TOP 10 PEOPLE (cont.) (6) Napoleon Bonaparte (Emperor of France):

Napoleon Bonaparte, born in 1769 on the Italian Corsica, France annexed it, he went to French school. Became an officer, was a fiery Jacobin, became brigadier general for saving Toulon from the British. In 1795, France was still fighting with Britain and Austria. The invasion of Italy deprived Austria of Lombardy, so Napoleon crushed Austria and Sardinia, the Treaty of Campio Formio took Austria out of the war. He knew he couldn`t cross the English Channel and attack Britain, so he tried to cut off its trade by capturing Egypt (who they traded with) from the Ottomans. o Admiral Horatio Nelson- destroyed the French fleet at Abukir 1798, and drove the French army back, cut them off from France. This was the first West European assault on the Ottoman Empire. The Second Coalition formed between Russia, Austria, Ottomans, and Britain against France. Abbe Sieyes wrote the What is the Third Estate pamphlet that said the Third Estate wanted recognition, a Director in the Directory, he wanted an executive power independent of the whims of electoral politics. A gov`t based on confidence from below, power from above. Napoleon left Egypt and joined Sieyes in France 1799, and on 19 Brumaire, the coup was a success. Napoleon pushed Sieyes aside, issued the Constitution of the Year VIII, a complicated system of checks and balances with universal male suffrage, disregarded democracy and made there be three consuls, he was the First Consul, had all the power The Consulate ended the revolution in France, most goals of it were achieved by 1799, hereditary privilege was gone, peasants were okay, got new land and no more feudal rights against them, the classes were okay with how they were so they approved Napoleon`s constitution right away. Treaty of Luneville - French internal instability often was due to war, Napoleon got public confidence by making peace with enemies. Second Coalition broke up, and the Treaty of Luneville in 1801 took Austria out of the war. Treat of Amiens in 1802 Took Britain out of the war, brought peace to Europe. Napoleon makes peace at home by using generosity, flattery, and bribery to win over enemies. Gave general amnesty and jobs to political faction people if they were loyal to him. Radical men from the Reign of Terror , or people who wanted constitutional monarchy and had fled, or high officials under Louis had high offices. Attacks the Jacobins by using the excuse of a plot on his life (by royalists, actually), to execute the Bourbon (getting rid of monarchial relations!) duke of Enghien, who was really innocent, but to keep from restoring the Bourbon monarchy, and put an end to royalist plots. Pope Pius VII and napoleon made the Concordat of the Catholic Church: refractory clergy and those who accepted the revolution to resign, and be replaced. State would pay the priests, and the church would not raise any questions about confiscated lands during the revolution. Organic articles of 1802- The government issued without asking the church, established supremacy of state over church. Napoleon became consul for life, made a new constitution: The Civil Code of 1804, also called the Napoleonic Code. Safeguarded property, oldest son no longer got all the inheritance, one set of laws for all of France. Britain declared war on France in 1803. William Pitt the younger was the prime minister of England in 1804, began to make the Third Coalition with Russia and Austria. Had naval supremacy. Admiral Lord Nelson- He combined French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar to beat the French and end idea of French invasion of Britain. o The Treaty of Pressburg: beat Austria, won major concessions from Austria o Berlin Decrees forbidded his allies from importing British goods. 1807 He defeated the Russians at Friedland and occupied East Prussia. Napoleon was now the master of all Germany. Treaty of Tilsit which confirmed France`s gains, Prussia lost half its territory (would`ve lost it all if it wasn`t for Alexander. Prussia openly, and Russia secretly, became allies with Napoleon.

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The Contintental System`s goal was to cause domestic unrest and drive Britain from the war in order to prevent resistance in his conquered lands. Milan Decree of 1807 was to stop neutral nations from trading with Britain also. But the naval power and smuggling of the British kept them alive, and so just the economy of the rest of Europe was hurt.

He deposed the Spanish Bourbons and placed his brother Joseph on the throne which invoked guerilla rebellion against him. Now, Russia didn`t like the continental system or the liberalism of France, so they withdrew from the system, and France invaded, however Tsar Alexander retreated towards Moscow, burning everything on the way so that France could not use any resources. This was called the scorched-earth policy. Consequently, the harsh winter was too much for the French troops and they had to retreat. Napoleon`s enemies used this to their advantage! Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Sweden joined in the Grand Alliance and he was defeated at the Battle of Leipzig, was exiled, and banished to Elba. HOWEVER, he escaped in 1815 and was welcomed back to France, but his last bid for power in the Hundred Days was crushed at Waterloo in Belgium. The British finally sent him to St. Helena in the South Atlantic where he later died.

(7) Count Camillo Cavour (1810-1861): (Italian Unification)

King Charles Albert of Piedmont spread a conservative constitution and twice unsuccessfully fought Austria. Victor Emmanuel, his son, became the new monarchy who chose Cavour as prime minister. He rejected republicanism and was a conservative but became a liberal and believed in no Romantic ideals. Cavours Policy- Cavour believed if Italians proved they to be efficient and economically progressive, the great powers might decide that Italy could govern itself. He promoted free trade, railway construction, expansion of credit, and agricultural improvement. He started the Nationalist Society, which established chapters in other Italian states to press for unification under the leadership of Piedmont. He believed that only a French intervention could defeat Austria and unite Italy. French Sympathies- In 1855, Piedmont sent 10,000 troops to help France and Britain capture Sebastopol of the Crimean War. At the Paris conference Cavour raised the Italian question, but gained no diplomatic reward, but impressed everyone. January 1858, an Italian named Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate napoleon III. Napoleon then saw Piedmont as a potential ally against Austria. In July 1858, Cavour and Napoleon III met at Plonbieres in southern France. A formal treat in December 1858 confirmed their agreement to provoke a war in Italy that would permit them to defeat Austria. War with Austria- On June 4, the Austrians was defeated at Magenta, and on June 24 at Solferino. On July 11, Napoleon concluded peace with Austria, which Piedmont received Lombardy but Venetia remained under Austrian control. Later, Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and the Romagna voted to unite with Piedmont. Garibaldis Campaign- garibaldi landed in Sicily with more than 1,000 troops who had been outfitted in the north and capture Palermo and prepared to attack the mainland. He controlled the city and kingdom of Naples, but Cavour rushed Piedmonts troops out to confront Garibaldi. On the way, they conquered the rest of Papal States and defeat garibaldis republicanism. In late 1860, Naples and Sicily voted to join the Italian kingdom; Piedmont surrendered Savoy and Nice, where much of the population spoke French, to France. The New Italian State-In March 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of Italy. Three months later Cavour died. North and South Italy were incompatible. The south was rural, poor, and back ward, which the north was industrializing. The constitution provided for a conservative constitution monarchy. Parliament consisted of two houses: a senate appointed by the king and a chamber of deputies elected on a narrow franchise. Transformismo developed which was bribery, favors, or seat in the cabinet transformed political opponents into government supporters. Venetia and Rome was returned in 1866 for Italys alliance with Prussia in the Austro-Prussian war.

(9) Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898): (German Unification)

Otto von Bismarck came from a Junker stock. During the 1840s, he was elected to the provincial diet, where he was a reactionary he disturbed even the king. He served as Prussian representative to the German Confederation. And later became Prussian ambassador and was later appointed as prime minister.

