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Special Political & Decolonization

Committee Introduction

Special Political & Decolonization is the fourth committee of the United Nations General

Assembly. This committee deals with the issues faced by the decolonized countries,

such as refugee issues, human rights, mine action, outer space, peacekeeping, public

information and atomic radiation. The special Political & Decolonization committee was

initially established to deal with the problems of the newly decolonized countries after

World War II. By 1990, almost all the countries gained independence, thus, Special

Political responsibilities were given to the fourth committee.

Topic A – Review of United Nation’s Peacekeeping Agenda

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Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations

The committee was established on 18th February, 1965, so that a comprehensive

review could be conducted. It comprises of 147 member states. Other than that, 14

other member states and intergovernmental organizations such as European

community, African Union, International Committee of Red Cross (ICRC), the

Organization of Islamic Corporation (OIC) and International Criminal Police

Organization (Interpol) participate as observers.

What is Peacekeeping?

United Nations Peace keeping tends to serve countries in conflict. It restores long term

peace by using military observers and unarmed peace keepers. It is guided by three

main principles:

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Consent of the Countries

Impartiality

Non-use of force except in self-defense and defense of the mandate. [4]

Currently 15 UN peace keeping operations are positioned in four continents. Moreover,

today, UN peacekeeping not only aims to establish peace and security in the conflicted

areas, “but also to facilitate the political process, protect civilians, assist in the

disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of former combatants; support the

organization of elections, protect and promote human rights and assist in restoring the

rule of law.”

Peace and Security

In order to maintain the peace and security though out the world, Peacekeeping

operates in the following framework:

• conflict prevention and mediation • peacemaking • peace enforcement • peacebuilding

However, these may not always occur in this sequential and linear order, and it is at

times, overlapping each other.

Conflict Prevention

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Conflict prevention involves diplomatic measures to stabilize inter-state and intra-state

tensions and disputes, so that it may not escalate into violent conflicts. “It includes early

warning, information gathering and a careful analysis of the factors driving the conflict.”

Conflict prevention includes deployment of UN missions or conflict mediation led by

Department of Political affairs.

Peace making

Peacemaking involves addressing those conflicts that are already in progress, and

includes political and diplomatic actions to bring parties to agreement. The

peacemakers involve could be governments, groups of states, regional organizations or

the United Nations itself. Peacemakers could also be unofficial and non-governmental

groups working independently. [5]

Peace enforcement

It involves range of coercive methods, including the use of military force in order to

restore peace in conflict driven areas. It requires the explicit authorization of the

Security Council. The Council may utilize regional organizations and agencies for

enforcement action under its authority and in accordance with the UN Charter.

Peacebuilding

Peacebuilding lays down the foundation for the sustainable peace and development by

strengthening national capacities. It aims to reduce the risk of a region/country relapsing

into conflict. It also addresses the core issues that affects the functioning of society and

the State. [5]

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Role of peacekeeping

As mentioned earlier, there are no clear divisions between conflict prevention,

peacemaking, peace enforcement and peace building, and often the boundaries

between them are blurred. UN peacekeeping operations are primarily deployed to

support the implementation of cease fire or peace agreement. However, due to its

nature, peacemaking operations often end up doing multidimensional tasks, such as

monitoring human rights, and are involve in peacebuilding activities. In order to maintain

international peace and security, UN peacemaking operations may use military force to

defend themselves and the mandate and civilians, particularly in situations where the

State is unable to maintain peace and order.

History of Peacekeeping

The commencement of the United Nations peace keeping was in 1948 when the

Security Council authorized to send military observers to Middle East. The mission’s

purpose was to observe Armistice Agreement between Israel and Arab countries. The

mission which was known as United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO).

Since then, more than 60 peacekeeping operations were in place, where thousands of

military persons and civilians were part of it. The history of peacekeeping is divided into

three sections; Early years, post cold-war surge and present times.

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Early years

UN peacekeeping forces were initially established to maintain stability at the ground

level by retaining cease fires, and contributing in the political efforts to resolve conflicts

peacefully. “[Early] missions consisted of unarmed military observers and lightly armed

troops with primarily monitoring, reporting and confidence-building roles.” The first two

peacekeeping missions which are operational till date, are United Nations Truce

Supervision Organization (UNTSO) in middle east, and United Nations Military Observer

Group in India & Pakistan (UNMOGIP). In both of these missions, UN peacekeepers

were unarmed.

The first armed mission was UN Emergency Force (UNEF I). This armed peacekeeping

operation was held in 1956 to address Suez Crisis. In 1988, UN peacekeepers won

Nobel Peace Prize, where the Nobel Committee appreciated the peacekeepers. It also

acknowledged the fact that world organization has a central role in the world affairs, and

peacekeeping forces are making an important contribution in making the world a

peaceful place.

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Post Cold-War surge

In the early years, the task of the UN peacekeepers were observational. However, after

1988, when the cold war ended, the peacekeeping approach changed from

observational to “multidimensional.” This multidimensional approach was intended to

help with establishing the frameworks for sustainable peace, as well as to assure the

execution of comprehensive peace agreements.

One of the reasons for adopting a completely new approach was the change in the

nature of the conflict itself. Previously, UN peacekeepers were involved in the conflicts

that were Inter-State. However, with increasing civil wars, now it had to deal with Intra-

State conflicts as well.

Moreover, UN peacekeepers were given more complex tasks that include: building

sustainable institutions of governance, monitoring of human rights, reforming security

sector, disarmament, “demobilization and reintegration of former combatants.”

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Though Military remained the most important facade, now other aspects were also in

action. These were:

• Administration tasks

• Analyzing economic conditions

• Maintaining peace with the help of Police

• Acting as legal experts

• De-miners

• Electoral observers

• Human rights monitors

• Civil affairs and governance specialists

• Humanitarian workers

• Communications and public information experts [8].

