Freedom is what capitalistsbelieve in, in other words.

REVISION

True capitalists distrust governments, and don'tthink they make good arbiters of morality. Theybelieve that individuals are best qualified tomanage their own lives and pursue happiness intheir own way. In other words, capitalistsbelieve in freedom.

The original throws away its energy in that last sentence because freedom comes right at thebeginning of the sentence. The revision saves its new mention for the sentence's natural emphasispoint, its end. The principle is of fundamental importance: start sentences with familiar material,end with new.

There is much more to be said about rhetoric. If this brief introduction has piqued your curiosity, Iurge you to study the topic further, to read lots of good published writing (I recommend, forinstance, William Safire's scintillating style inhis op-ed columns in the New York Times),and to experiment with your own prose. At itsbest rhetoric is not "phony" but a worthy artthat recognizes the beauty and power ofwords. Writers who know how to use rhetoricunderstand that audiences want to be enchanted at least as much as they want to be taught. Rhetoriccan help you persuade. Take advantage of it.

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: Leo IMsten , (1 0 08 ;' )


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Rhetorical StrategiesArgument: All texts contain an argument, whether implicit or explicit. Finding it willdepend upon identification of the author's motive and his audience.Explicit argument: an obvious argumentImplicit argument: a less obvious, often hidden, argumentThemes: Linking devices that hold a text together structurally; e.g., the battle betweengood and evil.Repetition of certain words: Why, with all the words at his or her disposal, does a writerchoose to repeat particular words?Counterpoints: contrasting ideas such as black/white, darknessllight, good/bad.Imagery: Strong visual impressions created through words, frequently using color.Introduction and conclusion: framing strategies.Narrator: Usually first or third person. Is the narrator the same as the author?Style, tone, voice: Gut reactions are useful here. Examine your own response. What isit that makes you respond as you do? Are you the author's intended audience? If not,who is?


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Rhetorical ModesEach mode suggests questions that can spark ideas by opening up differentapproaches. Description: How does the subject look, sound, smell, taste, and feel? Narration: How did the subject happen? Example: How can the subject be illustrated? Division or analysis: What are the subject's parts, and what is theirrelationship or significance? Classification: What groups can the subject be sorted into? Process Analysis: How does the subject work? Comparison and Constrast: How is the subject similar to or differentfrom something else? Definition: What are the subjects characteristics and boundaries? Cause-and-Effect analysis: Why did the subject happen? What were itsconsequences? Argument and Persuasion: Why do I believe as I do about the subject?Why do others have different opinions? How can I convince others to

accept my opinion or believe as I do?


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2005 APe ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITIONFREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS

ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITIONSECTIONll

Total time-l hours

Question 1/ (Suggested time-40 minutes. This question counts one-third of the total essay section score.)

~e passage below is from ''Training for Statesmanship" (1953), an article written by George F. Kennan. one of th;'- S : ; : " . . - principal architects of United States foreign policy during the period following the end of the Second World War.Jead the passage car~~hat you believe is Kennan's most compelling observation. Then~essay in~ou ~,g)t!e extent to which that observatic:nholds true for the United States or for any othercoun!!y.~our argument with !PPf0pria~ evidence.In our country, the element of power is peculiarlydiffused. Itis not concentrated, as it is in othercountries, in what we might call the "pure form" of a

line national uniformed police establishment functioning5 as the vehicle of a central political will. Power with usdoes exist to some extent incourts of law and inpolice establishments, but it also exists inmany otherAmerican institutions. Itexists in our economicsystem, though not nearly to the degree the Marxists10 claim. Sometimes, unfortunately, it exists in irregular

forces-in underworld groups, criminal gangs, orinformal associations of a vigilante nature-scapableof terrorizing their fellow citizens inone degree oranother. Above all, it exists in the delicate

15 compulsions of our social life, the force of communityopinion within our country-in the respect we havefor the good opinion of our neighbors. For reasonshighly complex, we Americans place upon ourselvesquite extraordinary obligations of conformity to the20 group in utterance and behavior, and this feature ofour national life seems to be growing rather thandeclining. All these things can bring us to putrestraints upon ourselves which in other parts of theworld would be imposed upon people only by the25 straightforward exercise of the central policeauthority.