He had mellowed into a conservative. In politics, he was a pragmatist who put more trust in power and action than in ideas. Upon becoming Prime minister in 1862, he moved against the liberal parliament. Taxes became collected and spent despite the parliamentary refusal to vote them. The Danish War (1864) - Bismarck pursued a kleindeutsch (small German) solution to unification and exclude Austria. The kings of Denmark had longed ruled these two northern duchies (Schleswig-Holstein). In 1863, the Danish parliament moved to incorporate both duchies into Denmark. A war aroused resulting in Danish defeat, which increased Bismarcks personal prestige and strengthened his political hand. In August 1865, Austria and Prussia negotiated the Convention of Gastein, which put Austria in charge of Holstein and Prussia in charge of Holstein and Prussia in charge of Schleswig. Bismarck then gained Russian support. IN April 1866, Bismarck promised Italy Venetia if it attacked Austria in support of Prussia when war broke out, which Bismarck provoked his war. The Austro-Prussian War (1866) - On June 1, 1866, Austria appealed to the German Confederation to intervene in the dispute. The Seven weeks war led to decisive defeat of Austria at Koniggratz in Bohemia. The Treaty of Prague was lenient toward Austria, with only lost Venetia, and surrendered it to Napoleon, who surrendered it to Italy. The treaty permanently excluded the Austrian Habsburgs from German affairs. Prussia had thus established itself as the only major power among the German states. The North German Confederation- under Prussian leadership, all Germany north of the Main River now formed the North German Confederation. A legislature consisted of two houses: a federal council, Bundesrat composed of members appointed by the government of the states and a lower house Reichstag chosen by universal male suffrage. The constitution of the North German Confederation became the constitution of the German Empire, possessed some of the appearances, but none of the substance, of liberalism. Germany was a military monarchy. In 1866, Prussian Parliament retroactively approved the military budget that it had rejected earlier. Bismarck had crushed the Prussian liberals by making the monarchy and the army the most popular institution in the country. The Franco-Prussian War and the German Empire (1870-1871)- Bismarck now wanted to complete unification by bringing the states of southern Germany into the newly establish confederation. In 1868, a military coup replaced Isabella II of Spain and the Spaniards chose Prince Leopold of HohenzollernSigmaringen, Catholic cousin of William I of Prussia. Bismarck knew that France would object strongly to a Hohenzollern Spain. France sent Count Vincent Benedetti to consult with William I. On July 12, Leopolds father renounced his sons candidacy for the Spanish throne, fearing the issue would cause war between Prussia and France. On July 13, the French government instructed Benedetti to ask William for assurances he would tolerate no future Spanish candidacy for Leopold. Later that day the king sent Bismarck to say the peaceful resolution of the controversy, which had disappointed the chancellor, who desperately wanted a way with France to complete unification. Bismarck released an edited version of the dispatch. The revised Ems telegram made it appear that William had insulted the French ambassador. The French declared war on July 19. The southern German states joined Prussia against France, whose defeat was not long in coming. On September 1, at the battle of Sedan, the Germans not only beat the French army but also captured Napoleon III. Ten days earlier, the German Empire had been proclaimed. The German princes requested William to accept the title of German emperor.

(10) Nicolaus Copernicus

A Polish astronomer who published On the revolutions of the heavenly spheres- described as a revolution making rather than a revolutionary text Ptolemy A Greek mathematical astronomy (150 C.E.) who released his work called Almagest. Several mathematical calculations relating to astronomy which known as Ptolemaic systems ware developed from that based on the assumption the earth to be the center of the universe. Geocentrism- A belief that the earth was the center of the universe. Assume a series of concentric spheres such as moon, sun and other planets move around the earth and the earth is the center Divine Comedy-A high religious poem written by Italian called Dante discuss sin and virtue

Ptolemaic model- accounted for motions of planets through epicycles. The planet moved uniformly about a small cycle called epicycle and the center of the epicycle moved uniformly about a larger circle called deferent while the earth is at or near the center. On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres-Copernicus published the De Revolutionibus Orbium Caelestium (On the revolutions of the heavenly spheres) in 1543. In the preface, he addressed to Pope Paul III to explain his reasoning behind his theory of the earth moved around the sun and the consequences. He adopted many elements of the Ptolemaic model but transferred them in heliocentric model which assume the sun is the center of universe Heliocentric model is the sun-centered model. The epicycles were smaller; the farther the planets were from the sun, the longer they took to revolve around it. The major impact was to provide a way of confronting the difficulties inherent in Ptolemaic astronomy and achieve new intelligibility in astronomy in rejecting Aristotles cosmology.

TOP 10 EVENTS (cont.) (4) Witch-Hunts:

Witch-Hunts and Panic-between 1400-1700, 70,000 to 100,000 people were sentenced to death for witchcraft. Witches were believed that they could fly and be in direct relationships with the devil, devouring children. Reformation took away the traditional defenses against such forces therefore allowing people to develop something else Who Were the Witches? - 80% were women who were singled and over 40. First group of victims were widows, second were midwives, then healers and herbalists. Possession of magical powers made one important in the society and often old, widowed women. Influence of the Clergy- theologians reasoned that the witches had to come either from God or the devil. The church sought to supplant folk magic with church magic, the princes sought to supplant customary laws with Roman law. To identify, try, and execute witches was a demo of absolute spiritual and political authority over a village

End of the Witch-Hunts- emergence of a more scientific point of view, advances in medicine, availability of lawyers. Trials became dysfunctional and threatened anarchy. (5) Agricultural Revolution:

Revolution in Agriculture- Smaller supplies of larger demand raised grain prices. Prices rose faster than urban wages and brought no appreciable advantage to the small peasant producer. The rise in grain prices benefited landowners and those wealthier peasants who had surplus grain to sell. Landlords in Western Europe began a series of innovations in farm production that is The Agricultural Revolution. New Crops and New Methods- Dutch landlords and farmers devised better ways to build dikes and to drain land. They also experimented with new crops, such as clover and turnips that would increase supply of animal fodder and restore the soil. Cornelius Vermuyden, a Dutch engineer, was hired by English landlords to drain thousands of acres of land around Cambridge. o Jethro Tull- conducted experiments himself and financed the experiments of others. Rejection of manure as fertilizer was wrong. Using iron plows to turn n the earth more deeply and planting wheat by a drill rather than by just casting seeds was right. o Charles Turnip Townsend institutes crop rotation, using wheat turnips barley and clover. This new system replaced the fallow field with one sown with a crop that both restored nutrients to soil and supplied animal fodder. The fodder attracted animals and assured a year round supply of meant and later quantity of manure as fertilizer for the grain crops. o Robert Bakewell- pioneered new methods of animal breeding that produced more and better animals and more milk and meat. o Arthur Young- edited the Annals of Agriculture

Enclosure Replaces Open-Field Method- Open field was farmers that still farmed most of the soil. The two or three field systems of rotation and animals that grazed on the common land in the summer and on the stubble of the harvest in winter. By the second half of the 18th century. The rising price of wheat encouraged landlords to enclose their lands to increase production. The enclosures were intended to use land more rationally and to achieve greater commercial profits. Enclosures displayed the introduction of the entrepreneurial or capitalistic attitude of the urban merchant into the countryside. Limited Improvements in Eastern Europe- New procedures benefited the ruling classes because better agriculture increased their incomes and assured a larger food supply, which discouraged social unrest. o In Prussia, Austria, Poland, and Russia, the chief method of increasing production was to bring previously untilled lands under the plow. The great landlords sought to squeeze more labor from their serfs, rather than greater productivity from the soil. The only significant nutritional gain they achieved was the introduction of maize and potato. Expansion of Population-Beginning in the second quarter of the eighteenth century, the population began to increase steadily. In 1700, The population excluding the European province of the Ottoman Empire, was between 100 million and 120 million people, by the 1800 the population had risen to almost 1960 million and by 1850 to 260 million. o Death rate declined fewer wars, epidemics, hygiene and sanitation improved. On a single acre, a peasant family could grow enough potatoes to feed itself for an entire year this more certain food supply enabled more children to survive to adulthood and raise children of their own. Thus, contributed to the population expansion. New demands were therefore created for food, goods, jobs, and services.

(6) First Industrial Revolution:

The achievement of sustained economic growth Revolution in Consumption-Inventions of the Industrial Revolution increased the supply of consumer goods. The key to the change in consumption is the expanding of various domestic markets in Europe. People became persuaded that they needed or wanted new consumer goods. o Josiah Wedgwood- first attempted to find customers among the royal family and the aristocracy. Once he had gained their business with luxury goods, then he produced a less expensive version of the chinaware for middle-class customers. He used advertised and sent salespeople all over Britain with samples and catalogs of his wares. o Fashion publication made all levels of society aware of new styles. Industrial Leadership of Great Britain-Great Britain was the home of the Industrial Revolution. London was the center of a world of fashion and taste to which hundreds of thousands of British citizens were exposed each year. o Britain was also the single largest free-trade area in Europe. Taxation in Britain was heavy, but was efficiently and fairly collected. British taxes received legal approval through Parliament, will all social classes and regions paying the same taxes. o British society was mobile by the standards of time. People ho had money or could earn money could rise socially and enjoy their riches, receive social recognition, and exert political influence. New Methods of Textile Production-Earliest industrial change took place not in cities, but in the countryside. Domestic (putting out) system of textile production (agents of urban textile merchants took wool or other unfinished fibers to the homes of peasants, who spun it into thread. The agent then transported the thread to other peasant, who wove it into the finished product. Then, the merchant sold the wares. o Spinning Jenny- John Kay invented the flying shuttle, which increased the productivity of the weavers. The spinners did not have the equipment to produce as much thread as the weavers. Therefore, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny. This machine allowed 16 spindles of thread to be spun, but by the close of the century, it could operate 120 spindles. o Water Frame- Richard Arkwrightss water frame that was a water powered device designed to permit the production of a purely cotton fabric, rather than a cotton fabric containing linen fiver for durability. Many factories sprang up in the country side near streams that provided the necessary water power.

