Decolonization, Complete Bilingualism, Academic ...jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/HOT/HOT-7.pdf ·...

Decolonization, Complete Bilingualism,Academic Achievement, and National Identity:

Arguments for Literacy in Indigenous LanguagesGeorge Ann Gregory and Freddie Bowles

ThispaperpresentsbenefitsofliteracyinNativeAmericanlan-guagesforfourprimaryreasons:decolonization,completebilingual-ism,increasingacademicachievement,andnationalidentity.ThelossofAmericanIndianlanguagesisthedirectresultofcolonization.AsAmericanIndiannationsworkonre-establishingtheirownlanguages,thereisapressingneedtoincludeliteracyinthoseAmericanIndianlanguages.CarmenSilva-Corvalán’s(2014)studyconfirmstheneedforschoolingintheheritagelanguagetogiveachildcompletebilingualismbyadulthood.Moreover, this studysupports JimCummins’ (2003a;2003b)workwithbilingualpopulationsinCanada,inwhichliteracyinachild’smothertonguewasthegelthatsetupfurthersuccessinbothlanguages.Additionally,researchconfirmsthebenefitsofbilingualisminacademicachievementparticularlyinreadingandwriting.Thecog-nitivebenefitsofbilingualismhavebeenstronglychronicled.Finally,literacyinalanguagecanstrengthennationalidentityasconfirmedbyEllenCushman’s(2013)studyoftheeffectsoftheCherokeesyllabaryonCherokeeidentity.Eachoftheseresearchareasreinforcetheurgencyforgroupswhohavedecidednottowritetheirlanguagestofindmethodsandstrategiestoexpandtheirlanguagerevitalizationeffortstoincludemorecomplexlinguisticstructurestocreatetrulybilingualspeakers.

Thereareseveral reasonswhy literacy inIndigenous languagesmustbeconsideredforcompleterevitalization.Literacyinthelanguageoftheconquerorsrepresentscolonizationinmanycountries,suchastheUnitedStates,Canada,NewZealand,andMexicoasexamples.Inamodernworld,literacyoccursinschoolandisassociatedwithacademicachievement.Increasedacademicachievementiscreatedbytheacquisitionofcomplexlinguisticstructures,theverystructuresthatareassociatedwithtextsandacademicwriting,anditistheacquisitionofthesecomplexlinguisticstructuresthatallowsforcompletebilingualism.OnefinalreasonforadvancingliteracyinanIndigenouslanguageistopromoteasenseofnationhood,therebycompletingdecolonization.

Identity Crisis EducationalcolonizationofAmericanIndiansdidnotoccurinavacuum,but

withinthecontextofeducationalpoliciesandpracticesoftheUnitedStates.Inreality,fromthebeginningtheUnitedStatesisoneofthefewcountriesthatre-quiredinstructionatthecollege/universitylevelinwritingthecommonlanguage

CiteasfromJ.Reyhner,J.Martin,L.Lockard&W.S.Gilbert.(Eds.).(2017).Honoring Our Teachers(pp.99-115).Flagstaff,AZ:NorthernArizonaUniversity.

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Instructionhasfocusedondeveloping“correct”languageandappealingonlytoreason.Theseprogramshavebeenusedasgatekeepingcoursesto“maintain”standardsandkeepNativeAmericansfromachievinguniversitydegrees.Essen-tiallythesepolicieshaveservedthesamecolonialfunctiontodayandperpetuatetheacculturationpolicyofEnglishonlyinstructioninschools.

AmericanIndianswereleftsomewhatoutoftheequationbecausetheyhadtheirownseparatenations.However,thepolicyofManifestDestinydictatedthedemiseofdomesticnations.WhileintheearlyyearsoftheUnitedStatesthequestionoflanguagewasdebated,therewasagreementthatsomeformofEnglishshouldbeusedasthestandard(Battistella,2013).NoahWebster,forone,promotedtheideaofanationallanguageinhisstatementthat“Customs,habit,andlanguage,aswellasgovernment,shouldbenational”(quotedinBattistella,2013,p.218)whereasJeffersonfavoredallowingthecitizenrytodecidethelan-guage.Ultimately,speakinganAmericanversionofEnglishbecameassociatedwithenhancingthestatusoftheemergingUnitedStates.Inthiscontext,languagedifferenceswereviewedassocialproblems.WhilethelanguageoftheU.S.wasbeingdebated,mostofthoseinvolvedweremultilingualandmultiliterate.Infact,BenjaminFranklinwasmulti-lingualandmulti-literateinFrench,Spanish,Latin,andItalian.ThomasJeffersonreadGreek,Latin,French,Italian,Spanish,someAnglo-Saxon,andalittleGerman,andNoahWebster,whoisassociatedwithAmericanEnglish,learned26languagesinordertocompletehisdictionary(MerriamWebster,2014)

English,however,wasnottheonlylanguagespokenintheformerEnglishcolonies.AccordingtoParrillo(2009),“ColonialAmericawasarichmixtureofracialandethnicheterogeneityrightuptotheRevolutionaryWar”(p.43),creat-inga“patchworkquiltofethnicsettlements”(p.44).Philadelphiain1700isagoodexampleofthisethnicheterogeneity.WhileprimarilyavillageofEnglishandWelsh(whohadtheirownlanguage),therewerealso“Danes,Dutch,Finns,French,Germans,Irish,Scots,andSwedes”(p.44).Andamongthesegroupstherewasadditionaldiversity:“The300orsoGermans,forexample,wereamixtureofLutherans,Mennonites,andQuakers,eachgroupremainingseparatefromtheothers”(p.44).ToaccommodatethemultilingualismoftheearlyUnitedStates,“in1777theArticlesofConfederationwereprintedinFrench,andtheContinentalCongressprintedsomeproceedingsinGerman.Accordingtothe1790census,about20%ofthenewnation’spopulationspokealanguageotherthanEnglishastheirfirstlanguage”(Pearson,2014).