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The Present

Though the tasks of UN peacekeepers changed from observational to multidimensional,

UN peacekeepers were previously operating in the time of surge. Today, the UN

peacekeeping operations have entered the consolidation phase. It allows the world

today, to focus on increasing efficiency and to plan and oversight. According to the

Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations, Alain Le Roy, “there are nearly

120,000 peacekeepers deployed around the world – 84,000 military, 13,000 police and

22,000 civil personnel.”

Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations Alain Le Roy

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However, the number of UN peacekeepers has started to decline slightly, as there was

a reduction in the troops of UN Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic

Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO), and withdrawal of UN Mission in the Central

African Republic and Chad (MINURCAT) at the end of 2010.

Nevertheless, the decline in the military peacekeeper does not indicate that the

challenges faced by them are diminishing. Although military peacekeepers may be

declining, the overall demand for field missions are high, and peacekeepers role will

remain to operate in complex situations.

Today, Multidimensional peacekeeping continues to facilitate the political processes. It

is engaged in the protection of civilians, and it continues to assist in the “disarmament,

demobilization and reintegration of former combatants.” [10] Due to the nature of the UN

peacekeeping organization, recently Secretary General Ban Ki-moon has created a

High level independent panel consisting of 17 members, to carry out a comprehensive

assessment on UN peace operations, so that future needs could be identified and met.

Reform of Peacekeeping

In 2000, UN started analyzing its peacekeeping operations and introduce a series of

reforms.

High-level Independent Panel on UN peace Operations

On 31st Oct 2014, former Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon established a High-Level

Independent Panel on UN peace operations, consisting of 16 members so that a

comprehensive assessment of peacekeeping operations could be carried out and future

needs could be identified and met. As stated by him, “the world is changing and UN

peace operations must change with it if they are to remain an indispensable and

effective tool in promoting international peace and security.” [11]

The panel was chaired by Mr. Jose Ramos-Horta of Timor-Leste, and Ameerah Haq of

Bangladesh was Vice-Chair. The panel looked at variety of issues that were faced by

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peace operations, “including the nature of conflicts, evolving mandates, good offices

and peacebuilding challenges, managerial and administrative arrangements, planning,

partnerships, human rights and protection of civilians.”

Brahimi report

The Secretary-General appointed the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations in

March 2000, so that the loop holes of the existing system could be identified and

specific and realistic recommendations could be made for change. The result of this

Panel is known as the Brahimi Report, after Lakhdar Brahimi, the chair of the panel

called for:

“renewed political commitment on the part of Member States;

significant institutional change;

increased financial support.”

Along with the above points, the Panel emphasized on the fact that in order to be

effective, UN peacekeeping operations should be well-equipped, properly resourced

and it must operate under clear, credible and achievable mandates.

Peacekeeping policy and strategy reform

After the Brahimi reports, following reforms took place:

Capstone Doctrine: It outlines the important guidelines for UN peacekeepers in the field.

Peace operations 2010: It contains the reform strategy of the Department of

Peacekeeping operations.

2005 World Summit: It establishes Peacebuilding Commission

High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change: It is a framework for collective

security for the new century.

Restructuring the peacekeeping department

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In 2007, a major structural change took place so that UN’s capacity to manage and

sustain new peace operations could be strengthened. Following changes occurred:

Department of Peace Keeping Operations (DPKO) was divided into two. A new and separate Department of Field Support (DFS) was created.

The support for new activities within DPKO took place.

Resources in both Departments and in other parts of Secretariat dealing with peacekeeping enhanced.

Rates of reimbursement to troop contributing countries

Previously, countries who provide troops for peacekeeping missions were reimbursed

for their contribution by the UN. The rates play an important role, therefore General

Assembly decided to tackle this subject in 2011. General Assembly requested the

Secretary-General to establish a Senior Advisory Group (SAG) to examine the rates of

reimbursement to troop-contributing countries and related issues.

Conduct and discipline reform

Reforms in the field of conduct and discipline took place. One of the important policy

was the zero-tolerance policy imposed by Secretary-General against sexual exploitation

and abuse by the UN peacekeepers in the host countries. “In 2008, an UN-wide

strategy for assistance to the victims of sexual exploitation and abuse by UN personnel

was adopted by the General Assembly in resolution A/RES/62/214.”

Role of the General Assembly

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Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon addresses the opening of the general debate.

“The General Assembly (GA) is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative

organ of the UN. Decisions on important questions, such as those on peace and

security, admission of new members and budgetary matters, require a two-thirds

majority. Decisions on other questions are by simple majority.”

The General Assembly plays a key role in financing the peacekeeping operations. All

UN Members States share the cost of peacekeeping, the Assembly apportions these

expenses based on a special scale of assessment, taking the relative economic wealth

of the member states into account. Security Council to pay a larger share because of

their special responsibility for the maintenance of International peace and security. The

General Assemble approves the peacekeeping budget through the Fifth Committee.

The peacekeeping performance is monitored by Special Committee on Peace keeping

Operations and it reports the Assembly through Fourth Committee (Special Political and

Decolonization).

Under the UN charter, the General Assembly cannot discuss and make

recommendations on matters related to peace and security. These are addressed by

the Security Council. Regardless of the limited powers of the General Assembly, it may

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take action if the Security Council fails to act under resolution 377 (V). This resolution

was invoked once when in 1956, the General Assembly established the First UN

Emergency Force (UNEF I) in the Middle East.

Role of Security Council.

The Security Council in New York plays a crucial role in peacekeeping.

The Security Council has primary responsibility, under the United Nations Charter, for

the maintenance of international peace and security. Security Council responds to crisis

on case-by-case basis. It considers the following factors when new peacekeeping

operations are established:

“Whether there is a ceasefire in place and the parties have committed themselves to a peace process intended to reach a political settlement;

Whether a clear political goal exists and whether it can be reflected in the mandate;

Whether a precise mandate for a UN operation can be formulated;

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Whether the safety and security of UN personnel can be reasonably ensured, including in particular whether reasonable guarantees can be obtained from the main parties or factions regarding the safety and security of UN personnel.”