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Edmund Cartwright- invented the power loom for machine weaving. Steam engine- James Watt perfected to run textile machinery could factories easily be located in or near urban centers.

Steam Engine- This machine provided for the first time in human history a steady and essentially unlimited source off inanimate power. The steam engine was driven by burning coal and provided a portable source of industrial power that did not fail or falter as the seasons of the year changed. o Thomas Newcomen in the early eighteenth century had invented the first practical engine to use steam power. The steam that had been induced into the cylinder condensed, and caused the piston to fall. During the 1760s, James Watt gradually understood that separating the condenser from the piston and the cylinder would achieve much greater efficiency. Matthew Boulton and watt consulted with John Wilkinson to drill the precise metal cylinders Watts design required. The Watt steam engine found its first commercial application pumping water from mines .Boulton eventually persuaded Watt to make modification and improvements that allowed the engines to be used not only for pumping, but also for running cotton mills. Iron Production-Charcoal rather than coke was used to smelt the ore. Until the perfection of the steam engine, furnaces could not achieve high enough blasts. The demand for iron was limited. These three factors held back the production of iron. o Henry Cort- introduced a new puddling process a new method for smelting and stiffing molten ore. The process allows the removal of more slag (impurities that bubbled to the top of the molten metal) and thus production of purer iron. Developed a rolling mill that continuously shaped the still-molten metal into forms. The Impact of the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions on Working Women-Women worked in and often were permitted to assemble the grain left over after the general harvest, managed industries. Men displaced the work of women in the field. Women came to be viewed as opponents of agricultural improvement. Most women spinners were put out of work and those women who did move into the factory labor force performed less skilled work than men. The women became involved with cottage industries, but it paid so poorly, the women who did this work might become prostitutes or engage in other criminal activity, and thousands became domestic servants. o Pricilla Wakefield- believed the kinds of employment open to women had narrowed. Wakefield called for new occupations for women. o Womens works became associated with the home rather than with places where men worked. The laboring life of most women was removed from the new technologies in farming, transportation, and manufacturing. They also worked to supplement a husbands income. Men were paid much more than women.

(7) Urbanization:

The percentage of the European population living in urban areas had risen from just over five percent to just over nine percent. Growth of Capitals and Ports-Cites growing most vigorously were capitals and ports which reflect the success of monarchical state building during those years and the consequent growing of bureaucracies, armies, courts, and other groups who lived in the capitals. The growth of port cities reflects the expansion of European overseas trade. Emergence of New cities and the growth of Small towns-The rate of growth of existing large cities declined, new cities emerged, and existing smaller cities grew. an urban growth from below general overall population increase. The early stages of the Industrial Revolution occurred in the countryside and promoted the growth of smaller towns and cities located near factories. Cities grew as a result of the new prosperity of European agriculture. Urban Classes- The urbane rich were often visibly segregated from the urban poor. Aristocrats and upper middle class lived in fashionable town houses. The poorest town dwellers usually congregated along the rivers. Small merchants and artisans lived above their shops. o Pure water was rare, animals roamed the streets. Cities of Europe emphasize both the striking grace and beauty of the dwellings of the wealthy and the dirt, filth that filled the streets.

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In the city, poverty was more visible in the form of crime, prostitution, begging, etc. gin agewhen consumption of the liquor blinded and killed many poor people. Public executions took place, the breaking of men and women on instruments of torture in Paris, and the public floggings in Russia.

Upper Class-Small group of nobles, large merchants, bankers, financiers, clergy and government officials. They constituted a self- appointed and self-electing oligarchy that governed the city through its corporation or city council. Middle Class-The prosperous: merchants, trades people, bankers, and professional people. Most dynamic element of the urban population and was called the bourgeoisie. They lived in the cities and towns and their sources of income had little of nothing to do with land. They all benefited from expanding trade and commerce. The middle class normally supported reform, change, and economic growth. They wanted more rational regulations for trade and commerce. o During the 18th century, nobles increasingly embraced the commercial sprit associated with the middle class by improving their estates and investing in cities. The bourgeoisie was not rising to challenge the nobility, but rather seeking to increase their existing political power and social prestige. Artisans-Shopkeepers, artisans, and wage earners were the single largest group in any city. They could buy more goods than ever before to the extent their incomes permitted, many of them sought to copy the domestic consumption of the middle class. Their lives centered on their work. The guild preserved the jobs and skills of their members. The guilds still determined who could pursue a craft. The artisan could receive social benefits from the guilds. Urban Riot-If the artisan class felt that what was economically just had been offended, artisans frequently manifested their displeasure by rioting, especially the price of bread. If a merchant sold bread for an unjust price, Artisan leaders would confiscate the bread or grain and sell it for what the urban crowd considered to be a fair price. o Lord George Gordon had raised the specter of an imaginary Catholic plot after the government relieved military recruits from having to take specifically anti-Catholic oaths. o In the riots, violence was normally directed against property rather than people. The urban riots increasing involved political ends. Crowd was often the tool of the upper classes. The aristocratic Parelment often urged crowd action in its disputes with the monarchy. Riots against local oligarchy, government incited mobs to attack English sympathizers of the French Revolution.

(8) Enlightenment:

Immanuel Kant- flourished in the expanding of the printing press culture and who took lead in the new attitudes towards the world and literature. Kant believed that he created a compromise between empiricists and rationalists. He criticized the European Empires for dehumanize people whose appearance and culture differed from them. He had a major influence on German philosophy, mostly in analytic and continental philosophy. Deism- Hoped the wide acceptance of their faith would end rivalry among religious fanaticism,conflict and persecution o o o John Toland, Christianity Not Mysterious promoted religion as a natural and rational, rather than a supernatural and mystical phenomenon. Existence of God Belief in life after death, when rewards and punishments would be meted out according to the virtue of the lives people led on this earth

Baron de Montesquieu- French lawyer, a noble of the robe and a member of a provincial parlement saw the needs of reform. o Spirit of the Laws concluded that no single set of political laws could apply to all peoples at all times and in all places. The good political life depended on relationship among many political variables. o Division of power if government where there are executive, legislative and judicial powers

Adam Smith- Professor of Glasgow University believed economic liberty was the foundation of a natural economic system. o Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations written by Adam Smith and advocated the economic liberty was the foundation of a natural economic system. It urged the mercantile system of England including the navigation acts governing colonial trade, the bounties the government gave to favored merchants and industries, most tariffs, trading monopolies and domestics regulation of labor to be abolished. Mercantilism believed the earths resources were limited and scarce, so one nation could acquire wealth only at the expenses of others Wealth of Nations was book that detailed the limited role for the government in economic life. The state should provide schools, armies, certain commercial ventures. It embraced the four-stage theory of economic development.

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau-Isolated; hated the world and society in which he lived.Blamed the much evil of the world on uneven distribution of property o The Social Contract declared all men are born free, but everywhere they are in chains. Society is more important than individual members and constituted a justification for radical direct democracy and for collective action against individual citizens

Denis Diderot- Writer of the encyclopedia o The Encyclopedia was one of the greatest monuments of the enlightenment and print culture. It showed the enlightenments determination to probe life on earth rather than the religious realm. Its a collective plea for freedom of expression and included the most advanced critical ideas of the time on religion, government and philosophy. The articles on politics, ethics and society ignored divine law and concentrated on humanity and its immediate well-being.

Marquis Cesare Beccaria-An Italian aristocrat and philosopher hoped to end human cruelty by discovering social laws and making people aware of them. o On Crimes and Punishment applied critical analysis to the problem of making punishments both effective and just.Marquis wanted the laws of monarchs and legislatures conformed to the rational laws of nature. The purpose of law was not to impose the will of god or perfection but to secure the greatest good or happiness for the greatest number of human beings

Baruch Spinoza-Spinozas near pantheistic position( the idea that God is not a distinct personality but that everything in the universe is) drew God and nature too intimately into a single divine substance led both Jews and Protestants to criticize him as atheist. o Ethics was the most famous works of Spinoza. It closely identified God and nature, or the spiritual and material worlds, that contemporaries condemned it.

Moses Mendelssohn- the leading Jewish philosopher in 18th century and known as the Jewish Socrates. Mendelssohn argued a Jew could combine loyalty to Judaism with adherence to rational, enlightenment values. o Jerusalem, On Ecclesiastical Power and Judaism, the most influential work of Mendelssohn; argued bother of extensive religious toleration and for maintaining the religious distinction of Jewish communities. Mendelssohn urged the religious diversity within a nation did not harm loyalty to the government. He presented Judaism as one of many religious paths revealed by God.