Schoolingduring this time focusedprimarily on the classics: grammar,rhetoric,andhistory.SomechildrenwereabletoattendDameschoolsthatcon-sistedoflearninghowtoreadandwritesimplewords.MostgirlsneverwentbeyondthiswhiletheboysmayhaveattendedaLatingrammarschool,whereinthemiddlecolonies“theymightalsostudyclassicallanguages,historyandliterature,mathematics,andnaturalscience”(EducationWorld,2000).Atthesametime,someoftheethniccommunitieshadtheirownschoolsintheirheri-tagelanguages.Forexample,theDutchhadakeeninterestineducation,andthisinterestcontinuedintheDutchColonyofNewNetherland(Manhattan).The

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curriculumwassimilartotheLatinschoolforEnglishspeakingchildren,exceptthatinstructionwasinDutch.“Grammaratthistime,whenalllearningwasinLatin,includedthoseelementarystudiesoftheschoolwhichweredesignedtogiveamasteryofthatlanguageforthesakeofsubsequentstudy(Kilpatrick,2010,p.96).“Schoolsessentiallyservedprivatepurposesandeducationalat-tainmentreflectedthereligious,racial,class,andgenderdifferencesinsociety”(Wagoner&Haarlow,n.d.).Infact,thelatercommonschoolsfurtheredthesesameinterests,particularlytheidealsofProtestantism,andmaintainedexistingclassesandracialandgenderdifferences(Soltow&Stevens,1991).

Fromthe timeof theRevolutionaryWaruntil the late1800’s,AmericanIndiansintheNortheasternandSoutheasternpartsoftheU.S.enjoyedthestatusofdomesticnations.TheCherokeeandChoctawweresomeofthefirstAmericanIndiannationstohaveschoolsandtoachievehighratesofliteracyintheirownlanguages.TheCherokeeachievedliteracyintheSequoiansyllabaryoutsideofaschoolsituation(Cushman,2011).LiketheVaiofLiberia(Scribner&Cole,1981),literacywasprimarilyamongadultsandwaslearnedfromsomeoneelsewhoused the syllabary.TheChoctaw,however, achieved their literacy fromSundayschoolsalthough this literacy toowasprimarilyamongadults (Mor-rison,1978).

Astheimplementationofpubliceducationlagged,literacybecameaprimaryfunctionofSundayschoolsintheearly1800’s.TheseeffortswereprincipallyforthepurposeofreadingtheBibleandotherreligioustracts.Thisamountofliteracywasseenasreforming,butnotupsettingthesocialorderbyhavinglaborersat-tainingthesamelevelofeducationasgentlemen(Soltow&Stevens,1981).InordertoproselytizeeffectivelyamongtheChoctaw,theseliteracyeffortsweredoneintheChoctawlanguage.MissionariesamongtheCherokeealsousedthesyllabaryforthissamepurpose.

Seeingthepotentialofschoolingforthesurvivaloftheirrespectivepeoples,theCherokeeandChoctawnationsinvestedinschoolsfortheirchildrenwiththehopethatbytakingonthetrappingsofEuropeanAmericancivilizationtheirnationstatuswouldberespectedbytheirnon-Indianneighbors.TheseschoolswereEnglishonlyschools,generallytaughtbynon-citizensoftheserespectivenationsandstillrunbymissionaries.Theprimarypurposeofthemissionarieswasto“civilize”thestudents.Formenthismeantbecomingfarmers,andforwomenthismeantgivinguptheirtraditionalroleasfarmersandlearningthedomesticactivitiesofspinning,weaving,andsewing(Morrison,1978;Perdue,1998).Fullbloodswhostillspoketheirnativelanguagesusuallydidpoorlyintheseschools,oftenreturningtotheirhomes.

AftertheCivilWar,U.S.schoolcurriculumsfocusedprimarilyonliteracyandliteracyrelatedactivities.“Untilageeightthetypicalcurriculumconsistedofonlyspelling,reading,andwriting….Providedachildbeganschoolatage5andattendedregularly,hewouldbereadingMcGuffey’s4thor5th reader by age 11or12,whichiswellabovethe8thgradelevel.Then,beganformalstudyofgrammar”(Soltow&Stevens,1981,p.113).Writingliteracylaggedalittlebe-hindreadingliteracy.Atthispoint,achildwasconsideredliterateandgraduated

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toagrammarschool.Thegrammarschoolcurriculum“consistedofdisciplinedmemorizationandrecitationandthecurriculumwasagaincomprisedofLatinandtheclassics—readingtextsfromClassicalGreeceandRome,becomingmorepreciselydefinedoverthenextseveraldecadesbytheentrancerequirementstoHarvardCollege”(Dorn,2008).StudentsspentalldayinjustLatin.

Schoolinginothercountries—Mexico,Canada,andNewZealand—servedsimilarcolonizingpurposes.“Duringcolonization,educationwasusedbySpainasaninstrumentofdominationtonurturepoliticaldependencyamongNatives(AndradedeHerrera,1996,p.26).In1867underBenitoJuarez,threeprinciplesofeducationthatcontinuetotodaywereestablished:Schoolsarenon-religious,free,andobligatory.Normalschoolswereestablishedin1910,andschoolsbegantoexpandintoruralareas,oftendominatedbyIndianpopulations.Schoolingwasvia theSpanish language.Like early education inMexico, theCatholicChurchwastheprimaryproviderofanyschoolsinNewFrance(Canada).AftertheBritishConquest,schoolingbecameavehicletotheAnglicizationofFrenchspeakers.AsintheU.S.,schoolingwasseenasawaytomakebettercitizensoflaborersandlaterimmigrantpopulations.SchoolingwasusedtoassimilateFirstNationspeople(CanadianEncyclopedia,n.d.).