The Security Council monitors the work of UN peacekeeping operations, by creating

periodic reports from the Secretary-General and by holding dedicated Security Council

sessions to discuss the work of specific operations. “Under Article 25 of the Charter, all

UN members agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council. While

other organs of the UN make recommendations to Member States, the Council alone

has the power to take decisions which Member States are obligated to implement.”

Forming a new operation

There are number of steps before a decision is reached.

Initial consultation

As conflicts develops, UN is frequently involved in a number of consultations to

determine the best response by the international community. These consultations would

likely to involve:

• All relevant United Nations actors • The potential host government and the parties on the ground • Member States, including States that might contribute troops and police to a

peacekeeping operation • Regional and other intergovernmental organizations • Other relevant key external partners

During this phase the UN Secretary-General request a strategic assessment to identify

all possible options for UN engagement.

Technical field assessment

The Secretariat deploys a technical mission to assess the overall security, political,

military, humanitarian and human rights situation on the ground, and its implications for

a possible operation.

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Security council resolution

If the Security Council determines that deploying a UN Peacekeeping operation is the

most appropriate step to take, it will formally authorize this by adopting a resolution. [15]

Appointment of senior officials

A Head of the mission is appointed by the Secretary-General to direct the peacekeeping

operation. The Head of Mission reports to the Under-Secretary-General for

Peacekeeping Operations at the UN Headquarters.

Planning and deployment

“In the meantime, the Head of Mission and DPKO-DFS lead the planning for the

political, military, operational and support (i.e., logistics and administration) aspects of

the peacekeeping operation. The planning phase usually involves the establishment of

a Headquarters-based joint working group or integrated mission task force, with

participation of all relevant UN departments, funds and programmes.”

Deployment

After the planning phase, deployment takes place as soon as possible taking into

account the security and political conditions on the ground.

Who provides peacekeepers?

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UN has no standing army, therefore, in case of a new operation, Member States are

asked to contribute military and police personnel that are required for each operation.

Peacekeepers wear their countries’ uniform and are identified as UN Peacekeepers

only by a UN blue helmet or beret or badge.

Reporting to security council

The Secretary-General reports regularly to the Security Council on the implementation

of the mission mandate. The Security Council then review these reports and take

required actions, until the mission is completed.

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Current Operations

There are currently 15 peacekeeping operations led by the Department of

Peacekeeping Operations. Following is the list of current peacekeeping operations.

1. United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO)

2. United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African

Republic (MINUSCA)

3. United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA)

4. United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH)

5. United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the

Congo (MONUSCO)

6. African Union/United Nations Hybrid operation in Darfur (UNAMID)

7. United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF)

8. United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP)

9. United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL)

10. United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei (UNISFA)

11. United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK)

12. United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL)

13. United Nations Mission in the Republic of South Sudan (UNMISS)

14. United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP)

15. United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO)

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Rwandan Genocide

In 1994, a mass genocide took place in Rwanda from April to July, murdering as many

as 800,000 people, most of which belonged to Tutsi minority and moderate Hutu

people, by Hutu people. Begun by the Hutu nationalist in Kigali, the genocide spread

throughout the country with much of the brutality. Among the first people to be the victim

of the genocide was moderate Hutu Prime Minister, who was killed along with his body

guards on April 7. This created political unrest, and Hutu power leaders from the military

stepped up to set interim government on April 9. This accelerated the genocide, and

mass killings took place across the country. By early July, RPF (Rwanda Patriotic Front)

forces took control over most of the country, including Kigali. In response, more than 2

million Hutus fled Rwanda to neighboring countries.

Internationally, the issues at Rwanda were keep sidelined, as the atrocities committed in

former Yugoslavia happened around the same time. As quoted by the U.N. Secretary-

General Boutros Boutros-Ghali to the PBS news program “Frontline”: “The failure of

Rwanda is 10 times greater than the failure of Yugoslavia. Because in Yugoslavia the

international community was interested, was involved. In Rwanda nobody was

interested.” In April 1994, U.N Security Council, a vote led to the withdrawal of the

Peacekeeping forces in UNAMIR which was created previous fall to aid Arusha accord.

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(The Arusha Accords were a set of five accords signed in Arusha, Tanzania on August

4, 1993, by the government of Rwanda and the RPF, under mediation, to end a three-

year Rwandan Civil War.) As the news of genocide spread, the council voted in mid-

May to send forces more than 5000 troops. However, by the time the force arrived, the

genocide was over months ago.

Rohingya Crisis

Rohingya is a Muslim minority group in Myanmar. The Rohingyas trace back their

ancestry to the time when British took control over Burma in 1824, and brought these

Muslims as farm laborers in Burma. When the British left this region soon after the

Second World War, the ethnic crises started to take place in the Buddhist majority

region. Rohingya has been systematically discriminated by the Burmese government. In

1982, the Burmese government passed a law, granting citizenship to only those

Burmese, who could prove that their ancestors reside in the country before the arrival of

the British. After this law, Rohingyas has been classified as “associate” citizens. Not

only this, laws were passed which controlled their movement, marriages and birth rates.

Also, their homes and villages have been burnt down by the military.

In October 2016, nine policemen were killed by Islamic militants. It was reported to have

been carried out by the Rohingya Solidarity Organization, and counter terrorism

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operation was carried out by the Burmese Army. In the following months, hundreds of

people were killed, several were detained and around 1200 buildings with Rohingya

inhabitants have been burnt down. Many reports claim that women were raped and

assaulted by the Army. Burmese government have denied the allegations of the sexual

assault and also claim that Rohingyas themselves are burning their homes inorder to

gain international sympathy.