(9) Scientific Revolution:

Many false starts; separated studies and multiple countries

Involve isolated brilliant scientific minds as well artisans and craftspeople in constructing new instruments for experiment Second half of the 17th century; formal societies and academies pursuit natural philosophies informally The end of 17th century, Standard of accessing the validity of knowledge developed Authority and application of scientific knowledge became the defining characteristic of modern western civilization Medicine, chemistry, natural history and astronomy were the new knowledge emerged. Nicolaus Copernicus- A Polish astronomer who published On the revolutions of the heavenly spheresdescribed as a revolution making rather than a revolutionary text o Ptolemy A Greek mathematical astronomy (150 C.E.) who released his work called Almagest. Several mathematical calculations relating to astronomy which known as Ptolemaic systems ware developed from that based on the assumption the earth to be the center of the universe. Geocentrism- A belief that the earth was the center of the universe. Assume a series of concentric spheres such as moon, sun and other planets move around the earth and the earth is the center Divine Comedy-A high religious poem written by Italian called Dante discuss sin and virtue Ptolemaic model- accounted for motions of planets through epicycles. The planet moved uniformly about a small cycle called epicycle and the center of the epicycle moved uniformly about a larger circle called deferent while the earth is at or near the center. On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres-Copernicus published the De Revolutionibus Orbium Caelestium (On the revolutions of the heavenly spheres) in 1543. In the preface, he addressed to Pope Paul III to explain his reasoning behind his theory of the earth moved around the sun and the consequences. He adopted many elements of the Ptolemaic model but transferred them in heliocentric model which assume the sun is the center of universe Heliocentric model is the sun-centered model. The epicycles were smaller; the farther the planets were from the sun, the longer they took to revolve around it. The major impact was to provide a way of confronting the difficulties inherent in Ptolemaic astronomy and achieve new intelligibility in astronomy in rejecting Aristotles cosmology.

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Tycho Brahe- Danish astronomer suggested planets like Venus and Mercury revolve around the sun. The moon revolved around the earth. Constructed scientific instruments that can observe planets in naked-eyes o Geocentric system

Johannes Kepler-A German astronomer, Assistant of Tycho; deeply influenced by Renaissance neoplatonism and advocate of heliocentric model. Set first astronomical model that portray motion elliptically instead of circularly. o o The New Astronomy- Published in 1609 by Kepler; it combined the views of Copernicuss the sun-centered universe and Braches empirical data to describe planet motions Renaissance Neo-Platonism- Neo-Platonism was not just a revival of Plato's ideas; it is all based on Plotinus' created synthesis, which incorporated the works and teachings of Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras and other Greek philosophers. Neo-Platonism is generally a religious philosophy. NeoPlatonism is a form of idealistic monism (universe is really just one thing though it has many appearances and diversities or theories) and combines elements of Polytheism (worship many gods)

(10) The Paris Commune:

Monarchists dominated the new national Assembly elected in February. The assembly gave executive power to Adolphe Thiers, who had been active in French politics since 1830. He negotiated a settlement with Prussia (Treaty of Frankfurt) which was officially ratified on May 23. Parisians elected a new municipal government, called the Paris Commune, which was formally proclaimed on 1871, The Commune intended to administer Paris separately from the rest of France. In April, National Assembly surrounded Paris with an army. The army bombarded the city, broke through the citys defenses, and killed about 20,000 inhabitants while the communards shot scores of hostages. The commune wanted not a workers state, but a nation of relatively independent, radically democratic enclaves.

`TOP 10 COMPARE AND CONTRAST: (1) Protestant Reformation vs. Catholic/Counter Reformation: Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther- Luther had different thoughts than the Catholic Church. He wrote the 65 theses and nailed on the church door in Wittenberg, Germany. The theses was criticism toward the church and church policies, such as indulgences cannot prevent you from going to hell or a Pope forgiving your sins because only God can forgive ones sins. Therefore, a new religion named Protestantism was created. o Luther received a Papal Bull, which say she had sixty days to recant his theses or he would be excommunicated. He doesnt obey this command. At the Diet of Worms he is declared guilty of heretic and betrayal against religion. His friends to keep him safe changed his identity and hid him

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in the Wartburg Castle. There, he translated the bible from Latin and Greek to German. Allowing more people, to read the bible and be a believer in Christ. Luther believed that faith without charitable service to ones neighbor was dead. Also, he believed that the churchs conditioning of salvation on good works left many Christians only counting their merits and demerits, unable to act selflessly and struggling to maintain inner peace of mind.

Sale of Indulgence- an aid that forgave a sin that was executed. o The church sold letters of indulgence which made good on the works of satisfaction owed by penitent. o Pope Clement VI- proclaimed the existence of treasury of merit: an infinite reservoir of good works in the churchs possession that could be dispensed at the popes discretion. o Pope Sixtus IV- extended indulgences to the non-regretted sins of all Christians in purgatory, the place where souls remained until they erased their sins. o Pope Leo X- revived a plenary Jubilee Indulgence that had first been issued by Pope Julius II, the proceeds of which were to rebuild St. Peters Basilica in Rome. o Jubilee Indulgence- promised forgiveness of all outstanding sins upon the completion of certain acts. o Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz- was much in need of revenues because of the large debts he had incurred to gain a papal dispensation to hold three ecclesiastical appointments at one and the same time. Ulrich Zwingli/Swiss Reformation- He also opposed to the sale of indulgences and to religious superstition. He became a peoples priest in Zurich and engineered the Swiss Reformation. Whatever lacked literal support in Scripture was to be neither believed nor practiced was the test. o Marburg Colloquy- Philip of Hesse sought to unite Swiss and German Protestant in a mutual defense act. But, Luthers and Zwinglis differences spoiled his efforts. o Zwingli- a symbolic interpretation of Christs words. Christ was spiritually, not bodily present in the bread and wine of the Eucharist o Luther- Christs human nature was such that he shared the properties of his divine nature. Christ was both spiritual and bodily o Heinrich Bullinger- Zwinglis protg and later son-in-law, became the new leader of the Swiss reformation and guided its development into an established religion Anabaptists-Schleitheim Confession a document that distinguished the Anabaptists not only by their practice of adult baptism, but also by their antiviolence, refusal to swear oaths, and non-participation in the offices of secular government. Anabaptists physically separated from established society, and was the close connection between religious and civic life in 16- century, that made political authorities this as threat to basic social bonds. Spiritualists-Believed the only religious authority was the Spirit of God, which spoke not in some past revelation but here and now in the heart and mind of every listening individual. Antitrinitarians-Exponents of a commonsense, rational, and ethical religion. John Calvin/Calvinism-Calvins theology as justification by faith was from Luthers. Calvinist denied the existence of human free will. Calvins theological work institutes of the Christian Religion He believed that for true believers, fate was recognized that of the world and all who live it was determined or left in gods hands for eternity regardless of all else. Calvinist found consoling, presumptive evidence that they were among Gods elect. Calvinists turned their energies to transforming society spiritually and morally. o Calvin joined with reformer from the city of Bern, Guilame Farel. They proposed to govern Genevas moral life and were suspected in trying to make a new papacy. He was then exiled to Strasbourg. There he became pastor to French exiles, wrote biblical commentaries, produced a second edition to his Institutes of the Christian reform and he learned from a Strasbourg reformer, Martin Bucer, how to achieve his goals.

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The diet of Augsburg, the assembly of Protestant and Catholic representatives called to address the growing religious division with in the empire in the wake of the Reformations success. Charles V demanded that all Lutherans to revert to Catholicism. Lutherans response was to create a defensive alliance called the Schmalkaldic League as its banner the Augsburg Confession which was a statement of Protestant beliefs that were spurned by the emperor at the Diet of Augsburg. Protestant confession is known as Schmalkaldic Articles. Under the Christian III, Lutheranism became the official state religion.