TheMāori,liketheCherokeeandChoctaw,werekeenlyinterestedinliteracy.“Whilemissionariessawliteracyasthekeytothescriptures,MāoriweremoreinterestedinunderstandingtheEuropeanworldwithitstallsailingships,firearmsandirontools”(Caimen,2013,p.2).Also,liketheChoctawandCherokee,theMāorisoonstartedtheirownschoolsalthough,inthiscase,theteacherswereMāori.TheseearlyschoolstaughtintheMāorilanguagewhileinstructioninEnglishlagged.TheseMāorirunschoolswerereplacedwithschoolsinEnglishandvocationaltraining,and,bythelate19thandearly20thCentury,childrenwerestrappedforspeakingtheMāorilanguage.

Bilingualism in the U.S.MultilingualismwasthenormduringthecolonialperiodoftheU.S:“There

wereeighteenlanguagesspokenonManhattanIslandaswellasIndianlanguages”(FacultyStaff,n.d.).Educationwasbilingual.TheGermansinparticularestab-lishedschoolsviatheGermanlanguageandafederallyfundedGermanCollegein1776.WhileschoolsforthemassespushededucationthroughEnglishonly,educatedmenwere stillmultilingual.Education in theUnitedStates beganwithstudyingLatinandgrammarandreadingtheclassics.Withinthissystem,students—boys—spentalldayintheLatinlanguage.Asaresultofthis,educatedmencouldtalkextensivelyinLatin.“ItwascommonforlearnedworkswritteninthevernaculartobequicklytranslatedintoLatininordertoreachaninternationalpublic”(Herlander,2010,p.7).GermanschoolsfollowedasimilarpatternofschoolingwithboysbeingeducatedinGermanandLatin.

InadditiontocontinuededucationinLatin,variousstatesauthorizededu-cationviamultiplelanguages:In1839,OhioauthorizededucationinEnglish,German,orboth;in1847,LouisianaauthorizededucationinEnglish,French,orboth;in1850severalstates,includingPennsylvania,Colorado,Illinois,Iowa,

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Kentucky,Missouri,Nebraska,TerritoryofArizona-NewMexico,andOregonauthorizededucation in languagesother thanEnglish.GreenwoodLeflore, aprincipalchiefoftheChoctawNationatthetimeofremoval,spokeEnglish,Choctaw,Spanish,French,andChickasaw.AsamemberoftheMississippistatelegislature,itisrumoredthathefilibusteredatleastonceinChoctawinprotestoftheuseofLatinbyhisfellowlegislators.“German-languageschoolingprevaileduntiltheearly20thcentury,notwithstandingexternalpressurestophaseitoutinfavorofEnglishinstruction”(Genzuk,1988).OneoftheCherokeeeldersinNewMexicorecallsthattheonlyschoolinasmall,easternNewMexicotownwasaGermanschool,soshelearnedtoreadandwritefirstinGerman(FranHill,personalcommunication,April13,2013).InstructionviaGermanandGermanspeaking communities continued into the1970’s inTexas (EstelleSzegedin,personalcommunication,March6,1972).

Through themid-nineteenth century, individual bilingualismwas fairlycommon.CharlesCurtis,bornin1860,wasKaw,Osage,andPotawatomi.Fromhismotherandmaterialgrandparents,helearnedKawandFrench,and,fromhispaternalgrandparents,helearnedEnglish.In1929,hewasinauguratedasvice-presidentoftheU.S.InadditiontobeingtheonlyAmericanIndianvice-president,Curtis’abilitytospeakmultiplelanguageswasfastbecomingathingofthepast.Thereareseveralfactorshelpedtoboostthepushtohaveinstruc-tioninEnglishonly.Firstwasincreasedimmigration.From1887-1960,publicandprivatebilingualschoolsdecreased“whilethiserasawthelargestinfluxofnon-Englishspeaking immigrants.Between1887-1920,more than twentydistinguishableEuropeanlanguages,otherthanEnglish,werespokenbyU.S.citizens.AlsoduringthisperiodnumerousAsianlanguageswerebroughtintotheUnitedStates”(Gunzuk,1988).

Duringthissameperiod,therewasaheavypushtocompletetheassimilationofNativeAmericans.BoardingschoolsintheeasternpartoftheUnitedStateswereonesolutionfordoingthis.Childrenasyoungassixweretakenfromtheirfamiliesandplacedindormitorieswheretheirnameswerechangedandtheywerepunishedforspeakingtheirnativelanguages:“Iftheywerecaught“speakingIndian”theywereseverelybeatenwithaleatherbelt”(NativeAmericanPublicTelecommunications,2006,p.2).TheMāoriinNewZealandexperiencedsimi-larpunishmentsforusingtheirlanguageinschool,therebycreatingalanguageloss for anentiregeneration inbothpopulations.Theseassimilationistprac-ticesdisruptedthetransmissionofthelanguagesandcultures:“Alltold,morethan100,000NativeAmericanswereforcedbytheU.S.governmenttoattendChristianschoolswheretriballanguagesandcultureswerereplacedbyEnglishandChristianity” (NativeAmericanPublicTelecommunications,2006,p.2).Battistella(2013)describedthispolicyasaforeshadowingof“Orwell’sthemeoflanguageasamechanismofconformityandsocialcontrol”(p.219),quotingAtkins,CommissionerofIndianAffairsinhis1887annualreport.