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Great Books/ AP LanguageMs. Walz

Annotation

Annotating Text

Annotate: v . an-no-tat-ed, annotating, an-no-tates v . tr .1. To furnish (a literary work) with critical commentary or explanatory notes; 2.add explanatory notes to or supply with critical comments; "The scholarannotated the early edition of a famous novel" 3: provide interlinearexplanations for words or phrases; "He annotated on what his teacher hadwritten." n. an-no-ta-tion

Possible elements to "annotate" in a text: figures of speech tone shifts in tone shifts in thought conflicts in scenes goals and motivations describing the import ofstatements and actionsessential to understanding a

character discriminating between stated(or assumed) intentions andconcealed intentions identifying and explaininginstances of irony rhetorical devices/strategies author's use of diction (wordchoice) vocabulary (unfamiliar words) dialect

connections to current events connections to your own life connections to other thingsyou've read symbols recurring images color imagery thesis (non-fiction) main ideas provocative statements character descriptions points of contention multiple meanings voice syntax effective use of language anything else that the readerintuits is of significance tounderstanding the text

(Source: Warren J. Bowes, Chippewa Falls Senior High School, Chippewa Falls, WI.)


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SYNTAXSyntax is the arrangement of words in meaningful patterns. The arrangements normally followthe accepted rules of grammar usage (the patterns of grammar). We generally don't need to paymuch attention to syntax in conversations and writing because following the rules is so basic tothe use of language that we have a breakdown in communication if the patterns of grammar arenot observed correctly, thus resulting in a "what did you say?" response. However, knowledge ofhow syntax works can help us understand how it affects communication We need to examine theconcept of syntax in two ways:

1) Analyzing our own use of syntax to correct or improve our writing.2) Analyzing an author's use of syntax to achieve a particular effect.

Words are symbols of ideas, but they do not begin to "say" anything until we put them together.Sentences, which are syntactical units composed by words, "say" something, partly because ofthe lexical content (the meaning) of the words and partly because of the grammatical forms thatgovern words put together in patterns. If a basic grammatical competence has been established,you are ready to develop the rhetorical competence to compose effective sentences. Rhetoricalcompetence plays its part in the writing process when there are choices to be made from amongtwo or more grammatical possibilities. Stylistic variations in the syntax of the sentence cannotignore the grammar of the language. Any changes you make must be grammatical (Cohen).Improving writingAnalyzing our own use of syntax is probably the more difficult of these tasks. As we learnlanguage when we are very small, we internalize the rules of grammar. For example, we learnthat saying "Me up, Mama" is more likely to get us held by mother than "Up, Mama, me." By thetime a student is in high school, s/he has been speaking English for quite a number of years, andis quite effective at basic communication tasks.The problems surface when we begin formal writing tasks and a teacher tells us we have"misplaced modifiers" or "dangling modifiers" or that our sentence structure isn't "parallel."Many students have no idea what these terms mean, and therefore have difficulty identifyingthese problems in their own writing. These messages generally mean that the student needs tolook closely at the way s/he has put together the words in a sentence to evaluate how clearly themeaning is being communicated.A major cause of scrambled syntax is a bad connection between the beginning and ending of asentence - an ending that seems to have forgotten how it began. For instance, in the sentence,"Depending on how the vote goes will determine if our side wins," if we respect the beginning,our result will go along these lines: "Depending on how the vote goes, our side may win." Ifwerespect the ending, the result will probably be: "The vote will determine whether our side wins."Consider this sentence: "To a conscientious student is a desire to get the assignment done,"which we might revise as "To a conscientious student, getting the assignment done is veryimportant" or "A conscientious student always wants to get the assignment done." (Sherbert)


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Consider the following sentence: The dog bit the man. The meaning is clear; the dog performedthe action of biting and the man received that action. Now add in these words: Ferocious,uniformed, baring its teeth, delivering the daily mail. The first two words are easilyincorporated into the sentence: The ferocious dog bit the uniformed man. But the two phrasescan be easily inserted in places that confuse the meaning of the sentence:Delivering the daily mail, the dog bit the man.

OR-The dog bit the man baring its teeth.Both of these are examples of misplaced modifiers. The first example says that the dog was theone who was delivering the daily mail. The second example says that the man was baring histeeth. These errors are easily corrected, as long as the student is thinking as s/he reads what s/hehas written and paying attention to the structure and meaning of his/her sentences.Analyzing syntax in literatureWhen we examine an author's use of syntax in order to achieve a particular effect in his/herwriting, we are evaluating tangible devices which the author may have manipulated to create anemotional or intellectual effect. How the author organizes the words creates meaning and effect.Analyzing the way in which the meaning has been communicated to us and the effect it has on usallows us to more fully appreciate the author's work in crafting that piece of literature.Examining the author's choices in his/her arrangement of words allows us to better understandthe author's message. Sentence length and pattems&emdash;rhythm, parallelism, word order--allcontribute to the emotional effects of a literary passage. They create connections between thewords, which creates meaning.What do you look for? The following are common techniques for manipulating syntax:

unusual (inverted) or unexpected word order. Poets in particular are fond of invertingword order to make it sound "poetic", rather than just ordinary speech. Look at theopening line of Robert Frost's poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening": "Whosewoods these are I think I know." Frost has avoided conventional word order by reversingthe two units of four words (Ithink I know whose woods these are).