English Reformation

King Henry VIII- Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, the chief minister of King Henry VIII, and Sir Thomas More guided royal opposition to incipient English Protestantism. o King Henry VIII- married to Catherine of Aragon. He wanted a male heir and all he gave her was a girl. He had an affair with Anne Boleyn. But the pope Clement VII and emperor Charles V would not allow divorce. o Cardinal Wolsey was placed in charge of securing the royal annulment. When he failed, he was dismissed in disgrace o Thomas Cranmer and Thomas Cromwell became the kings closest advisers. o Reformation Parliament- The parliament convened for what would be a seven year session that was titled Reformation Parliament. Whenever fundamental changes are made in religion, the monarch must consult with and work through parliament. Parliament published official grievances against the church. Then, Henry wedded Anne and then Parliament made the king the highest court of appeal for all English subjects. At of the supremacy declared Henry only supreme head in earth of the Church of England. o Ten articles of 1536- made only mild concessions to Protestant tenets. o Six articles of 1539- reaffirmed transubstantiation, denied the Eucharistic cup to the laity, declared celibate vows inviolable, provide private masses, ordered the continuation of oral confession

Catholic Reformation

Ignatius of Loyola-Ignatius had is first religious called and undertook the pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He was then committed to religious life and he embarked on a program of disciplined writings and study in Span and in Paris, France. He gained followers, the Spanish missionary Francis Xavier among them. He with his companions founded the Society of Jesuits. The Jesuits were known for leading structured lives and for their self-discipline, commitment to the pope, and missionary work. They profound belief in education. The Council of Trent- Trent was strictly under the popes control. Voting was limited to high levels of clergy, university theologians, lower clergy, and the laity did not share in the councils decision. The councils most important reforms concerned internal church discipline. Trent strengthened the authority of local bishops so they could effectively discipline popular religious practices. To train priests, Trent called for a seminary in every diocese. The Council of Trent reaffirmed the traditional Scholastic education of the clergy, role of the good works in salvation, the authority of tradition, seven sacraments, transubstantiations, the withholding of the Eucharistic cup from the laity, clerical celibacy, purgatory, the veneration of saints, relics, and sacred images, and indulgences. o Rulers initially resisted Trents reform decrees, in fear of a revival of papal political power and new confessional conflicts within their lands just as the political authorities took the Anabaptists separation toward society as a threat

(2) Galileo vs. Isaac Newton: Galileo Galilei

An Italian Mathematician and believed what was real and lasting was mathematically measurable. He is a natural philosopher turned telescope on the heavens. His philosophy was criticized by the Roman Catholic Church. Starry Messenger (1610)- Galileo used rhetorical skills to advocate Copernican interpretation of the heavens based on physical observation of Venus. Letters on Sunspots (1613)- Another Galileos publication which used rhetorical skills to advocate Copernican interpretation of the heavens based on physical observation of Venus

The Case of Galileo-condemnation of Galileo by the Catholic Church in 1633.Copernicus' disagreement with the literal word of the Bible and the biblical interpretations of the Church Fathers. Council of Trent announced that only the church was allowed had the authority to interpret the Bible. Galileo was condemned, required to renounce his views, and under house arrest (instead of execution). o Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina published own views about how scripture should be interpreted o Pope Urban VIII: Galileo's acquaintance who gave him permission o Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems discussed the Copernican system o Pope John Paul II formally ordered the reassessment of the Galileo case in 20th cent. Isaac Newton

Englishman and wrote the The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (in Latin Principia Mathematica) 1687 Theory of universal gravitation is Newtons finding stated that the force of gravity towards the whole planet dud arise from and was compounded of the forces of gravity towards all its parts, and towards every one part was in the inverse proportion of the squares of the distances from the part. Mechanism was an idea to explain the world in terms of mechanical metaphors. The universe is not an animated being but a mechanism Empiricism - Newtons reasoning of planets and all physical objects in the universe moved through mutual attraction, or gravity. Stated One must observe phenomena before attempting to explain them o Francis Bacon, the father of empiricism and writer to champion innovation and change. He believed human knowledge should produce useful results rather than words. He urged philosophers to have their own confidence in themselves and examined the evidence of their sense before constructing logical speculations

Opponent of Rene Descartes; Newton opposes Rene Descartes rationalism and believed in empiricism. One must observe phenomena before attempting to explain them Rene Descartes- He developed a scientific method that relied on deduction. He rejected scholastics philosophy and education found on a mathematical model. o o Discourse on Method was published by Rene Descartes; it doubted everything except those which he could have clear and distinct ideas. Work appeared in French rather than Latin (why?) because he wanted to have a wide circulation and application.

(3) Hobbes vs. Locke: Thomas Hobbes

Political philosopher Leviathan, 1651 was a publication of Hobbes which provided a rigorous philosophical justification for a strong central political authority. Human reasoning penetrated to no deeper reality or wisdom than those physical sensations. Human beings exist only to meet the needs of daily life, not for higher spiritual ends or for any larger moral purpose.

Human beings in their natural state are inclined to a: perpetual and restless desire: for power. All people want and in their natural state possess a natural right to everything

People are self-centered creatures who lack a master. He thought that rulers should be absolute and unlimited in their power. Absolute authority might be lodged in either a monarch or a legislative body, but once that person or body had been granted authority, there existed no argument for appeal. He rejected the idea of divine right and refused to recognize the authority of either god or the church as standing beside or above his secular sovereign.

John Locke

Political thinker; family had puritan sympathies. A major source of criticism of absolutism and provided a foundation for later liberal political philosophy in both Europe and America He wrote two treatises on government that were eventually published in the 1690 o First treatise of government- he rejected arguments for absolute government that based political authority on the patriarchal model of fathers ruling over a family. After publication of this treatise, no major political philosopher again appealed to the patriarchal model. Second Treatise of Government- an argument for a government that must necessarily be both responsible for and responsive to the concerns of the governed. Natural human states as one of perfect freedom and equality. Everyone had natural rights of life.

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Human beings in their natural state as creatures of reason and basic goodwill rather than of uncontrolled passion and selfishness. To Locke, government exists to protest the best achievements and liberty of the state of nature. His government is one of limited authority. Relationships between rulers and the governed is that of trust, and if the rulers betray that trust, the governed have the right to replace them. Letter Concerning Toleration- each individual was required to work out his or her own religious salvation and these efforts might lead various people to join different religious groups. Government existed by its very nature to preserve property not to make religious decision for its citizens. Thus established a powerful foundation for the future extension of toleration, religious liberty, and the separation of church and state. Essay Concerning Human understanding- portrayed a persons mind at birth as a blank tablet whose content would be determined by sense experience. Reason and revelation were compatible and together could sustain a moderate religious faith that would avoid religious conflict.

(4) Rousseau vs. Hobbes: Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Isolated; hated the world and society in which he lived. Blamed the much evil of the world on uneven distribution of property o The Social Contract declared all men are born free, but everywhere they are in chains. Society is more important than individual members and constituted a justification for radical direct democracy and for collective action against individual citizens

Thomas Hobbes

Political philosopher Leviathan, 1651 was a publication of Hobbes which provided a rigorous philosophical justification for a strong central political authority.

Human reasoning penetrated to no deeper reality or wisdom than those physical sensations. Human beings exist only to meet the needs of daily life, not for higher spiritual ends or for any larger moral purpose. Human beings in their natural state are inclined to a: perpetual and restless desire: for power. All people want and in their natural state possess a natural right to everything People are self-centered creatures who lack a master. He thought that rulers should be absolute and unlimited in their power. Absolute authority might be lodged in either a monarch or a legislative body, but once that person or body had been granted authority, there existed no argument for appeal. He rejected the idea of divine right and refused to recognize the authority of either god or the church as standing beside or above his secular sovereign.

(5) French Revolution vs. the Russian Revolution; French Revolution

Seven Years War (1756-1763)-The French monarchy emerged from the Seven Years War being defeated, deeply in debt, and unable thereafter to put its finances on a sound basis. o The problem lay with the inability of the royal government to tap the nations wealth through taxes to service and repay the debt. For 25 years after the Seven years War, a standoff occurred between the monarchy and the aristocracy, as one royal minister after another attempted to devise new tax schemes that would tap the wealth of the nobility, but both the Parlement of Paris and provincial parlements opposed. Louis XV (1715-1774) - Louis appointed Rene Maupeou (1714-1792) to be chancellor. He closes down the parlements and exiled their members to different parts of the country. The death of Louis XV gave reign to Lousix XVI who attempts to regain what he conceived to be popular support, dismisses Maupeou, restored all the parlements, and confirmed their old powers,. Louis XVI (1774-1792)-Parlements spoke for aristocratic interests, but appeared to have public support. Monarchy was unable to rally public opinion to its side because it had lost much of its moral authority. Jacques Necker (1732-1804)- a Swiss banker, the new royal director-general of finances, produced a public report in 1781 that suggested the situation was not as bad as had been feared. He argues that if the expenditures for the American war were removed, the budget was in surplus o By 1781, as a result of the aid to America, its debt was larger, and its sources of revenues were unchanged. o Neckers report revealed that a large portion of royal expenditures went to income for aristocrats and other royal court favorites. Thus, made it more difficult for government officials to claim a real need to raise new taxes. Estates Generalo First Estate- the clergy, Second Estate- the nobility, and Third Estate- everyone else in the kingdom, although its representatives were drawn primarily from wealthy members of the commercial and professional middle classes. Abbe Sieyes (1748-1836) a priest who comment what is the third estate? Everything. What has it been in the political order up to the present? Nothing. What does it ask? To become something. Debate over organization and voting came to the result with each estate having an equal number of representatives, but in September 1788, the parlement of Paris ruled that voting in the Estates General should be conducted by each estate count as one vote rather than each person of the estates. Thus, making the vote to First and Second Estate dominance. IN December 1788, the royal council announced that Third estate would elect twice as many representatives as either the nobles or the clergy. The council assumed that liberal nobles and clergy shared the same important interests and reform goals as the Third estate. Cahiers de Doleances( lists of grievances) registered by the local electors to be presented to the king. The documents criticized government waste, indirect taxes, church taxes, church taxes and corruption, and the hunting rights of the aristocracy. They called for periodic meetings of the estates General, more equitable taxes, more local control of administration, unifies weights and measures to facilitate trade and commerce, and a free press.