Finally,twoworldwarswithGermanycreatedastronganti-Germansenti-ment in theU.S.and,alongwith theSpanishAmericanWarand theKoreanConflict, strengthened the position ofEnglish only instruction.Restrictions

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includedrevokingcertificationforteacherscaughtbreakingtheselawsandsus-pensionandridiculeforstudentsusingotherlanguagesinschool.ThetwentiethcenturywasatimefortheU.S.toconsolidateitspositionasaworldpowerandconsummatetheAmericanizationofallitscitizens.ThisAmericanizationevenextendedtotheterritoriesofPuertoRicoandthePhilippinesandtoinstructioninforeignlanguagesin15states(Gunzuk,1988).Duringthisperiod,theuseofEnglishbecameequatedwithgoodcitizenship.“Non-Englishspeakerswereviewedwithsuspicion,sotheytendedtostopspeakingtheirnativelanguageandtodiscouragetheirchildrenfromlearningit”(Gunzuk,1988,p.5).ManyNativeAmericansfollowedsuit,sometimesevendenyingtheirIndianidentityandclaimingtobeMexicansothattheycouldfindwork(Gregory,2002)

Despite thepushforacommon language,by the1970’s therewerestillmorethan25Europeanlanguages,variousAsianlanguages,andthemajorityofAmericanIndianlanguagesspokenintheU.S.Becauseoftheconsciousness-raisingofthe1960’s,manygroupsbecameinterestedinpreservingorrevivingtheirheritagelanguages.TheBlackPanthersrecruitedyouth,gavethemliteracyandjobskills,andtaughtthemanAfricanlanguage,Swahili(Bloom&Martin,2013).MississippiChoctawandNavajochildrenstillcametoschoolspeakingonlytheirIndigenouslanguages.

The Role of Literacy and Schools in BilingualismSomeoftheformerBritishcolonies,suchasCanadaandNewZealand,have

recentlybecomeofficiallymoretolerantofmultilingualismthantheU.S.Asaresult,muchofwhatisknownaboutbilingualschoolingcomesfromCanada.Oneofthestrongestproponentsofliteracyinachild’sheritagelanguagehasbeenJimCummins(2003).LikeBattistella(2013),Cummins(2003)notesthat“assimilationist policies in education discourage students frommaintainingtheirmothertongues.”Notprovidingeducationinachild’slanguageviolatestherightsofaqualityeducationtoachildandforcesthediscontinuationofaheritagelanguageby“underminingcommunicationbetweenchildrenandpar-ents” (Cummins,2013).Education inachild’sheritage language isessentialforeducationaldevelopment,notingthatover35yearsofresearchshowsthatwhenachilddevelopsliteracyintwoormorelanguagesapersonisbetterableto comparehow reality is organized in each language.This ability is sorelyneededinthecurrentglobalization.Cummins(2013)furthernotesthatachild’sdevelopmentinhis/herheritagelanguageisthebestpredictorofdevelopmentinthesecondlanguage.

Itisgenerallyacceptedthatschoolingandliteracyaidinachild’slanguagedevelopmentinEnglish.Themorecomplexverbtense-mood-aspectofEnglish,suchasperfectaspectandpassivemood,tendtobefoundinformsassociatedwithwrittenusesoflanguage,henceschooling(Biber,1988)becauseliteracyprimarilyoccursinschool.Additionally,theacquisitionofrelativeclausesseemstoreflectthelanguageoftheadultswhothechildhears.Asaconsequence,someformsoftherelativeclause,suchasgenitiveandadjunctarenotacquiredbeforegoingtoschool(Diessel,2007).Additionally,understandingofmanyadverbialclausesis

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notacquireduntilafterachildentersschool(Diessel,2007).ItisthisdatathathasalsofueledCummin’ssupportofliteracyinachild’sheritagelanguage.

CarmenSilva-Corvalán’s(2014)studysuppliesspecificinformationaboutwhataperson loses inaheritage languagewhenschooling isnotcontinued.Silva-Corvalán(2014)studiedtheacquisitionofSpanishandEnglishofhertwograndchildrenandcallsthisacquisitionBilingualFirstLanguageAcquisition,orBFLA(p.7).Whilethestudyfocusesonpreschoolacquisition,itsfindingshaveimplicationsforwhyliteracyinalanguagecompletesitsacquisition.“TheoverallgoalofthisbookistofindouttheeffectthatdifferentdegreesofexposuretoanduseofEnglishandSpanishhasonsomeaspectsoftheemerginggrammarsoftwodevelopingbilingualsiblings”(p.164).

Toaddressconcernsaboutacquisitionofthedominantlanguage,oneaspectofthetwolanguagesthatwascomparedwastheuseofsubjectpronouns.SpanishunlikeEnglishdoesnotrequireanovertsubjectpronoun.ThestudyrevealedthattheloweramountofexposuretoSpanishresultedindeviationsintheacquisitionofovertsubjectsinSpanishwhileEnglish,thestrongerlanguage,showednonegativeeffectsfromexposuretoSpanish.“Onthecontrary,thesiblingsstartusingsubjectpronounsandMLUW[meanlengthofutterances/words]comparedtomonolingualEnglishspeakingchildren,andreachadultuseataboutage2;0”(p.164).ThisconclusionaddressesaconcernthatBFLAmightnegativelyaffectachild’sacquisitionofthedominantlanguage.

Anotherconcernmightbeinterferencefromlanguageontheother.AfurtherdifferencebetweenSpanishandEnglishispositionofthesubject.Spanishal-lowsforpost-verbalpositionsofverbsindeclarativesentenceswhereasmodernEnglishdoesnot.Therehavebeenfewstudiesontheacquisitionofsubjectposi-tioninchildren.“Itisinnowaysurprising,then,thateveninafixedSV-orderlanguagelikeEnglish,toddlersproduceVSutteranceswhenthesubjectconveysnewerinformation….Itappears,however,thatthesenon-adultordersarerare”(p.185).Asa consequence, it appears that children learngrammaticalwordorderoftheirlanguageearly.AccordingtoSilvan-Corvalán(2014),thequestionmotivatedbythesimultaneousacquisitionofEnglish,afixedorderlanguage,andSpanish,aflexibleword-orderlanguage,iswhetherthereiscrosslinguisticinteraction:DoesSpanishinfluenceEnglishsuchthatchildrenaredelayedinreachingcompletemasteryoftheinvariantpreverbalsubjectpositionofEng-lish?Or,rather,dochildrentendtocopythefixedpreverbalsubjectpositionofEnglish,thusevidencingahigherproportionofpreverbalsubjectsinSpanishcomparedtotheadultinput,andtomonolinguals”(p.215).