sentence length (especially variations in the length of sentences) punctuation. Where do commas, semi-colons, and periods fall within the sentence? Whatis the relationship between punctuation and stanzas in a poem? perspective (point of view) interruptions parallel structure (creates balance and emphasis - "I came, I saw, I conquered. ") use of similar words (for example, a series of sentences or lines of poetry beginning with

participles - running, jumping, sliding - give a sense of continuous motion) a shift in word order (generally signals an important idea)


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word order that imitates the action the words described (mimetic syntax). Notice howE.E. Cummings uses mimetic syntax in this poem:

o Me Up At DoesMe up at does

out of the floor

quietly Starea poisoned mouse

still who alive

is asking Whathave I done that

You wouldn't haveIn order to make sense of this poem, we must first rearrange it in conventional syntax. Wecan begin with the subject of the sentence in something like the following manner: "Apoisoned mouse, who, still alive, is asking what have I done that you wouldn't have, doesquietly stare out of the floor up at me." By inverting and fracturing syntax the way he does,Cummings surprises us into looking more closely not only at his language, but also at theexperience it conveys.The emotional and intellectual experience in reading Cummings' original poem and ourrevision differ significantly. Cummings' redistribution of words on the page and his unusualsyntactic arrangement compel us to look more deliberately at his subject. We are made to seemuch more clearly the mouse's point of view. Instead ofa speaker looking down at a mouse,Cummings creates a perspective in which the dying mouse is looking up at his executioner.The reversal of perspective is accentuated by the reversal of grammatical subject andpredicate, the dispersal of phrases in short poetic lines, each of which focuses on one smallaspect of the experience. (Sherbert)


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Bernard Cohen breaks down evaluation of writing style into two main sections: choice ofdiction and arrangements of words in sentences. He gives the following list of items forexamining diction and syntax:A. Kinds of diction

1. General or specific2. Abstract or concrete3. Formal or informal4. Latinate (usually polysyllabic) or Anglo-Saxon (usually monosyllabic)5. Common words or jargon6. Referential (denotative) or emotive (connotative)

B. Length of sentences (measured in number of words)C. Kinds of sentences

1. Grammatical: simple, compound, complex, compound-complex2. Rhetorical: loose, periodic, balanced, antithetical3. Functional: statement, question, command, exclamation

D. Variety of sentence patterns1. Inversions2. Sentence openers3. Method and location of expansion

E.Means of articulating sentences (coherence devices)F. Use of figures of speechG. Paraphrasing

1. Length (measured in number of words and number of sentences)2. Kind of movement or development in paragraphs3. Use of transitional devices

Syntactical patterns such as words organized around the mental associations of the poem'sspeaker, rhetorical persuasiveness which suggest a carefully worded argument to persuadethe audience, syntax designed for poetic smoothness or abruptness - all are intended to beexpressive. "They intensify our experience in reading poetry and prose; they alert us tomeanings that go beyond individual words and sentences to include the intellectual andemotional implications of unusual verbal arrangements" (Sherbert).

Works CitedCohen, Bernard. Writing About Literature. Bev. ed. Glenview: Scott, Foresman, 1973.Sherbert, Pat. "Structure in Syntax." Handout for A.P. English-Literature and CompositionInstitute. 2000.


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Diction and ToneDiction is defined as a writer's choice of words. The particular words an author uses will affectnot only the message the audience (reader) receives, but the way in which we interpret that idea.Words have two meanings:

~ denotation; the dictionary definition; the literal meaning of the word as a representationof a person, place, thing, idea, or action.

~ connotation; the implied meaning of a word. An author's communication of connotativemeaning is usually made clear through context (the surroundings of a given word orimage and its relationships to specific elements in its verbal environment) (Sherbert).