Human Rights Watch has called this genocide “ethnic cleansing.” In November 2016,

the former chief of UN, Kofi Anan arrived in Myanmar with his team to see the armed

struggle. However, he was welcomed by the protestors who don’t want any foreign

intervention. In early December 2016, Malaysian Prime Minister carried out a rally in

protest. Protests were also carried out in Dhaka by 5000 Muslims where they urged the

Bangladeshi government to give refuge to Rohingya.

Sexual harassment by UN Peacekeepers in Cambodia

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The land occupied by Cambodia has been populated more than 2000 years ago. It lived

prosperously under Hindu Kings. By 1864, Cambodia was the France’s virtual colony. In

1945, “Japanese dissolved the colonial administration, and King Norodom Sihanouk

declared an independent, anti-colonial government.” By mid 1960s, its eastern border

was used as a bases for the Northern Vietnamese Army. In 1969, UN launched series

of air raids against these bases in Cambodia. In 1979, new Vietnamese government

was established in Cambodia.

The United states first considered the case of Cambodia in 1979, when Agreements on

a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodian Conflict, has been

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commenced. United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) was

established in Paris, in October 1991, to ensure implementation of the Agreements on

the Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict. “The mandate

included aspects relating to human rights, the organization and conduct of elections,

military arrangements, civil administration, maintenance of law and order, repatriation

and resettlement of refugees and displaced persons and rehabilitation of Cambodian

infrastructure.”

UNTAC was considered as one of the successful UN Peacekeeping Operations. As it

“helped to rebuild a country shattered by a brutal dictatorship and a dozen years of civil

war” by organizing free elections. However, though the mission was successful in terms

of restoring peace, several cases were reported of rapes and sexual assaults, which in

turn cause the rise of HIV/AIDS in the region. As written by Kien Serey Phal: “Routine

sexual abuse of women by UN soldiers and staff led several international development

agencies to raise the issue.” However, the response of the UNTAC head Yasushi

Akashi caused outrage by affirming the right of soldiers to act as they did, by saying,

“boys will be boys.” Though these events occurred, it wasn’t reached to the UN officials,

or was not reported at times.

QARMA

1. Considering the amount of money being spent on the Peacekeeping forces, should they

be allowed to exist further?

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2. The political motives for participation, or lack of, in a peacekeeping mission by pledged

members greatly impacts the execution and level of success of the peacekeepers. What

could be a possible way around this loophole, and to a certain degree, allowance?

3. Once member states have pledged to be part of the Peacekeeping forces, should they

be allowed to choose which missions they participate in or should it be made

mandatory? Keep in mind the ethnic, historical, social, or religious constraints that

nation-states might have when choosing (or not) to participate in a mission.

4. How can the forces on the ground be better monitored?

5. With particular reference to (reported) sexual abuses, outline some repercussions to

deal with any mismanagement by the forces on the ground. Keep in mind that the UN

does not have a standing army and will possibly have to make sure that governments

are not upset in the process of handing out judgments.

6. Considering how permanent members are able to influence the decisions of the UN

Peacekeepers and whether or not they intervene in a conflict, how should future

conflicts be dealt with?

7. The UN does not have a standing army and is thus, in a constant state of vulnerability

and disadvantage. How does this affect its decision making regarding choosing conflicts

and the level of interference in them?

References:

[1] http://www.un.org/ga/fourth/

[2] http://www.bmun.org/committees/specpol/

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[3] http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/ctte/CTTEE.htm

[4] http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/peacekeeping.shtml

[5] http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/peace.shtml

[6] http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/history.shtml

[7] http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/early.shtml

[8] http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/surge.shtml

[9] http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=35558#.Wa09jsgjFPY

[10] http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/present.shtml

[11] http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/reform.shtml

[12] http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/

[13] http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/rolega.shtml

[14] http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/rolesc.shtml

[15] http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/newoperation.shtml

[16] http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/current.shtml

[17] (http://www.history.com/topics/rwandan-genocide)

[18] (http://indianexpress.com/article/research/rohingya-muslim-crisis-in-myanmar-the-warning-signs-of-a-possible-genocide-4460254/)

[19] http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a283479.pdf

[20] http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/untac.htm

[21] http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/3783

[22] https://books.google.com.pk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=82TxOTLCMK4C&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=un+peacekeeping+sexual+abuse&ots=9Lq2rThPhj&sig=oiYS7i1rHxA43AE9h8HFSsrPWs4#v=onepage&q=un%20peacekeeping%20sexual%20abuse&f=false

Topic B - Refugee crisis in Europe

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Context

Europe is facing a growing refugee crisis that is increasing day by day in severity and

risk because of the fighting in the home countries of these asylum seekers. These

refugees come mainly from Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Somalia, and now Yemen, too.

Civil and international wars over a long period of time have forced these people out of

their homes and towns into a different continent altogether. Aside from war being a

reason for this massive migration, there are also migrants coming in from poverty-struck

Eastern European countries looking for work and a better standard of living which they

are unable to find back home.

UN studies have shown that in Europe, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden, France, and the

UK have received 38 million refugees by 2013. That makes up for almost 71 percent of

the entire migrant population on the continent

Three years later, at the end of 2016, the annual number of refugees and asylum-

seekers has risen to 370,000 people. And this is only the number of people who survive

the perilous journey across the Mediterranean into Europe and Turkey. The number

actually rose from 3777 in 2015 to 4690 in 2016 and still people persisted in making that

journey in the hope of a better life.

Afghanistan

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Afghanis had been seeking asylum in European countries ever since the start of the

Saur Revolution in 1978 and then even more after the Soviet entered in 1979. To this

date, Afghanis are the second largest nationality seeking refuge and asylum on

European soil and the third largest refugee population in the world, with about 3 million

Afghans living abroad as refugees. They were the largest refugee population in 1997

and had "more than six million exiles from Afghanistan in surrounding countries".

With the Soviet Union entering Afghanistan in 1979, the country became a battlefield for

the last of the proxy wars of the Cold War. This resulted in millions of refugees which

kept rising in numbers, reaching a startling number of 6.2 million in just neighbouring

Iran and Pakistan.