Byage2:6,bothsiblingshadacquiredSVorderofEnglish, freeofanyinfluencefromSpanish.Additionally,thedifferingamountsofexposuretoSpan-ishdidnotappeartocreateanadverseeffectontheacquisitionoftheflexiblesubjectpositioninSpanish.

Perhaps themost significantfinding that indicates a need for continuedschoolingandliteracyinalanguageistheacquisitionofverbmorphology:tense,aspect,andmood.VerbinflectioninEnglishhasbeenlostinitsmodernversionwhileSpanishretainsarichinflectionalsystem.First,errorsmadebytheBFLA

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siblingswereconsistentwith thosemadebymonolinguals.However,havinglessexposuretoSpanishcreatedeffectsontheacquisitionofTMA(tense-mood-aspect)inSpanish.OneeffectisthatthemorecomplexverbformsinSpanishwerenotacquiredbyagesix.InacomparisonofSpanishtense-mood-aspectcomparedacrossbilinguals,(near)monolingualchildren(5:0-5:11),andtwobi-lingualadults,“allthebilingualsevidenceinstabilityintheuseoftheimperfect”(p.346).Furtherevidence“showsthatthesiblingsandanotherEnglish-dominantbilingual childwith reduced exposure toSpanish at homedisplay the samefeaturecharacteristicofadultbilingualsinLosAngles,namelytheextensionofimperfectivemarkingtostativeverbsusedinperfectivediscoursecontexts”(p.346).Itisthisincompleteacquisitionthatstronglysuggeststheenhancementofexposuretotheweakerlanguagethroughschoolingandliteracy.

WayneHolmes(personalcommunication,April26,2011)voicedasimilarconcernaboutacquiringTMAinNavajoduringapresentationcelebratingthe40th anniversaryof theNavajoLanguageProgramat theUniversity ofNewMexico.At that time, hewasdiscussingdifferences between theMāori andNavajolanguagesandthekindsoflanguageprogramsthattheNavajolanguagemightneedinorderforNavajostudentstoacquireacompleteverbsystem.Inadditiontotheverbsystem,Navajohasacomplexpronounsystemthatisusedrhetorically.McCreedy(1989)analyzedthreeNavajogenres:prayers,coyotestories,andpersonalnarratives.Oneofthedifferencesshefoundwasdifferenceinpronominalreference.“Trackingareferentislargelyaccomplishedthroughthematchingofpronominalcategorieswith referents,bothofwhich tend toremainconstantacrossclausesintexts”(p.139).DespitetheuseofelaborationbyelderNavajos,manychildrenmaynothaveacquiredallNavajolinguisticcomplexitiesbyagesix,beforetheyenterschool.Neundorf(1983)statedthatNavajoparentspreferelaborationinspokenNavajo,notingthatthereisnosuchthingas“babytalk.”“They[Navajoadults]tendtousethesameelaborateformofthelanguagewiththeyoungsters.FortheadultNavajo,themorepicturesqueandelaboratespeech,thebetter.Metaphor,simile,andpersonificationareusedasamatterofcourse”(p.xiii).Navajolinguisticcomplexities,likeSpanishandEnglishlinguisticcomplexities,wouldbenefitfromcontinuedacquisitioninaschoolsetting.

OtherIndigenouslanguageshavetheirowncomplexgrammarsthatwillnotbeacquiredbybilingualchildrenprior toattendingschool.Additionally,someIndigenouschildrenmaynotencounter theirheritagelanguagesexceptinaschoolsettingorprimarilyinaschoolsetting.ThisisthecaseforChoctawchildreninOklahoma.SomeaspectsoftheChoctawlanguagethatneedtobetaughtincludekinshipterms,whichunlikeEnglish,donotexistintheabstract,but“onlyexistinrelationshiptoaparticularpossessor,”suchasamafo—mygrandfather(Broadwell,2006,p.57).LikeNavajo,Choctawhasacomplexverbsystemwithsomeverbtensesthatonlyexistintextsfromthe19thCentury.Inanothercase,theOsagelanguagehasnonativespeakers,buthasseveralfluentsecondlanguagespeakersofOsage.OneaspectoftheOsagelanguagethatwillhavetobetaughtisdifferencesinmenandwomen’slanguage(CameronPratt,

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personalcommunication,April15,2010).TheMāorihaveprobablycomethefurthestinpromotingliteracyintheirlanguageassomeuniversitiesnowofferaPh.D.intheMāorilanguage,therebyrequiringwritingaPh.D.thesisinthatlanguage.Becauseoftheseefforts,therearenowacademicdiscussionsregard-ingtherhetoricnecessarytowritewellintheMāorilanguage(Houia-Roberts,2004).

Bilingualism and Academic AchievementTherewasatimewhenachild’sspeakinganotherlanguagewasconsidered

detrimental to academic achievement.Thiswasparticularly true if the childcame froma poverty background.Despite years of research, indicating thatnotonlydoesbeingbilingualnotcreatepooracademicachievementbutalso,inmanycases,actuallyenhancesacademicachievement,manylegislatorsandeveneducatorsstillbelievebeingbilingualisdetrimentaltolearning.Brown,Roediger,andMcDaniel(2014)maketheargumentthatmuchofwhatisprac-ticedineducationinU.S.schoolsisactuallyfolklorewithoutanyfoundationinempiricalresearch.Toacertainextent,ScribnerandCole’s(1981)studyofthreetypesofliteracyindicatejusthowmuchreadinginstructionisbaseduponculturalbeliefsandpractices.