Douglas Hunt gives us a clear explanation of the difference between denotation and connotation:~ The denotation is the direct, specific meaning of a word or phrase: the literal meaning.~ The connotation is everything else: the implications, the suggestions, the associations, the

overtones. When [William] Stafford [in his poem "Traveling Through the Dark"] saysthat his car "aimed its lowered parking lights," the denotation is merely an image of a carwith its parking lights on, but aimed implies (for me, at least) an intention on the car'spart, and lowered suggests the lowering of eyes. Combine this with the next line;"underthe hood purred the steady engine" and you have language that denotes a car but connotesan animal.

Diction is classified into four levels:(the following definitions are taken from "Glossary of Literary Terms: A-E")

1. Formal diction; a dignified, impersonal, and elevated use of language. It is exacting in itsadherence to the rules of grammar and uses complex vocabulary.

2. Middle diction; still follows the rules of correct language usage, but is less "elevated." Itreflects the way most educated people speak.

3. Informal diction; the plain language of everyday use. This often involves idiomaticexpressions, slang, contractions, and simple or common words.

4. Poetic diction; Poets sometimes use an elevated diction that is significantly different fromthe common speech and writing of their time. These can be words that are chosen (orsometimes created) by the poet because they have a special "poetic" quality - an ability tocommunicate a complex thought in a word or phrase.

Note that words have both denotative and connotative meanings at all four levels of diction. Thelevel used by an author to communicate hislher message will depend a great deal on the messageto be communicated, the intended audience, and the form of communication (i.e., formalspeech/address, story with characters and dialogue, or poetry).The connotations of words have great rhetorical value; for example, in prompting the emotionalappeal of a discourse. Robert H. Thouless has ably demonstrated the emotional value ofconnotations in his analysis of the diction in two verses by John Keats:In THE EVE OF ST. AGNES, Keats has written:


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Full on this casement shone the wintry moon,And threw warm gules on Madeline's fair breast.

These are beautiful lines. Let us notice how much of their beauty follows from the proper choiceof emotionally colored words and how completely it is lost if these words are replaced by neutralones. The words with strikingly emotional meanings are CASEMENT, GULES, MADELINE,FAIR, and BREAST. CASEMENT means simply a kind of window with emotional andromantic associations. GULES is the heraldic name for red, with the suggestion of romancewhich accompanies all heraldry. MADELINE is simply a girl's name, but one calling outfavorable emotions absent from a relatively plain and straightforward name. FAIR simply means,in objective fact, that her skin was white or uncolored; a necessary condition for the colors of thewindow to show; but also fair implies warm emotional preference for an uncolored skin ratherthan one which is yellow, purple, black, or any of the other colors which skin might be.BREAST has also similar emotional meaning, and the aim of scientific description might havebeen equally well attained ifit had been replaced by such a neutral word as CHEST.

Let us now try the experiment of keeping those two lines in a metrical form, but replacing all theemotionally colored words by neutral ones, while making as few other changes as possible. Wemay write:

Full on this window shone the wintry moon,Making red marks on Jane's uncolored chest.

No one will doubt that all of its poetic value has been knocked out of the passage by thesechanges. Yet the lines still mean the same in external fact; they still have the same objectivemeaning. It is only the emotional meaning which has been destroyed.Consider this example, in which H. L. Mencken in prose is seeking to influence our attitudetoward a certain kind of teacher:

Such idiots, despite the rise of "scientific" pedagogy, have not died out in the world. Ibelieve that our schools are full of them, both in pantaloons and in skirts. There arefanatics who love and venerate spelling as a tom-cat loves and venerates catnip. There aregrammatomaniacs; schoolmarms who would rather parse than eat; specialists in anobjective case that doesn't exist in English; strange beings, otherwise sane and evenintelligent and comely, who suffer under a split infinitive as you or I would suffer undergastro-enteritis. There are geography cranks, able to bound Mesopotamia andBaluchistan. There are zealots for long division, experts in the multiplication tables,lunatic worshippers of the binomial theorem. But the system has them in its grip. Itcombats their natural enthusiasm diligently and mercilessly. Ittries to convert them intomere technicians, clumsy machines.