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The cahiers drawn up before May 1789 indicate that the three estates could have cooperated to reach these goals. June 1, the Third Estate invited the clergy and the nobles to join them in organizing a new legislative body. And some priests. On June 17, the body declared itself the National Assembly, on June 19 by a narrow margin, the Second estate voted to join the Assembly. Louis XVI decided to reassert role in the proceedings. He intended to call a Royal Session of the Estates General for June 23 and closed the room where the National Assembly had been gathering. On June 20, The national Assembly moved from the room they been locked out from to a nearby indoor tennis court. There, the members took an oath to continue to sit until they had given France a constitution. This action was the famous Tennis Court Oath. Louis XVI ordered the National Assembly to desist. On June 27, the king lost control of the events around him formally requested the First and Second estates to meet with the National Assembly, where voting would occur by head rather than by order. Now, the monarchy could govern only in cooperation with the National Assembly. The National Assembly, which renamed itself the National Constitituent Assembly because of its intention to write a new constitution, was composed of a majority of liberal goals for the administrative, constitutional, and economic reform of the country. Louis XVI again attempted to regain the political initiative by mustering royal troops neat Versailles and Paris. On July 11, without consulting with the Assembly leaders, Louis abruptly dismissed Necker. Both of these actions marked the beginning of a steady, but consistently poorly executed, royal attempt to undermine the Assembly and halt the revolution. The second factor, the populace of Paris numbered more than 600,000 people. Throughout the winter and spring of 1789 high prices for bread had produced riots. Those Parisians who had elected representatives to the Third estate had continued to meet after the elections. By June they were organizing a citizen militia and colleting arms. They intended to protect the Assembly and the revolution it had begun. On July 14, large crowds of Parisians marched to the Bastille to get weapons for the militia. Through miscalculations and ineptitude by the governor of the fortress, the troops in the Bastille fired into the crowd, killing ninety-eight people and wounding many others. Only July 15, the militia of Paris, called the national guard offered its command to a young liberal aristocrat, Marquis de Lafayette (1757-1834). He gave the guard a new symbol: the red and blue stripes form the colors of the coat of arms of Paris, separated by the white stripes of the royal flag. The emblem became the revolutionary cockade (badge) and eventually the tricolor flag of revolutionary France. The attack on the Bastille marked the first of many crucial Journees (days on which the populace of Paris redirected the course of the revolution). Louis XVI personally visited Paris, where he wore the revolutionary cockade and realized the organized electors as the legitimate government of the city the National Guard and that he lacked the military support to turn back the revolution. The citizens of Paris had established themselves as an independent political force with which other political groups might ally for their own purposes. The Great Fear saw the burning of chateaux the destruction of legal records and documents and refusal to pay feudal des. The peasants were reclaiming rights and property they had lost through administrative tightening of the collection of feudal dues during the past century as well as venting their anger against the injustices of rural life. Their targets were both aristocratic and ecclesiastical landlords. On the night of August 4 , 1789, aristocrats in the National Constituent Assembly attempted to halt the spreading disorder in the countryside. Several liberal nobles and clerics rose in the Assembly and renounced their feudal rights, dues and tithes. Theses nobles and clerics gave up

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what they had already lost and what they could not have regained without civil war in the rural areas. After the night of August 4, all French citizens were subject to the same and equal laws. The sale of government offices was also abolished. The dramatic session of the Assembly effectively abolished the major social institutions of the Old Regime and created an unforeseen situation that requited a cast legal and social reconstruction of the nation. A deep economic downturn had struck France in 1787-1788. Food prices increase, wages not kept up with the rise in prices, many people suffer from hunger. On August 27, the Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. This declaration drew on the political language of the Enlightenment and the Declaration of Tights that the state of Virginia had adopted in June 1776. The French declaration proclaimed that all men were born and remain free and equal in rights. The natural rights so proclaimed were liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. The Government existed to protest these rights. All citizens were to be equal before the law and were to be equally admissible to all public dignities, offices, and employments, according to their capacity, and with no other distinction than that of their virtues and talent. There were to be due process of law and presumption of innocence until proven guilty. Freedom of religion was affirmed. Taxation was to be apportioned equally according to the salary. Property constituted an inviolable and sacred right. Two most powerful, universal political ideas of the declaration were civic equality and popular sovereignty. The first would challenge the legal and social inequities of European life, and the second would assert that governments must be responsible to the governed. Summer of 1789, many politically active and informed Frenchwomen hoped the guarantees of the declaration would be extended to them, rather than just the men. Louis XVI stalled before ratifying both the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and the aristocratic renunciation of feudalism. Plus, the bread remained scarce and expensive. On October 5, 7,000 Parisian women armed with pikes, guns, swords, and knives marched to Versailles demanding more bread. Intimidated, the king agreed to sanction the decrees of the Assembly. On October 6, 1789, His carriage followed the crowd into the city, where he and his family settled in the old palace of the Tuileries in the heart of Paris. The National Constituent Assembly also soon moved to Paris.

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National Constituent Assembly reorganizes France-In Constitution of 1791, the National Constituent Assembly established a constitutional monarchy (in administration, rationalism; in economics, unregulated freedom; and in religion anticlericalism). The major political authority of the nation would be a unicameral Legislative Assembly, in which all laws would originate. o o o Active- men paying annual taxes equal to three days of local labor wages could vote. They choose electors, who voted for the member of the legislature. Women could neither vote nor hold office. The accumulation of wealth from land and commercial property would open the path to political authority. Departements- generally equal size named after rivers, mountains, and other geographical features. The departments were subdivided into districts, cantons, and communes. Ever since the original gathering of the estates General, deputies from the third Estate had organized themselves into clubs composed of politically like-minded person. Jacobin, a group that met in a former Dominican priory dedicated to St. Jacques in Paris. They pressed for republic rather than a constitutional monarchy. Girondists (many of them came from the department of the Gironde in southwest France) assumed leadership of the Assembly. They passed one measure ordering the migrs to return or suffer the loss of their property and another requiring the refractory clergy to support the Civil Constitution or lose their state pensions.

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On April 20, 1792, The Girondists led the Legislative Assembly to declare war on Austria. Final defeat of France at Waterloo in June 1815. Pauline Leon led a group of women to petition the Legislative Assembly for the right to bear arms and to fight to protect the revolution. These demands to serve, voiced in the universal language of citizenship, illustrated how the rhetoric of the revolution could be used to challenge traditional social roles and the concept of separate social spheres for men and women. Once the war began, some Frenchwomen did enlist in the army and served with distinction. Duke of Brunswick, commander of the Prussian forces, issued a manifesto threatening to destroy Paris if the French royal family were harmed. Paris commune was a committee of representatives from the sections of the city.. it became an independent political force casting itself in the role of the protector of the gains of the revolution against both internal and external enemies. The Tuleries palace was invaded on August 1, by a large crowd who forced Louis Xvi and Marie Antoinette to take refuge in the Legislative Assembly. The crowd fought with the royal Swiss guards. The royal family was then imprisoned in comfortable quarters, but the king was allowed to perform none of his political functions.

The September Massacre-The Paris Commune summarily executed or murdered about 1,200 people who were in the city jails. Conventiono o As its first act, the Convention declared France a republic- a nation governed by an elected assembly without a monarch. Sans-culottes with out breeches were shopkeepers, artisans, wage earners, and in a few cases factory workers. They believe all people have a right to subsistence, and they resented most forms of social inequality. This attitude made them intensely hostile to the aristocracy and the political leaders the revolution. They simply wanted to share political powers, social prestige and economic security with the aristocracy. They believed the people should make the decision of government to an extent as great as possible. Jacobin, republicans who sought representative government. They favored an unregulated economy. Once the Convention began to deliberate, these Jacobins, known as the Mountain because their seats were high up in the assembly hall, worked with the sans-culottes to carry the revolution forward and to win the war. In December 1792, Louis XVU was put on trial as mere Citizen Capet, the original medieval name of the royal family. Many convicted Louis of conspiring against the liberty of the people and the security of the state. Was condemned to death by a smaller majority, he was beheaded on January 21, 1793. The Girondists had led the country into the war, but had been unable either to win it or to suppress the enemies of the revolution at home. By April 1793, the Jacobins began to direct the French government; the nation was at war with Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Spain, Sardinia, and Holland. The governments of these nations allied to become the First Coalition, which attempt to protect their social, political systems, and economic interests against the aggression of the revolution. The actions to protect the revolution and silence dissent came to be known as the Reign of Terror. The Committee of Public Safety to carry out the executive duties of the government. The members were all revolutionary leaders who were convinced republicans who had long opposed the more vacillating policies of the Girondists. They saw their task as saving the revolution from mortal enemies at home and abroad. Main problem was the wages of the war. The sans-culottes invaded the Convention and successfully wiped out the Girodist members and gave the Mountain complete control. Lazare Carnot, a member of the Committee of Public Safety in charge of the military, began a mobilization for victory by issuing a Levee en Masse (a military requisition on the entire population, conscripting males into the army and directing economic production to military purpose.