Cummins (2003b) summarizes the importance of literacy to academicachievementwithhistwoconceptsofBICS/BasicInterpersonalCommunica-tiveSkillsandCALP/CognitiveAcademicLanguageProficiency.Hisprimaryconcernisthateducatorsarenotgivingbilingualstudentssufficientlanguageinstruction for them to achieve academically in the dominant language.ForCummins, literacy is critical for thisacademicachievement: “Cumminsalsopointedoutthattheconstructofacademiclanguageproficiencydoesnotinanywaydependontestscoresassupportforeitheritsconstructvalidityorrelevancetoeducation…”(2003).

Asstudentsprogressthroughthegrades,theyareincreasinglyrequiredtomanipulatelanguageincognitively-demandingandcontext-reducedsituationsthatdiffersignificantlyfromeverydayconversationalinteractions.Inwriting,forexample,theymustlearntocontinuetoproducelanguagewithouttheprompt-ingthatcomesfromaconversationalpartnerandtheymustplanlargeunitsofdiscourse,andorganizethemcoherently,ratherthanplanningonlywhatwillbesaidnext(Cummins,2003b).

Han’s(2009)studyprovidesevidencetosupportCummins’proposition.Han(2009)measuredbilingualacademicachievementinliteracyandmathematicswithagroupofLatinAmericanandAsianstudentswhoenteredkindergarteninthe1998/1999schoolyearandwerefollowedthrough5thgrade.Readingandmathscoresincreasedforbothgroups.Infact,bilingualchildrenlearnedatafasterpacethanmonolingualEnglishspeakingchildren.“Overall, theresultsshowedthatdespitestartingwithlowermathscoresinkindergarten,FluentBi-lingualchildrenfullyclosedthemathgapwiththeirEnglishMonolingualpeersbyfifthgrade”(Han,2009,p.37).

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Inanotherstudy,Marian,Shook,andSchroeder(2013)reportedtheresultsofabilingualtwo-wayimmersionprogram:“ResultsrevealedthatbilingualTwo-WayImmersion(TWI)programsbenefitedbothminority-languageandmajority-languagestudents.Minority-languagestudentsinTWIprogramsoutperformedtheir peers inTransitionalProgramsof Instruction,whilemajority-languagestudentsinTwo-WayImmersionoutperformedtheirpeersinMainstreammono-lingualclassrooms”(p.167).Theybeginwithastatementthatthereisincreasingevidencethatprovidingsomeinstructioninachild’sheritagelanguagebenefitsacademicperformance(p.167).ThetwolanguagesinthisstudywereEnglishandSpanishand,liketheHanstudy,includeddatafromkindergartentofifthgrade.Also,liketheHan(2009)study,childreninthetwo-wayimmersionprogramsshowedincreasingtestscoreswhilethoseintransitionalprogramsdidnot.

OnestudywithNativeAmericansthatshowedincreasedacademicachieve-mentthroughduallanguageorbilingualinstructionswasdonewithAlamoNa-vajostudentsinMagdalena,NewMexico(Smallwood,Haynes&Keri,2009).HalfthepopulationoftheMagdalenapublicschoolareNavajostudentsfromtheAlamoNavajocommunity.Seventy-fivepercentofthestudentsfromAlamoaredominantNavajolanguagespeakers.BecausemostNavajostudentsenterschoolspeakingNavajo,theNavajolanguageprogramatAlamoitselfconsistsoflearningtoreadandwriteinNavajo(TyanneBenally,personalcommunication,May9,2008).InthefouryeardemonstrationprogramatMagdalena,studentsreceivedEnglishasaSecondLanguageinstructionandinstructioninNavajolanguageandculture:“TheprogramofferedNavajolanguageartsclassesforGradesK−5andNavajolanguageandcultureclassesforGrades6−12”(Small-wood,Haynes&Keri,2009,p.2).Asinotherstudiesofbilingualstudentsandacademicachievement,“studentsexhibitedincreasedinvolvementandprideintheirschoolandimprovedreading,math,andsciencescoresonstandardizedtests.Theirparentsalsobecamemoreinvolvedinschool”(p.1).

Onepossiblereasonwhytherehavenotbeenmoresuccessstoriesfrombilingualeducationisthatforalongtimebilingualeducationprogramsweretransitionalprogramsfromachild’snative language toEnglish.Despite thisemphasis,successfulbilingualprogramshaveproducedproficientspeakersandacademicachievement.TwoexamplesoftheseareRoughRockDemonstrationSchoolandPeachSpringsSchool.RoughRockwasanoutgrowthofthefederalWaronPovertyprograms.Acontractwasestablishedin1966“amongthelocalNavajoboard,atribalboardoftrustees,theBIA,andtheOfficeofEconomicOpportunity.TheschoolwasnamedTse’Chi’izhiDinéBi’Ólta—RoughRock(Lomawaima&McCarty,2006).Itwas1966.Thepurposeoftheschoolwastwofold:tohavegreatercontrolbythecommunitysothattraditionalknowledgecouldbepasseddownandtoimprovetheacademicachievementofcommunitychildren.Learning in classroomswas built to be socially, linguistically, andcognitivelycompatiblewiththecommunity,andinstructionwasinbothNavajoandEnglish.NavajostaffandteachersdevelopedtheNavajocurriculum.After4yearsintheprogram,themeanscoresbytheparticipatingstudentsonlocallydevelopedmeasuresofEnglishlisteningcomprehensionrosefrom58%to91%.

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Scoresalsoroseinreadingandmath.“Bilingualstudentswhohadcumulative,sustainedinitialliteracyinstructioninNavajoover3to5yearsmadethegreatestgainsonlocalandnationalmeasureofachievement(Lomawaima&McCarty,2006,p.125).