We cannot examine all the techniques that Mencken uses in his satirical writings, but we cannote here the subtle way in which he influences our reactions simply by his choice of words. Agood deal of the effect of this passage is produced by Mencken's "namecalling." The "names"that Mencken used here are heavily freighted with emotional overtones; IDIOTS, FANATICS,


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SCHOOLMARMS (one of Mencken's favorite derogatory epithets), CRANKS, ZEALOTS,LUNATIC WORSHIPPERS. All of these words carry the discrediting connotation of extreme,irrational commitment to a cause; the taint of "enthusiasm" that many critics ascribed to theevangelical sects in the eighteenth and nineteenth century England. Where Mencken fails to findan emotional epithet to suit his purpose, he invents one; GRAMMA TOMANIACS. Most readersdo not know what GASTRO-ENTERITIS means; but they do not have to know; the word justsounds awful.Notice how Mencken, in the second sentence of this passage, indicates that he is talking aboutboth men and women teachers; "in pantaloons and in skirts. " PANTALOONS was an especiallyclever choice. PANTS would have been the word that most of us would have chosen as thecounterpart of SKIRTS. But Mencken detected an extra connotative value of the wordPANTALOONS, suggesting to a modem audience something archaic, slightly feminine. Notetoo how Mencken uses a simile in the third sentence to deprecate the object of his satire,comparing devotees of correct spelling to the lowly, back-alley TOM-CAT. One of the deadliestwords in the English language is the word MERE.Mencken uses this word with devastating effectiveness at the end of this passage, where hebegins to shift his ground attack, warning us that these "enthusiastic" pedagogues are now indanger of being turned into dispassionate machines as a result of their exposure to "teachers'college" bunkum. What is more chilling than to be called a "mere technician"? (Sherbert)The relationship between diction and tone.Diction is a tool an author uses to communicate hislher feelings about a subject. Pat Sherbertdefines tone as follows:

In a literary work, tone is the attitude the author projects. That attitude is revealedthrough his choice of details, through his diction, and through his emphasis andcomments.

Although tone and attitude are frequently used in textbooks interchangeably (defined: tone isattitude), they can differ. ... Tone only reflects attitude. The writer, through his choice of devicessuch as diction and syntax (style), implies a tone; as a result, the reader infers an attitude.Tone is a musical metaphor for the writers' relationships with readers that result from writersmaking two decisions: (1) how they will express their feelings about the subject, and (2) howthey will place themselves socially, intellectually, or morally with regard to their implied readers- as their superiors, looking down; as their inferiors, looking up; or as their equals, addressingthem eye-to-eye.Tone as the expression of feeling should not be confused with the description of feeling. Toneexpresses or implies the writer's emotional state, the feeling about the subject that the writerdesires to share; it will often differ markedly from the feelings expressed by characters whoappear in the writing. A writer, for example, can describe the cheerfulness of the airline flightattendants in a sarcastic tone, the self-dramatizing gloom of a spoiled child in a scoffing tone, orthe pompous pontifications of a political candidate in a tone of good-natured joshing.


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Clearly, writers need not say what they are feeling; tone emerges as a quality of the wholeutterance, whether spoken or written. An indignant speaker might say with deep sarcasm, "I'mdelighted that you show such contempt for my efforts. Nothing pleases me more than to findhonesty where I might least expect it." The speaker does not need to say, "I'm indignant." WhenWordsworth says, "But yet I know, where'er I go,! That there hath passed away a glory from theearth," his sense ofloss can be heard without his having to say, "I'm sad." It is reported that MarkTwain would never smile as he delivered popular speeches that kept his audiences in stitches.Tone, then, is the quality of voice that conveys feelings, whether they are stated directly orindirectly. With variations of tone, we can express love or hate, happiness or grief, comradeshipor contempt, compassion or loathing, humor or seriousness, anger, indignation, outrage, orforgiveness. And these tones are only a beginning. Writers usually present not only tone, but alsoa mixture of tones: anger and pity, sorrow and hope, and so on ....An analysis of tone will depend on a precise and accurate understanding of the author's attitudetoward (1) the subject

(2) the audience(3) himself

In order to investigate tone and attitude, we use the acronym DIDS:~ Diction: The purposeful selection of words for their denotative or connotative value.~ Images: The words and phrases that appeal to one or more of the five senses.~ Details: Concrete words used to call up an image, sometimes called concrete imagery and

not to be confused with a sensory image; a referent.~ Syntax: The author's arrangement of sounds, phrases, and clauses that becomes a

rhetorical effect.Tim Averill says, "tone is an end of rhetoric, whereas diction, imagery, selected details andmanipulated syntax are tangible means that can reveal an author's tone. " Averill breakstone/attitude into the following categories, which he identifies as language we can use todescribe tone:Positive:lighthearted, hopeful, exuberant, enthusiastic, complimentary, confident, cheery, optimistic,loving, passionate, amused, elated, sympathetic, compassionate, proudNegative:Anger; angry, disgusted, outraged, accusing, condemnatory, furious, wrathful, bitter,inflammatory, irritated, indignant, threatening.Humor/Irony/Sarcasm; scornful, disdainful, contemptuous, sarcastic, cynical, critical, facetious,patronizing, satiric, condescending, sardonic, mock-heroic, bantering, irreverent, mock-serious,taunting, insolent, pompous, ironic, flippant, grotesque


