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ISBN 978-92-64-05563-601 2008 06 1 P -:HSTCQE=UZZ[X[:
2008
/Su
pp
leme
nt 1
OE
CD
in Fig
ures 20
08 O
EC
D O
bse
rver
OECD in Figures2008
Demography and health
Economy
Prices and finance
Energy
Labour
Science and technology
Environment
Education
Public finance
International trade and investment
�����������������������
1
OECD in Figures
20th anniversary edition
2008
2
Demography and health 6Demography 6Health spending and resources 8Health status 10
Economy 12Gross domestic product 12Economic growth and performance 14Sectoral contributions to gross value added 16Business statistics 18Services: value added 20Transport 22
Energy 24Energy: supply 24Energy: production 26Energy consumption and electricity generation 28
Labour 30Employment 30Part-time and self-employment 32Unemployment 34Services: employment 36
Science and technology 38Research and development (I) 38Research and development (II) 40Patents and trade in technology 42
Environment 44Resources 44Emissions and pollution 46CO2 emissions 48
Education 50Expenditure 50Performance 52
Public finance 54Agriculture: support estimates 54Government sector 56Taxation 58Development aid 60
International trade and investment 62Direct investment 62Trade 64Trade in services 66
OECD in Figures 2008
Contents
3
Prices and finance 68
Prices and interest rates 68Insurance and pensions 70Financial balance sheets and institutional investment 72Domestic and foreign finance 74
World map 76
OECD in graphs 77GDP growth 78GDP per capita 79Upwardly mobile 80Inflation 81Population growth 82Migration 83Public debt 84Female employment rates 85Health spending 86Road fatalities 87Aid for the environment 88Climate change 89Trading partners 90
General notes 91Glossary 92
Published in English and French
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© OECD 2008
The online edition is available at www.oecd.org/infigures
4
Also available in French under the title:L'OCDE en chiffres 2008
The OECD is a unique forum where the governments of 30 democracies work together to address the economic, social and environmental challenges of globalisation. The OECD is also at the forefront of efforts to understand and to help governments respond to new developments and concerns, such as corporate governance, the information economy and the challenges of an ageing population. The Organisation provides a setting where governments can compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify good practice and work to co-ordinate domestic and international policies.
The OECD member countries are: Australia (1971), Austria (1961), Belgium (1961), Canada (1961), Czech Republic (1995), Denmark (1961), Finland (1969), France (1961), Germany (1961), Greece (1961), Hungary (1996), Iceland (1961), Ireland (1961), Italy (1962), Japan (1964), Korea (1996), Luxembourg (1961), Mexico (1994), Netherlands (1961), New Zealand (1973), Norway (1961), Poland (1996), Portugal (1961), Slovak Republic (2000), Spain (1961), Sweden (1961), Switzerland (1961), Turkey (1961), United Kingdom (1961), United States (1961). The Commission of the European Communities takes part in the work of the OECD.
This work is published on the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not
necessarily reflect the official views of the Organisation or of the governments of its member countries.
4 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OECD Publishing disseminates widely the results of the Organisation’s statistics gathering and research on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as the conventions, guidelines and standards agreed by its members.
5
OEC
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Dem
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008
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12
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Acc
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Syst
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s an
d t
he In
tern
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nal
Stan
dard
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stri
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lass
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SIC)
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(19
90).
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timat
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tral
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h R
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Finl
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ce*
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n*
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Cont
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alue
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nce
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ting
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hea
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ocia
l wor
k an
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her
serv
ices
III
IIIIV
V
2005
1995
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1995
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1995
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1995
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ted
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es*
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orm
atio
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clud
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note
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re a
vaila
ble
via
the
Stat
Link
URL
So
urce
s:N
atio
nal A
ccou
nts
of O
ECD
Cou
ntri
es,
OEC
D, P
aris
, 200
6;
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ot a
vaila
ble
or n
ot a
pplic
able
.ST
AN
: OEC
D S
truc
tura
l Ana
lysi
s St
atis
tics,
200
5, O
ECD
;
-nN
atio
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ourc
es.
21
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ll ar
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om n
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n
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Luxe
mbo
urg
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ico
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way
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Port
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22
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Dat
a in
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ll ar
e fr
om n
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uth
Afr
ica
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urce
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ergy
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ance
s of
OEC
D C
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ain
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0 U
SD).
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ian
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ratio
n
Sout
h Af
rica
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dx.d
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rg/1
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87/4
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5472
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Thes
e fig
ures
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ed o
n an
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umpt
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nd in
tern
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ctric
it y.
Mill
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a
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n
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Switz
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ted
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otal
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Sout
h A
fric
a
1.So
urce
s:En
ergy
Bal
ance
s of
OEC
D C
ount
ries
, IE
A, P
aris
, 200
8;
2.En
ergy
Bal
ance
s of
Non
-OEC
D C
ount
ries
, IE
A, P
aris
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8.