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In Republic of Virtue, civic virtue largely understood in terms of Rousseaus Social Contract (the sacrifice of ones self and ones interest for the good of the republic) would replace selfish aristocratic and monarchical corruption. The core value of the republic of virtue was the upholding of the public over the private good or the championing of the general will over individual interests. Maximilien Robespierre embodied this republic by terror. He had emerged as the dominant figure on the Committee of Public safety, favored a republic. To him, the republic of virtue meant wholehearted support of the republican government, the renunciation of selfish gains from political life, and the assault on foreign and domestic enemies of the revolution. Pauline Leon and Claire Lacombe found the society of Revolutionary Republican women. The women of the society also demanded the right to wear the revolutionary cockade that male citizens usually wore in their hats. Conventions attempt to De-Christianize France. There were twelve months of thirty days each. Every tenth day was a holiday. In November 1793, the convention decreed the cathedral of Notre dame in Paris to be temple of reason. Churches were desecrated, torn down, or used as barns or warehouses. The mandate of these tribunals was to try the enemies of the republic, but the definition was an enemy shifted as the months passed. Those whom the tribunal condemned in Paris were beheaded on the guillotine, a recently invented instrument of efficient and supposedly humane execution. At the Nantes several hundred people were simply tied to rafts and drowned in the river Loire.

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Jacques Danton who had provided heroic national leadership in the dark days of September 1792 and who had later served briefly on the Committee of Public Safety before Robespierre joined the group. Robespierre exterminated the leadership of both groups that might have threatened his position. He secured passage of the Law of 22 Prairial, which permitted the revolutionary tribunal to convict suspects without hearing substation evidence them o Robespierre considered the worship of reason too abstract for most citizens, replaced it with the Cult of the Supreme Being. o Robespierre was arrested for his ill-tempered speeches in the Convention, declaring that other leaders of the government were conspiring against him and the revolution. No member of the Convention felt sage. The Russian Revolution

The March Revolution in Russian was the result of the collapse of the monarchys ability to govern. Nicholas II was weak and incompetent and suspected of being under the domination of his German wife and insidious peasant faith healer Rasputin. Whom a group of Russian noblemen assassinated in 1916. In 1915, the tsar took personal command of the armies on the German front, which kept him away from the capital. In his absence corrupt and incompetent ministers increasingly discredited the government even in the eyes of conservative monarchists The Provisional Government-In early march 1917, strikes and worker demonstrations erupted in Petrograd as Saint Petersburg had been renamed. The ill-disciplined troops in the city refused to fire on the demonstrators. The tsar abdicated on March 15. The government of Russia fell into the hands of members of the Duma, who soon formed a provisional government composed chiefly of Constitutional democrats (Cadets) with western sympathies. At the same time, various socialist groups including both Social revolutionaries and Social Democrats of the Menshevik wing began to organize soviets, councils of workers and soldiers. Initially, they allowed the provisional government to function without actually supporting it. The Mensheviks believed that Russia had to have a bourgeois stage of development before it could have a revolution of the working class. o In this climate, the provisional government decided to remain loyal to Russias alliances and continue the war. The collapse of the last Russian offensive in the summer of 1917 sealed its fate. Disillusionment with the war, shortages of food and other necessities at home, and the peasants demands for land reform undermined the government. This occurred even after the moderate socialist Alexander Kerensky became prime minister. Lenin and the Bolsheviks-The Germans in their most successful attempt at subversion had rushed the brilliant Bolshevik leader V.I. Lenin in a sealed train from his exile in Switzerland across Germany to

Petrograd. Lenin saw the opportunity to achieve the political alliance of workers and peasants he had discussed before the war. He hammered away on the theme of peace, bread, and land. The failure of the summer offensive encouraged them to attempt a coup, but the effort was a failure. Lenin fled to Finland, and his chief collaborator Leon Trotsky was imprisoned. o The failure of a right-wing countercoup gave the Bolsheviks another chance. Trotsky, released from prison, led the powerful Petrograd soviet. Lenin returned in October, insisted to his doubting colleagues that the time was ripe to take power, and by the extraordinary force of his personality persuaded them to act. Trotsky organized the coup that took place and concluded with an armed assault on the provisional government. The Bolsheviks, almost as much to their own astonishment as to that of the rest of the world, had come to rule Russia. The Communist Dictatorship- In selecting a Constituent Assembly, the Social Revolutionaries won a large majority over the Bolsheviks. The Red Army halted the assembly. The Bolsheviks turned the land over to peasant proprietors Factory workers were in charge of their own; state controlled bank, rejected the debt of the tsarist government and property of the church o The Bolshevik government took Russia out of the war; signed an armistice with Germany and accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, where Russia surrenders Poland, Finland, the Baltic States, and Ukraine. They'd pay for war insurance o Lenin believed the war would lead to communist revolutions and knew Bolsheviks had to rule. The new government met resistance; Civil war occurred between Red Russians (supporting revolution and controlled by the Bolsheviks) and White Russians (opposed revolution). o Bolsheviks took a step by murdering the tsar and family, with officers fighting the o Revolution. Aid from Allies helped the Red Army win firm control (6) Peter the Great vs. Catherine the Great: Peter the Great He and sickly brother Ivan V came to power on the shoulders of the streltsy. Tsar had to be secure from the streltsy and the boyars' jealousy and greed. Peter built a new military and also made sustained attacks on the boyars and their attachment to traditional Russian cultures and westernized Russia. He set up colleges, influenced by Sweden, to oversee matters such as the collection of taxes, foreign relations, war, and economic affairs. He created a table of ranks which equated a persons social position and privileges with his rank in the bureaucracy or the military, rather than with his lineage among the traditional landed nobility. Peter founded St. Petersburg, which symbolized a new western orientation of Russia and Peters determination to hold his position on the Baltic Coast Catherine the Great

Catherine the Great of Russia adopted limited administrative reforms and put most local offices in the hands of nobles rather than creating a royal bureaucracy. In this manner, her crown was strengthened by making convenient friends with her nobles. Suppressed internal barriers to trade and encouraged economic growth. Catherine the Great successfully won several military victories and expanded the territory to the Gulf of Baltic

(7) Christian Humanists vs. the Reformation: Christian Humanists

Humanism was a new philosophy that really defined the Renaissance. It was the scholarly study of Latin and Greek classics and of ancient Church Fathers, both for its sake and in hope of reviving respected ancient norms and values. Most humanist were actually religious, but the beliefs of church and of the humanists had was the humanists believed that this life was important and should be enjoyed while the church did not, and felt that people should focus on awaiting the afterlife instead. Four aspects of humanism : 1. Ad migration and emulation of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. 2. Philosophy of enjoying this life, instead of just waiting for the next one. 3. The glorification of humans and belief that individuals are can do anything 4. The belief that humans deserved to be the center of attention Francesco Petrarch- father of humanism left legal possessions to pursue letters and poetry, spent most life around Avignon, later years served for family in Milan.

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He wrote Letters to the ancient dead (personally to Cicero, Livy, Vergil and Horace), Latin epic poem Africa, biographies of famous Roman men Lives of Illustrious men His most famous work was a collection of love sonnets to Laura, a married women who he admired Classical and Christian values existed in his works and he wrote to defend the personal immortality of the soul against Aristotelians.