According to a 1997 UNHCR Report, "Afghan refugees consistently supplied just under

half the world’s total refugee population".

Some of them have found their way to European cities after already spending years in

neighbouring countries. These types of refugees have also already faced some sort of

persecution or harsh living conditions in their former host countries and moved to

Europe in the hope of a better life.

Fast forward to 2015 when Afghans make the second largest nationality looking for

refuge on European soil. However, they are no longer as freely and openly welcomed

as the Syrians, Iraqis, Eritreans, and Iranians and in fact actually face the prospect of

deportation back to Afghanistan, Pakistan, or Iran.

A report from the UN's refugee agency stated that around 40,500 refugees arrived on

European shores through the Mediterranean in 2016.

Even after reaching Europe these refugees face a lot of hardships and cruel treatment.

In 2015, Austrian police found a truck transporting 71 teenagers but all of them had died

due to the lack of oxygen in the vehicle. 24 others in a different truck were saved the

following week.

Afghanistan is also the largest source, till 2016, of unaccompanied minors. About

76,700, 39% or four-in-ten, unaccompanied minors in Europe are from Afghanistan

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making the 3000-mile, perilous trip away from war and forced joining of either the

militant's army or the country's.

Response from other countries

After the defeat of the Taliban in 2001 the country has been at the receiving end of

considerable humanitarian and financial aid from western countries, especially the EU

where refugees still live. It was just in this year that the EU decided to send back Afghan

refugees and not accept any more asylum seekers or applicants, giving preference to

refugees from other war-torn countries. This comes in the face of continued and

increasing number of attacks in large parts of the country.

Reports suggest that the European Union simply does not have the capacity to host

anymore refugees and hope to alleviate the pressure brought on by them by deporting

Afghan refugees whose plight unfortunately does not get enough coverage. There are

also political motives involved such as Angela Merkel wanting to win the elections again

and needing approval from her own citizens. To achieve this some refugees are being

sent back.

Syria

The Syrian Crisis started with the Syrian Civil War, part of the Arab Spring, in 2011. The

government of Bashar al Assad came was challenged and various Islamic militant

groups seized control of parts of the country. In 2015. 11 million people had been

displaced, either internally or fled to other countries in seek of refuge and asylum.

According to the UN the Syrian refugee crisis is the "single largest...for almost a quarter

of a century".

Now in its seventh year, the Syrian Conflict does not seem to be coming to an end and

an increasing number of people of people are fleeing towns and cities for safer places. It

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does not matter to them anymore who holds the place they live – the various different

rebel groups or the government of Bashar al Assad.

The European Union has paid particular attention to the plight of the Syrians and has

already sent more than "€9.4 billion for relief and recovery to Syrians" stuck inside the

country and to refugees who have managed to escape to neighbouring countires. The

Middle Eastern host countries – Lebanon, Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, and Turkey – have also

been sent humanitarian and financial aid for these refugees. The European Union also

promised another €3 billion during the Supporting Syria conference held in London early

last year.

Included in the humanitarian funding provided by the EU is medical emergency relief,

protection, food and other nutritional help, water, sanitation, shelter, and health

services. All of this is provided within the Syrian border. Once the Syrians have escaped

they are provided with life-saving help including food, shelter, hygiene kits, water and

sanitation services, and protection from human traffickers and other dangers.

As late as July 2017, the UN reported that there were more than 5 million registered

Syrian refugees and persons of concern living in various neighbouring host countries.

Europe alone received more than 900,000 asylum applications between April 2011 and

May 2017, with Germany and Sweden housing around 64% of all refugees.

As of last year, about six in ten Syrians had been displaced from their homes (in relation

to 2011 mid-year population of the country). This does not mean that the same number

of people managed to become refugees as some died on the journey to neighbouring

countries or crossing the Mediterranean to try and get to Europe.

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As the graph shows, the number of asylum seekers in Europe were far greater than

those in neighbouring Muslim Middle Eastern countries. This put a lot of pressure on

Europe to be able to provide that kind of assistance in a humane manner. As mentioned

earlier, the European Council also made sure that refugees in neighbouring countries of

Syria had enough funding to be able to house the refugees and give them some

semblance of a normal life with food, housing, education, and health facilities. And yet

the prospects of a better life in Europe were just too good for the refugees to resist who

made the journey to the continent.

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The refugee crisis in Iraq started from 2008 with many people fleeing the forced rule of

ISIL in their towns and cities. Aside from this there was also fighting among the ISIL

militants, Kurdish fighters, and the government’s soldiers. just recently more people

began to make the journey to European cities to secure a future for themselves.

However, they were treated like common refugees and detained in refugee camps with

the Syrians, Afghans, and other refugee nationalities.

Most of them chose to return to Iraq after finding out that their towns had been freed of

ISIL influence and there was no more fighting. They were also discouraged by the

response of the Europeans who told them that it could take anywhere between three

months to a year for their asylum application to be processed and even after waiting

that long they would not be guaranteed an approval from the authorities.

European Response

2015 was the year the European Union saw the most number of refugees entering its

cities. This prompted the ongoing refugee crisis to be given the main priority by all

prominent leaders and the topic became the most urgent on the EU agenda. Leaders

have also come up "with efforts designed to help frontline member states with

identification and asylum processes and control of the EU’s external borders; naval

operations in the Mediterranean; temporary and emergency-driven relocation

mechanism within the EU; and cooperation with source and transit countries through

financial, technical and development assistance."

Aside from this, the European Council has also agreed to send financial aid to the

source of the largest refugee nationality in the current time period, Syria. In 2016, the

EU had promised the country "a multibillion-euro package" while "Afghanistan received

over €2.5 billion in EU assistance alone between 2002 and 2013". The EU also went so

far as to establish the Aid for Uprooted People which gives humanitarian aid to these

countries.