ThebilingualprogramatPeachSpringsintheHualapaiNationontheedgeof theGrandCanyonbegan in1975primarily through theeffortsofLucilleandPhilbertWatahomogie.Atthattime,90%ofthefifthgradestudentswerereferredtoSpecialEducationbecausetheirprimarylanguagewasHualapai,aYumanlanguage.Indefianceoftheprincipal’sforbiddanceofteachingintheHualapailanguage,LucilleWatahomogiebeganusingHualapaiintheclassroom.BecauseHualapaiwasnot awritten language, anorthographyneeded to becreated.Thiswasdonewiththehelpoflinguists,beginningwiththeSummerInstituteofLinguistics.TheWatahomogiesdecided that theywouldbecometheirownlinguists.Asaresultoftheirwork,theyandthecurriculumcommitteedeveloped“aseriesofteachingunitsonHualapaicultural-environmentalstudies,literacy,mathematics,andscience,aswellasdozensofattractivelyillustratedHualapai-languagechildren’sbooks”(Lomawaima&McCarty,2006,p.128).Despite initial opposition fromnon-Hualapai teachers and some communitymemberwhohadbeeneducatedinanEnglishonlyschoolenvironment,“chil-dren’spositiveresponsestotheHualapaimaterialsandtheirimprovedacademicachievement gradually defused these objections (project evaluations showedconsistent improvements inchildren’sEnglish-languageachievementaswellashighschoolgraduationratesof100%)”(Lomawaima&McCarty,2006,p.128).LomawaimaandMcCarty(2006)concludedthatinalloftheseprograms,includingtheHawaiianprograms,childrenacquireNativelanguage“withoutcosttotheirEnglish-languagelearningoracademicachievement,performingaswellasornotbetterthancomparablepeersinnonbilingualprogramsafteraperiodof4or5years”(p.132).

National Identity and DecolonizationThereisonefinalargumentforliteracyinIndigenouslanguages,national

identity.AstheCherokeeandChoctawnationswerecreatingtheirrepublicsinthe19thcentury,literacyplayedanimportantroleincreatingandmaintaininganationalidentity.Infact,itwasthisliteracythatplayedakeyroleincreatingtherepublicsandsustainingcitizensofbothnations.Cushman(2011)doesnotrefertothisuseofliteracyasnationalidentityperse,butcallsthisidentity“peoplehood.”Bothnationsproducedabodyofliteratureinthelanguage,includingtheBible,religioustracts,hymnals,newspapers,schooltexts,almanacs,legaldocuments,personalletters,andpoetry(Cushman,2011;Gregory,2009).Cushman(2011)madetheargumentthatitwasliteracyinCherokeethatallowedtheCherokeetoreorganizethemselvesafterremovalandtorebuildaftertheCivilWar.Evenafterstatehood,literacyinbothlanguagescontinuedtobeusedwithinchurchesinthewritingoftheminutesofmeetingsofvariouschurchorganizations.Cush-man(2011)summarizedtheroleofliteracyfortheCherokeethisway:Literacy

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was“fosteredbynationalisticmovementsthatsimultaneouslyserveatribalcoreandpresenta‘civilized’facetooutsiders”(p.217).

BeforeCushman,Greymorning(2004)summeduptheimportanceofIn-digenouslanguagestonationhoodstatusthisway.

PriortothebirthoftheUnitedNations,languagedidmorethansym-bolizewhoapeoplewere.Italsoplayedasignificantroleindefiningnations.Thisismosteasilymadeevidentbylookingatthenamesofnumerouspeople, languages,andnations.Forexample, theChinesespeakChinese and comprise the nationofChina; theFrench speakFrenchandcomprise thenationofFrance.…But languagegoesfarbeyondthissymbolicreferencetoapeopleandtheirnation.Languagealsoplaysaroleinshapinghowapeoplemakesenseofandgivemean-ingtotheworldinwhichtheylive(pp.11-12).

Notonlydonationshavelanguages,buttheyalsohavelawsandliteratureandotherliterateusesoflanguage.Essentially,havinganationallanguageispartofwhatmakesanationanation,andliteracyinthatlanguageisanintegralpartofitssovereignty.

Decolonization and the AcademyDespiteanintensefocusoncreatingliteracyintheearlyyearsoftheU.S.,

therewasaperceptionthattherewasaliteracycrisisduringtheperiodof1875-1885. In1870,HarvardUniversitybecameaware thatstudentscomingfromLatingrammarschoolsandacademies—academieswereconductedinEnglish,but still studiedLatin—“werehavingproblemswith its demandingclassicalcourses.Inresponse,HarvardinstituteditsfirstwrittenexaminationsinwrittenEnglishin1874”(Connors,1996,p.48).Thisbeganamovementfromteach-ingtheclassicsandusingliteracytogainknowledgetofocusingonliteracyasanendinitself.“Previously,writingwasseenasameanstoproducingbetteroralpresentations.Suddenly,readingandwritingbecameafocusofteaching:Indeed,bythetwentiethcenturyitwastobecometheprimaryfocusofeduca-tion.Theon-goingneed forFreshmanCompositionwas fueledbyon-goingperceivedliteracycrisesintheU.S.Partofwhatwascreatingtheperceptionofaliteracycrisiswasthatinstitutionsofhighereducationwerehavingtoservepopulations,suchasveteransreturningfromtheKoreanConflictgoingtoschoolontheGIBill,whopreviouslyhadneverattendedauniversity.Holladay(1991)describedthesestudents:“Mostofourstudentsarenon-traditionalandatriskandarelockedinchaotic,crisisriddenlives”(p.30).Theattitudeinthisstatementharkensbacktotheattitudemissionariesofthe19thcenturywiththeirSundaySchoolefforts.