Date Alghiens Vita Nuova and Divine Comedy form, with Petrarchs sonnets formed the cornerstones of Italian vernacular literature. Giovanni Boccaccio- wrote the decameron- a story of 100 tales told by 3 men and 7 women in a retreat away from the Black Death in Florentine. He also assembled an encyclopedia of Greek and Roman mythology Baldassare Castiglione- writer who is best known for his novel, The Courtier , which is in the form of a conversation between the sophisticated men and women of a court in Urbino, became a manual of proper behavior for gentlemen and ladies for centuries to come. Marsilio Ficino- was a member of a new, later group of humanists called the Neoplatonists, who believed in studying the grand ideas in the work of Plato and other philosophers as opposed to leading the active life the civic humanists lead. Ficino believed that Platos ideas showed the dignity and immortality of the human soul. o Platonism- flattering view of human nature distinguished between eternal sphere of being and perishable bond in which humans actually lived

The Reformation

Martin Luther- Luther had different thoughts than the Catholic Church. He wrote the 65 theses and nailed on the church door in Wittenberg, Germany. The theses was criticism toward the church and church policies, such as indulgences cannot prevent you from going to hell or a Pope forgiving your sins because only God can forgive ones sins. Therefore, a new religion named Protestantism was created. o Luther received a Papal Bull, which say she had sixty days to recant his theses or he would be excommunicated. He doesnt obey this command. At the Diet of Worms he is declared guilty of heretic and betrayal against religion. His friends to keep him safe changed his identity and hid him in the Wartburg Castle. There, he translated the bible from Latin and Greek to German. Allowing more people, to read the bible and be a believer in Christ. Luther believed that faith without charitable service to ones neighbor was dead. Also, he believed that the churchs conditioning of salvation on good works left many Christians only counting their merits and demerits, unable to act selflessly and struggling to maintain inner peace of mind.

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Sale of Indulgence- an aid that forgave a sin that was executed. o The church sold letters of indulgence which made good on the works of satisfaction owed by penitent. o Pope Clement VI- proclaimed the existence of treasury of merit: an infinite reservoir of good works in the churchs possession that could be dispensed at the popes discretion. o Pope Sixtus IV- extended indulgences to the non-regretted sins of all Christians in purgatory, the place where souls remained until they erased their sins. o Pope Leo X- revived a plenary Jubilee Indulgence that had first been issued by Pope Julius II, the proceeds of which were to rebuild St. Peters Basilica in Rome. o Jubilee Indulgence- promised forgiveness of all outstanding sins upon the completion of certain acts. o Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz- was much in need of revenues because of the large debts he had incurred to gain a papal dispensation to hold three ecclesiastical appointments at one and the same time.

Ulrich Zwingli/Swiss Reformation- He also opposed to the sale of indulgences and to religious superstition. He became a peoples priest in Zurich and engineered the Swiss Reformation. Whatever lacked literal support in Scripture was to be neither believed nor practiced was the test. o Marburg Colloquy- Philip of Hesse sought to unite Swiss and German Protestant in a mutual defense act. But, Luthers and Zwinglis differences spoiled his efforts. o Zwingli- a symbolic interpretation of Christs words. Christ was spiritually, not bodily present in the bread and wine of the Eucharist o Luther- Christs human nature was such that he shared the properties of his divine nature. Christ was both spiritual and bodily o Heinrich Bullinger- Zwinglis protg and later son-in-law, became the new leader of the Swiss reformation and guided its development into an established religion Anabaptists-Schleitheim Confession a document that distinguished the Anabaptists not only by their practice of adult baptism, but also by their antiviolence, refusal to swear oaths, and non-participation in the offices of secular government. Anabaptists physically separated from established society, and was the close connection between religious and civic life in 16- century, that made political authorities this as threat to basic social bonds. Spiritualists-Believed the only religious authority was the Spirit of God, which spoke not in some past revelation but here and now in the heart and mind of every listening individual. Antitrinitarians-Exponents of a commonsense, rational, and ethical religion. John Calvin/Calvinism-Calvins theology as justification by faith was from Luthers. Calvinist denied the existence of human free will. Calvins theological work institutes of the Christian Religion He believed that for true believers, fate was recognized that of the world and all who live it was determined or left in gods hands for eternity regardless of all else. Calvinist found consoling, presumptive evidence that they were among Gods elect. Calvinists turned their energies to transforming society spiritually and morally. o Calvin joined with reformer from the city of Bern, Guilame Farel. They proposed to govern Genevas moral life and were suspected in trying to make a new papacy. He was then exiled to Strasbourg. There he became pastor to French exiles, wrote biblical commentaries, produced a second edition to his Institutes of the Christian reform and he learned from a Strasbourg reformer, Martin Bucer, how to achieve his goals. o The diet of Augsburg, the assembly of Protestant and Catholic representatives called to address the growing religious division with in the empire in the wake of the Reformations success. Charles V demanded that all Lutherans to revert to Catholicism. Lutherans response was to create a defensive alliance called the Schmalkaldic League as its banner the Augsburg Confession which was a statement of Protestant beliefs that were spurned by the emperor at the Diet of Augsburg. Protestant confession is known as Schmalkaldic Articles. Under the Christian III, Lutheranism became the official state religion.

English Reformation

King Henry VIII- Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, the chief minister of King Henry VIII, and Sir Thomas More guided royal opposition to incipient English Protestantism. o King Henry VIII- married to Catherine of Aragon. He wanted a male heir and all he gave her was a girl. He had an affair with Anne Boleyn. But the pope Clement VII and emperor Charles V would not allow divorce. o Cardinal Wolsey was placed in charge of securing the royal annulment. When he failed, he was dismissed in disgrace o Thomas Cranmer and Thomas Cromwell became the kings closest advisers. o Reformation Parliament- The parliament convened for what would be a seven year session that was titled Reformation Parliament. Whenever fundamental changes are made in religion, the monarch must consult with and work through parliament. Parliament published official grievances

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against the church. Then, Henry wedded Anne and then Parliament made the king the highest court of appeal for all English subjects. At of the supremacy declared Henry only supreme head in earth of the Church of England. Ten articles of 1536- made only mild concessions to Protestant tenets. Six articles of 1539- reaffirmed transubstantiation, denied the Eucharistic cup to the laity, declared celibate vows inviolable, provide private masses, ordered the continuation of oral confession

Catholic Reformation

Ignatius of Loyola-Ignatius had is first religious called and undertook the pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He was then committed to religious life and he embarked on a program of disciplined writings and study in Span and in Paris, France. He gained followers, the Spanish missionary Francis Xavier among them. He with his companions founded the Society of Jesuits. The Jesuits were known for leading structured lives and for their self-discipline, commitment to the pope, and missionary work. They profound belief in education. The Council of Trent- Trent was strictly under the popes control. Voting was limited to high levels of clergy, university theologians, lower clergy, and the laity did not share in the councils decision. The councils most important reforms concerned internal church discipline. Trent strengthened the authority of local bishops so they could effectively discipline popular religious practices. To train priests, Trent called for a seminary in every diocese. The Council of Trent reaffirmed the traditional Scholastic education of the clergy, role of the good works in salvation, the authority of tradition, seven sacraments, transubstantiations, the withholding of the Eucharistic cup from the laity, clerical celibacy, purgatory, the veneration of saints, relics, and sacred images, and indulgences. o Rulers initially resisted Trents reform decrees, in fear of a revival of papal political power and new confessional conflicts within their lands just as the political authorities took the Anabaptists separation toward society as a threat

(8) Renaissance Art vs. Modern Art: Renaissance Art

New perspective on life is prominent in painting and sculpture of High Renaissance, when art reached its full maturity. Renaissance art embraced the natural world and human emotions. Artists gave their works a rational order-perfect symmetry and proportionality reflecting a belief in harmony of universe o Oil paints, use of shading enhance naturalness Chiaroscuro and adjustment of size of figures to give a feeling of continuity in the painting (linear perspective). Result, a space of reality and more natural, and 3-D canvas filled with life and energy Giotto father of Renaissance painting signaled the direction he painted a more natural world Masaccio and Donatello portrayed the world around them literally and naturally Leonardo da Vinci- Leonardo exhibited the Renaissance ideal of the universal person. He conducted scientific experimentation, dissected corpse to learn anatomy, self-taught botanist. His skill of conveying inner moods through complex facial expression o Most famous painting Mona Lisa Raphael-most famous for school of Athens, which depicts Plato and Aristotle surrounded by significant philosophers and scientists. Raphael was a man of great kindness painter of sensitivity and was loved as much as a person as for his works Michelangeloo eighteen-foot sculpture of David = harmony, symmetry, proportion, and serving the entire glorification of the human form. o Frescoes in Vaticans Sistine Chapel= originality and perfection

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o o Modern Art

His later works were more complex and illustrate personal challenge. They marked, artistically and philosophically exemplifies movement in reaction to High Renaissance which was a new style of mannerism. Mannerism- allowed more freedom, more strange/abnormal images opposed to simplicity and symmetry. Work of art done according to an acquired style Tintoretto, last supper and El Greco are mannerism supreme representative

Impressionism- Started in Paris. 1. Depicted modern life (social life, leisure activities of mi