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Furthermore, refugees have really nowhere else to go. The rest of the Middle East is

closed off for them and they have no way to get "legal entrance" to these states.

Besides which Middle Eastern countries themselves are embroiled in international wars

and standoffs among each other. Even with these conditions about 4 million refugees

have settled in Turkey, Jordan, and Lebanon. To make them stay there, the European

union and its member states have been sending financial aid to the host countries.

Moreover, there was a large funding cut from the UN for the refugees which resulted in

the families getting a lower monthly handout. These reasons have contributed to making

the Middle East a very undesirable place for refugees seeking to build a better life for

their families.

The obvious target for migration then becomes Europe where people come to seek

protection and a better life as dictated by the 1951 UN Refugee Convention. This has

been ratified by 145 countries and states that independent countries must cooperate

with the UNHCR in "ensuring that the rights of refugees are respected and protected". A

country is also "legally obliged to shelter a refugee and is not allowed to expel or return

a refugee to somewhere where their life or freedom would be threatened".

Another reason for the preferred choice of migration to Europe is Germany's 2015

declaration that it would accept any and all Syrian refugee and asylum applicant "even if

they had previously applied for asylum in other European countries". After this, Greece,

Macedonia, Serbia, and Croatia made it easier for refugees to pass through their

territories onto Germany resulting in more people trying to make their way to safety.

Political Impact

Throughout this entire crisis, the European Union has made considerable efforts to help

the refugees on an individual basis as well as for refugees as a whole. However, the

response can also be labelled as dismal because of how nearly each member state has

a different policy and response to the matter.

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While the Dublin Regulation had been created for the speedy transfer of resettlement of

refugees and “assigns responsibility for registering and processing asylum applications

to the first Schengen country in which refugees arrive” it soon proved to be very unfair

to Greece and Italy. It also became completely unsustainable since neither country

could keep up with the large numbers of refugees coming in daily. As a result, refugees

were allowed to move on to their next country of choice with very little to no objection

from these countries. The refugees mostly went on to Germany (six out of ten),

Sweden, the Benelux countries (Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg), Austria,

and Finland.

The European Union Commission had to then come up with solutions to these new

problems arising from what should have been solutions. The Commission decided to

relocate 160,000 refugees from the frontline states, Italy and Greece, to other Schengen

member states, establish more processing centers, also known as hot spots, on the

external borders of the EU, a deal with Turkey, one of the main transit countries for

Syrian refugees coming into Europe via a land route, as well pledging to increase

financial support for UN programs which are supporting refugees in the Middle East.

However, all the plans and decisions that the Commission had agreed upon were very

slow in being implemented and individual countries while being a part of the Eu decided

upon their own solutions - erecting borders and fences along their frontiers which were

most accessed by refugees.

Historically the Eu has maintained a high level of tolerance and mutual cooperation

among its member states. However, the refugee crisis came at a point when almost

every member state was facing populist anti-EU sentiments on the rise back home. It

seemed as if the general mood in those countries - Germany, France, to name a few -

was to reject the support for Eu integration and go back to a time of national identities.

Animosity among member states against taking in more refugees has also increased

due to the series of terror attacks in major cities across the EU. With countries wanting

to place their own security first, leaders are struggling to find a balance between the two

issues.

The European response to the ongoing refugee crisis on the continent has seen its ups

and downs and perhaps rightly so. The continent has been facing an increasing number

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of security threats, bomb blasts, shootings, and other terrorist attacks. Nearly all of them

have been linked to the refugees coming in from Middle Eastern and other war-torn

Muslim countries or to the various militant groups operating.

Several prominent leaders of the European Union Council have pointed out how dismal

the overall response of the European Union and its members has been. Most refugees

come here also because under the 1951 UN Refugee Convention (explained earlier)

gives them some rights while also not allowing European leaders to forcibly send them

back to their home country if the conditions are still unstable or a neighbouring country.

The Dublin Regulation

The Dublin III Regulation is a European Union law, enforced on 1st regarding refugees

and asylum seekers. It is responsible for determining the member state responsible for

“processing the requests of asylum seekers from outside the union.” Generally it is the

duty of the countries where asylum seekers first land or enter the union from to register

their applications and make the necessary arrangements. But exceptions can be found

in cases where the family is in another country and some individuals in another.

After Greece closed its border with Turkey and the number of refugees crossing into

Europe from there slowed down, Mediterranean-border countries like Italy were

overwhelmed by the number of asylum seekers and refugees coming into the country

after making the perilous journey across the Mediterranean Sea.

The result was the almost complete collapse of the system that the Dublin Regulation

relied on. Throughout the EU, Eurodac works as a system in which the fingerprints of all

refugees has been registered. The data bank then allows any country to trace back the

country of entrance of any registered refugee/asylum seeker and send them back to

that country.

The system collapsed as a result of the overwhelmingly large number of refugees

coming into these countries daily. No preparations had been made by the host countries

to deal with such a big number - more than 50,000 in September of 2015 from Syria

alone.

Not only that but migrants already knew about the Dublin Regulation and were unwilling

to be fingerprinted in Italy or Greece.

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But does it work?

Statistics show that on average only “35% of transfer requests between member states

are actually implemented” with the other 65% lost somewhere in between. Besides, the

Dublin Regulation is very unfair because it makes first-entrance countries mostly

responsible for all refugees coming into Europe. Italy, for example, received four and a

half thousand refugees from other member states as part of the transfer in 2011. In

return, Italy could only transfer 14 refugees/asylum seekers since most of them had

entered the continent through this country. Furthermore, statistics have also shown that

“less than one percent of Dublin transfers are made to reunite asylum seekers with their

families.”

EU-Turkey Deal

However, the UN Refugee Convention 1951 was made practically invalid by the EU-

Turkey deal which has been hailed as illegal. under this deal, EU member states can

send back and refuse to welcome any more refugees (sometimes even randomly) to

Turkey. In return, Turkey will receive a (Euro sign) 6 billion as aid for the refugees, as

well as the liberalisation of visas for Turkey nationals.