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SorrowlFearlWorry; somber, elegiac, melancholic, sad, disturbed, mournful, solemn, serious,apprehensive, concerned, hopeless, staid, resignedNeutral:formal, objective, incredulous, nostalgic, ceremonial, candid, shocked, reminiscent, restrained,clinical, baffled, sentimental, detached, disbelieving, questioning, urgent, instructive, matter-of-fact, admonitory, learned, factual, didactic, informative, authoritativeAverill's three simple categories can provide a starting point for analyzing tone in many works ofliterature, but author's often use a combination of attitudes. You may need a more comprehensivelist of categories in order to adequately describe an author's attitude in a specific manner.Sherbert's list is as follows:Attitudes of logicexplanatory, didactic, admonitory, condemnatory, indignant, puzzled, curious, guileless,thoughtless, innocent, frank, sincere, questioning, uncertain, doubting, incredulous, critical,cynical, insinuating, persuading, coaxing, pleading, persuasive, argumentative, oracularAttitudes of pleasurepeaceful, satisfied, contented, happy, cheerful, pleasant, bright, joyful, playful, jubilant, elated,enrapturedAttitudes of painworried, uneasy, troubled, disappointed, regretful, vexed, annoyed, bored, disgusted, miserable,cheerless, mournful, sorrowful, sad, dismal, melancholy, plaintive, fretful, querulous, irritable,sore, sour, sulky, dismal, sullen, bitter, crushed, pathetic, tragicAttitudes of passionnervous, hysterical, impulsive, impetuous, reckless, desperate, frantic, wild, fierce, serious,savage, enraged, angry, hungry, greedy, jealous, insane, wistfulAttitudes of friendlinesscordial, sociable, gracious, kindly, sympathetic, compassionate, forgiving, pitying, indulgent,tolerant, comforting, soothing, tender, loving, caressing, solicitous, accommodating, approving,helpful, obliging, courteous, polite, confiding, trustingAttitudes of comedyfacetious, comic, ironic, satiric, amused, mocking, playful, humorous, uproariousAttitudes of animationlively, eager, excited, earnest, energetic, vigorous, hearty, ardent, passionate, rapturous, ecstatic,feverish, exalted, breathless, hasty, brisk, crisp, hopefulAttitudes of apathyinert, sluggish, languid, dispassionate, dull, colorless, indifferent, stoical, resigned, defeated,helpless, hopeless, dry, monotonous, vacant, feeble, dreaming, bored, blase, sophisticated


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Attitudes of self-importanceimpressive, profound, proud, dignified, lofty, imperious, confident, egotistical, peremptory,bombastic, sententious, arrogant, pompous, stiff, boastful, exultant, insolent, domineering,flippant, saucy, positive, resolute, haughty, condescending, challenging, bold, defiant,contemptuousAttitudes of submission and timiditymeek, shy, humble, docile, ashamed, modest, timid, unpretentious, respectful, apologetic,devout, reverent, servile, obsequious, groveling, contrite, obedient, willing, sycophantic,fawning, ingratiating, deprecatory, alarmed, fearful, terrified, trembling, wondering, awed,astounded, shocked, uncomprehending


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VERBS TO USE INAP WRITING (and possible tools & effects)WRITER OR differentiates altersNARRATOR maintains describesevokes shows (weak) enhancesuses (weak) implies paintsutilizes (weak) connotes prone toelicits explains producesmanipulates elucidates revealsalludes to emphasizes ignitestwists enunciates assertsignites clarifies stirssuggests repudiates inspireshints at refutes explorescreates tackles dispelsdepicts compares demonstratesconveys shifts constrainconjures changes mastersup evokes construejuxtaposes invokes transcendsportrays delineates solidifies

TOOLSimagerysyntaxdictioncomic detailstone

detailsfigurative lang.foreshadowi ngsymbolsirony

settingplot detailspoint of viewdiction

READER EFFECTSpathos impact contrastsintensity shock moodempathy anger imageslaughter awareness imageryimages connections tones


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Linking words and phrasesThe following words and phrases will help you show how one idea relates to another. They help create flow.

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AP Language Review