It is thisperceptionofstudents thatcontinues toensure theexistenceofcollegecompositionprograms,whichare“knownasthegatekeeperinhighereducation. It performs the sortingoperation that is called tracking in publicschools”(Chaplain,1996,p.169)andhavebecomeanextensionofpublicschool

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educationpolicies:“Socompletelyismasseducationcaughtupintheriseofthenation-statethatmanyfair-mindedobservershavedescribedtheprinciplefunctionofpublicschoolingastheinculcationofnormativevaluesandbehaviorsratherthanthedispersalofknowledgeperse”(Spellmeyer,1991,p.40).Thisinculca-tionismanifestedingoodessaywritingthatBartholomae(1996)describedas“techniquesofverticalintegration….organizedtominimizehumanvariabilityanduncertaintyintheproductionprocess”(p.13).Veeder(1995)describesthiswritingaslackingspirit:“ThereissomethingaboutWesternrhetoricaswehavecometoknowitthatseparatesthespiritfromdiscourse”(p.2).

Furthermore,thereislittleempiricalevidencethatthesecoursesfurtherthewritingliteracyskillsofstudents.Thefirstcontrolledstudyoftheeffectivenessofcollegecompositioninthelate1920’sfoundthat“nomeasurableimprovementincompositionwasapparentafterthreemonthsofpractice”(Connors,1996,p.52).Thisubiquitouscollegecompositionrequirementappearstobeunique.ItisnotauniversalrequirementatCanadianuniversitiesanduniversitiesinNewZealanddonothavethisrequirement.Coursesarecalledpapersandstudentsworkwithtutors,usuallygraduatestudents,tohelpthemwritethepapers.

Veeder (1995) refers towriterswhose voices have been excluded fromacademiaastheFourthWorld:“ThedefinitionoftheFourthWorldhassincebeenassociatedwithsub-nationswithinnations,andthedefinitionofFourthWorldpeopleshasexpanded,throughtheeffortsoftheUnitedNations,toin-cludetheinterestsofethnicgroupsdeterritorializedwithabordersofacountryand towomen,notonly inAmericabut throughout theworld” (p.2).Heath(1996)echoedthiscallformoreinclusionwhenshepointedoutthatliteratureinclassroomshassilencedthevoicesofminoritiesandwomenorignoredthem.Sheadvocatesprogramsthatarespiritrenewing.Veeder’s(1995)FourthWorldencompassesthePuebloideaoftheFourthWorld,thecompleteworldinwhichpeopleemerged.Additionally,itisimportanttorememberthatIndigenouspeoplehavetheirownrhetoricaltraditions,andthesetraditionscanserveasthebasisforliteraterhetoricsinIndigenouslanguages.AnearlierstudybyGregory(1993)illustratesonewaythatIndigenousstudentsbringtheirownrhetoricaltraditionstocollegecomposition.Inthisone-of-kindstudy,Navajo-Englishbilingualsil-lustratedtheirunderstandingoftherhetoricaltaskofconstructingargumentsbyusingrhetoricalstrategiesfromNavajorhetoric.

Perhaps, theHawaiians andMāori havemade the greatest progress inbringinganIndigenousrhetorictotheacademy.TheMāoriparticularlyhavetheoptionofwritingtheirpapersandtakingexamsintheMāorilanguage.SomedissertationshavebeenwrittenintheHawaiianlanguage.TheMāori,liketheChoctawandCherokee,haveahistoryofliteracythatincludesmanydifferentgenres:legaldocuments,personalletters,religiousmaterials,newspapers,poetry,song,essays,andminutesofmeetings.Othergroups,suchastheNavajo,stillhaveavarietyoforalgenresfromwhichwrittengenrescanspring.Lyons(2000)madetheargumentthatsinceAmericanIndiansovereigntywaserodedthroughrhetoricthedevelopmentofrhetoricsinnativelanguageswouldgoalongwaytorestoringthatsovereignty.Berlin(1996)believedthat“studentsdeservean

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educationthatpreparesthemtobecriticalcitizensofthenationthatnowstandsasoneoftheoldestdemocraciesinhistory.IntheUnitedStates,ithasseldombeenconsideredsufficienttoeducatestudentsexclusivelyforwork”(p.223).ThisidealforeducationisequallyapplicableforcitizensofIndigenousnations.

Hill (2012), aCanadianwriter, proposes that universities create spaceswheresharingofknowledgecanbeginthedecolonizationprocessandtolearntorespectandoffersupportforcommongoals.Itmaybenecessarytogobeyondthisbychallengingthedominantcolonialdiscourse.Todothis,Indigenouspeoplemustcontroltheprocess.Oneideasupportingthiscontrolofindigenizationis“thecontinuedpracticeofone’slanguage…[as]afacetofpositiveresistance”tocolonization(Gross,2007,p.39).AsatreatyrightfortheIndigenouspeopleofCanadaandtheUnitedStates,Indigenousnationsneedtodemandthattheacademysupportsthesurvivalneedsofitscitizens.Recently,theMāorihaveas-sociatedtheprotectionoftereo,thelanguage,withtheprotectionofthetaonga,ortreasure,thatiscoveredintheTreatyofWaitangi.

ConclusionInadditiontotheargumentsputforthhere,the21stcenturyisacenturyof

multi-mediaandprint.Indigenouschildreninteractwithprintandviaprintev-eryday.Indigenousyouthexpectlanguageinprint,andlanguagerevitalizationisfortheyouth:Itisforthefuture.ThecostofnothavingafutureistoohighforIndigenouspeople.InastudydoneinCanada,notonlywastheinabilitytouseone’slanguageareliablepredictorofsuicide,butyouthsuicideeffectivelyfelltozero‘inthosefewcommunitiesinwhichatleasthalfthebandmembersreportedaconversationalknowledgeoftheirown‘Native’language”(Halletetal.,2007,p.392).HavingwrittenlanguagesrecordsthepastandpavesthewayforafuturethatallowsIndigenouslanguagesequalpoliticalandcognitivefootingwithdominantlanguages.

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