Since November 2015 when the deal was activated, Turkey has made preparations for

the refugees to be given work permits “under temporary protection”, introduced new

visa requirements for Syrians and refugees from other nationalities, and also tightened

the security provided by the turkish coast guard.

Early in 2016, Turkey agreed to take back all refugees who did not need immediate aid

especially from the international community who were caught crossing over into Greece

from Turkey as well those caught in Turkish waters.

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As a result of the EU-Turkey deal, European leaders have further increased the the

amount of disinterest they have in the refugee crisis. According to Amnesty

International, “European Union leaders have relocated only 5% of the total number of

refugees they promised to take” in June of 2015. Instead the refugees arriving in

Greece and other European cities are shuttled off to refugee camps where they aren’t

given medical attention or care or any other basic facilities. The camps are designed to

hold 3000-60,000 people at one time - and not in proper conditions. Again, Amnesty

International reported the story of one family who did not have any privacy in the camps

nor were they able to get their sick child to a proper doctor.

As early as 2012, Greece had erected a 10.5 kilometre fence at Evros, its border with

Turkey from where there was a constant stream of refugees into the country. It cost

more than 4 million euros and is made entirely of barbed wire. The 125-mile long border

is one of the main entry points from Turkey into Europe for refugees wanting a relatively

safe path. Almost 100,000 immigrants were arrested at this border in 2011.

However, with its closing, crossings from the Aegean Sea have begun again and the

Greek coast guard arrested and detained as many refugees as they could catch on the

Aegean islands.

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Freital Group

The group was founded in 2015 after Germany and Europe at large started taking in

refugees in large numbers. According to a BBC documentary, while the group still had

not been formed yet Germany was letting in 20,000 refugees into the country every day.

This angered the natives who felt that the benefits the refugees and asylum-seekers

were getting were unfair. The Freital Group was officially declared a terrorist group with

eight of its members being arrested on the grounds of “founding a terrorist group”

against “refugees and leftists”. They were later put on trial in Dresden for “bomb attacks

on homes for asylum applicants”

For more information, visit the following website:

http://www.dw.com/en/terror-trial-in-dresden-for-freital-neo-nazi-group/a-37830922

Impact on Europe

Social Impact:

Refugee Demographics

For a long time Europe has held the hard-won status of being an almost gender-

balanced society. However, the recent influx of migrants into the society has

endangered this aspect. Statistics have shown that there are more male refugees as

compared to females. in 2015 alone, 66.26% of all adult refugees entering Europe

through Italy and Greece were male (International Organization of Migration).

Data collected by the Swedish government also reveals that till the end of November

2015, as many as 71% of all asylum applicants were male.

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Furthermore, just a year later, from 2013 to 2014, the number of unaccompanied minors

travelling to Europe almost doubled - 13,800 to 23,200. Then again a year later the

number leapt forward to a record 96,000 minor refugees making the journey alone.

Since 2008, the number of unaccompanied minors in 2015 alone makes about 48% of

the total number of unaccompanied minors looking for refuge. And yet not even ten

percent of these 48% in 2015 filled in an application for asylum in European countries

meaning that they lived in camps or were too young to figure out the system. The

demographics of this has to be noticed because about three-fourths of the ones that did

apply for asylum were teen males not yet 18.

Moreover, statistics have also shown that unaccompanied minors, because they have

comparatively more freedom and mobility than families, prefer to first move around and

find the best environment suited to them and then apply for asylum if they do. To secure

themselves, they do not seek asylum in the countries they enter the continent through.

Once arriving on the shores of Greece and Italy and being detained in the refugee

camps in those countries, these unaccompanied minors sometimes manage to escape

and move north to Germany (15%), the UK (9%), and Norway, Switzerland, or Sweden

(data for between the years 2008 to 2015).

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However, the pattern does not always remain the same. Even the unaccompanied

minors keep shifting their preferred countries knowing the attitudes within their

destination country. in 2015, for example, around 37% of all unaccompanied minors

sought asylum in Sweden. This is a jump from eight years ago when the rate was only

11%.

On the other hand, the UK saw a decline in the number of unaccompanied minor

refugees seeking asylum there - from 32% in 2008 to a mere 3% in 2015. The

demographics were highly unbalanced even for accompanied as well as

unaccompanied minors - in Sweden the sex ratio was 1.16 boys for one girl and 11.3

boys for one girl. As an average count, in one day of the year 2015, 90 unaccompanied

boys entered the country as compared to just unaccompanied girls.

Economic Impact

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When asylum workers make the journey to another country hoping for refuge, they

hardly ever carry enough money to be able to provide for themselves after reaching a

host country. The host country then has to provide for the food, housing, shelter,

medical facilities, and education. In the short term, this is good for the native workers

who get more disposable income.

This is reversed, however, when after the asylum applications are completed and some

are granted application and allowed to work. The entry of new workers into the labour

market creates a downward pressure on wages and even native workers are paid less

now.

Importance of Refugees to the EU

Europe’s population is declining. The birth rate has gone as low as 1.5 children for

every woman of childbearing age. Besides that, like Japan, it’s facing an aging

population.

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Various reasons contribute to this declining population and is causing alarm among

leaders since in a few years’ time there will be “a dearth of European workers to support

the growing number of retirees”.

Europe could very well stand to gain from the influx of refugees into the continent. In the

long term, given proper facilities and opportunities, these refugees could prove to be an

opportunity for growth for the European union. Most of these people are well-educated

and require little training to be able to work in the host country.

However, while the influx of refugees may be an opportunity to some like Germany,

other countries like Greece will have more of a problem accommodating them. The

latter already has a 25% unemployment rate and this will only increase because of its

position as the one of the first countries of entrance for refugees.

And while other countries, such as the Czech Republic, have a severely declining

population rate with a projection of about only two young people supporting each person

65 or older, still haven’t allowed a lot of refugees into their country, due to various fear

such as the fact that there might be terrorists among them or that the muslim population

would not be able to integrate within the local community and its customs and traditions,

making it a huge culture shock for them.

Refugees POV

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As mentioned above all the refugees and asylum-seekers coming into Europe have

seen either civil war, civil unrest, political instability, or ethnic or religious persecution

carried out against them. Most of them and their children have seen first-hand real war

situations and been through the constant trauma and fear of perilous journeys and

losing their loved ones along the way.

Alan Kurdi, a 3-year old Syrian refugee boy, was attempting to cross the most

dangerous route to Turkey - the Mediterranean. His body washed ashore near Bodrum,

Turkey near the body of water where he had drowned. His older brother and mother

died with him. His father, the only remaining member of the family commented:

"Everyone claimed they wanted to do something because of the photo that touched

them so much. But what is happening now? People are still dying and nobody is doing

anything about it...."These things must be shown to make clear to people what is

happening, But in the end the picture did not change much. The horror in Syria must

finally stop."

There are thousands of other cases like this. Even after reaching refugee camps in

Turkey, Jordan, or even Europe, the refugees are not given proper medical aid, as

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discussed above. They are held in open fields or abandoned airports without enough

facilities for all of them. One woman in a refugee camp in Greece also went so far as to

say that she “was dying gradually over a year”. The woman’s husband and four-year old

son have not been allowed access to the refugee camp and have been detained outside

the borders.

Furthermore, the cold snap across Europe in the beginning of the year left refugees to

the mercy of the weather. Living in only flimsy tents or make-shift houses, they had no

protection against the heavy snow and wind. The Moria refugee camp of Greece in

Lesbos held more than 4000 people and yet none of them could afford any respite from

the cold. Three people eventually died.

QARMA

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1. Knowing Europe’s volatile history with ethnic minorities (see Adolf Hitler and the

Holocaust; the Austro-Hungarian Empire) is it safe for Europe to experiment with more

religious minorities?

2. The rise (and defeat, in some countries) of the right in Europe, is there a need for a

more liberal or tolerant discourse among leaders?

3. Does the media need to change its portrayal of the Muslim population for non-Muslims

to be more accepting of the religion and its followers?

4. With Europe’s aging population, should it start an awareness campaign within its local

population or allow foreigners (refugees/asylum seekers) to help with this aspect?

5. The reaction to Alan Kurdi’s death sparked a wave of promises by leaders that

conditions would improve for the refugees. Discuss whether this has happened. If not,

what, in your opinion, are some of the ways the misery of the refugees could be

alleviated?

6. The general demographic of the European Union has been upset by the influx of

unaccompanied minors, especially males. Without proper education or integration into

the society, could there be a problem in the future with gender-based violence or gender

discrimination in the job markets and otherwise in Europe?

References:

1. http://ftp.iza.org/dp7778.pdf

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2. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/12/europes-refugee-and-migrant-crisis-in-2016-in-numbers

3. http://thediplomat.com/2015/09/afghanistans-32-year-refugee-crisis/ 4. http://www.unhcr.org/publications/refugeemag/3b680fbfc/refugees-magazine-issue-108-

afghanistan-unending-crisis-biggest-caseload.html 5. http://www.unhcr.org/publications/refugeemag/3b680fbfc/refugees-magazine-issue-108-

afghanistan-unending-crisis-biggest-caseload.html 6. https://qz.com/568717/afghan-refugees-receive-a-cold-welcome-in-europe/ 7. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2016/10/europe-afghan-refugees-anticiapte-

deportation-161018120108917.html 8. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/05/10/eu-unaccompanied-minors/ 9. https://psmag.com/news/the-syrian-migrant-crisis-youve-never-heard-of-and-why-it-

matters-today 10. http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/regional.php 11. http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/asylum.php 12. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/06/13/about-six-in-ten-syrians-are-now-

displaced-from-their-homes/ 13. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/06/13/about-six-in-ten-syrians-are-now-

displaced-from-their-homes/ 14.

https://static1.squarespace.com/static/54c95cbee4b03749141be705/t/57fba904b8a79b21fbe23d33/1476110780090/Understanding+the+Drivers+of+Migration+to+Europe+v2.pdf

15. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/06/refugee-crisis-un-agencies-broke-failing

16. http://www.unhcr.org/1951-refugee-convention.html 17. http://time.com/4026380/europe-migrant-crisis-questions-refugees/ 18. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/dec/09/what-caused-the-refugee-

crisis-google . 19. https://jrseurope.org/Advocacy?LID=834 20. http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2016/03/18-eu-turkey-

statement/ 21. http://www.ecfr.eu/publications/summary/deals_without_borders_europes_foreign_polic

y_on_migration6054 22. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2016/08/after-escaping-war-what-awaits-

syrian-children-in-europe/ 23. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2013/03/refugees-dying-on-dangerous-routes-

to-asylum-in-europe/ 24. https://www.trackingterrorism.org/group/freital-group 25. http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/01/europe-refugees-migrant-crisis-men-

213500 26. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/05/10/eu-unaccompanied-minors/ 27. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/05/10/eu-unaccompanied-minors/ 28. http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/01/europe-refugees-migrant-crisis-men-

213500

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29. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/File:Countries_of_origin_of_ non-EU _asylum_seekers_in_the_EU-28_Member_States,_2015_and_2016_ thousands_of_first_time_applicants _YB17.png

30. http://www.euronews.com/2016/11/01/refugees-in-germany-from-desperation-to-economic-fortune

31. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/10/08/refugee-surge-brings-youth-to-an-aging-europe/

32. http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2015/09/21/europe-declining-population-refugees_n_8169804.html

33. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/10/08/refugee-surge-brings-youth-to-an-aging-europe/

34. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/09/world/europe/greece-migrant-crisis.html