3. -N
il or
neg
ligib
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row
th o
f mor
e th
an 5
00%
27
12
htt
p://
dx.d
oi.o
rg/1
0.17
87/4
6747
5620
526
Thes
e fig
ures
are
bas
ed o
n an
ass
umpt
ion
of 1
00%
eff
icie
ncy
for
hydr
o-e
lect
ric,
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for
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Incl
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Mill
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f oil
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otal
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a
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h A
fric
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ugal
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ak R
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n
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ted
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dom
28
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tria
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Link
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MAP_essai Epson.indd 1MAP_essai Epson.indd 1 21-Oct-2008 10:47:50 AM21-Oct-2008 10:47:50 AM
1
2008OECD in graphs
GDP growth
GDP per capita
Upwardly mobile
Inflation
Population growth
Migration
Public debt
Female employment rates
Health spending
Road fatalities
Aid for the environment
Climate change
Trading partners
2
12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/466782815551
78
Economic growth in the OECD area grew by an average of 2.8% per year in the 20 years to 2007, slightly faster than in the previous 20 years. The fastest period was 1987-91, when growth exceeded 3%, driven mostly by EU activity. The fastest annual growth over two decades was recorded by Ireland and Korea, at over 6% per year, followed by Luxembourg with 5.2%. Average growth reached over 4% in two other countries, but four countries posted growth of below 2%. Slovak Republic, Poland and Hungary–three countries that have moved to market economies from central planning since the 1980s–delivered strong growth, though the Czech Republic grew more slowly. Canada and the US were the only G7 economies to grow faster than the OECD average over the past two decades, whereas one G7 country, Italy, tied with Switzerland as the most sluggish average performers, at 1.7%
GDP growthAverage annual, constant PPPs, %, 1988-2007
1.7
1.7
1.8
2.0
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.5
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.7
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.9
3.6
3.0
3.0
3.1
3.1
3.3
3.3
3.9
4.2
4.5
5.2
6.1
6.5
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
ItalySwitzerland
Czech RepublicDenmark
JapanGermany
FranceSwedenBelgium
Euro areaUnited Kingdom
AustriaNew Zealand
FinlandPortugal
OECD totalCanada
NetherlandsIcelandNorway
HungaryUnited States
GreeceMexico
SpainAustralia
PolandTurkey
Slovak RepublicLuxembourg
KoreaIreland
3
12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/466805477535
79
Luxembourg, which had the highest GDP per head in the OECD in 1987 at $22,459 per year, was still in the top slot in 2007 with over $80,000 per head, a rise of 265%. The profile of the top 10 has not changed much in two decades, with the US, Norway, Iceland, Canada and Switzerland still in the leading group. Denmark and Sweden have slipped back, replaced by the Netherlands and Ireland. Korea’s GDP per head jumped 321%, and Ireland’s GDP per capita grew by 342%, the fastest in the OECD area. It was one of four countries, with Luxembourg, Norway and the US, to ease above $40,000. The average for the OECD was $32,300, compared with $13,932 in 1987. Italy is below the OECD average, whereas in 1987 it was above it. Poland, Mexico and Turkey had the lowest GDP per head in 2007, at below $16,000.
GDP per capita USD, using current PPPs
0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000
TurkeyMexicoPoland
HungarySlovak Republic
PortugalCzech Republic
KoreaNew Zealand
GreeceItaly
SpainOECD total
Euro areaFranceJapan
GermanyUnited Kingdom
BelgiumFinland
AustraliaDenmark
SwedenIcelandAustriaCanada
NetherlandsSwitzerland
IrelandUnited States
NorwayLuxembourg
1987
2007
4
80
Information and communications technology has leapt forward since the 1990s, accelerating globalisation and economic activity along the way. Take the mobile phone business, which was spurred by competition and technological progress, as well as popular uses such as SMS text messaging. Also, many developing countries have embraced mobile phones as a way of leapfrogging heavy landline investments. The numbers speak for themselves: from just over 750,000 subscriptions worldwide in 1985 to 2.5 million in 1987, total mobile phone subscriptions shot past 11 million in 1990, and over 1 billion in 2002. The growth rate inevitably slowed from a higher base, but nevertheless surpassed 3.3 billion subscriptions in 2007. Indeed, penetration is so widespread that there are now more mobile phones in Africa than in Japan, an International Telecoms Union report says.
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007
Billi
ons
Upwardly mobileWorld mobile phone subscribers
5
12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/466835403855
81
The consumer price index for energy tracked alongside prices for non-energy and non-food for most of the last two decades, but rose to a steeper trend from 2003. The energy price index for fuel, electricity and petrol jumped by 68% from mid-2003 to mid-2008, compared with 32% in the five years to end-1992 and 24% in 1998-2002. Overall consumer price inflation has been modest in the OECD area as a whole. Average monthly price rises eased down from their high of about 0.5% per month in 1987-92 to 0.3% in 1998-2003 and to 0.2% in the period to 2006. Indeed, since 2000 there have been 20 months when prices barely rose at all. But overall price rises have accelerated to 0.4% a month in the last two years, and to 0.6% in spring 2008.
InflationConsumer price indices, 2000 = 100
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
Jan-1988 Jan-1993 Jan-1998 Jan-2003 Jan-2008
Consumer price (non-food non-energy)Consumer price (energy)
6
12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/466846776715
82
The OECD area’s population represented nearly 18% of the world’s population in 2006, over a percentage point less than in 1987. Still, every OECD country bar two saw their populations rise in the last 20 years. Czech Republic and Hungary were the exceptions, reflecting emigration in the aftermath of the Soviet bloc’s collapse. The sharpest rise in population was Turkey’s 39% increase, from 53 million to 73 million. Germany’s rapid 35% increase reflects unification in 1990, when the 63 million population in 1990 leapt by 17 million in 1991with the absorption of the eastern Länder. The US population has risen sharply (24%), while major countries with population growth of less than 10% include the UK, Japan and Italy, with smaller countries such as Sweden, Portugal and Belgium also lagging.
Population growth%, 1987-2006
-8 -3 3 8 13 18 23 28 33 38
HungaryCzech Republic
PolandItaly
Slovak RepublicJapan
DenmarkPortugal
United KingdomFinland
BelgiumSwedenAustriaFrance
NorwayNetherlands
GreeceSpain
SwitzerlandKorea
G7OECD total
IrelandCanada
United StatesIceland
LuxembourgNew Zealand
AustraliaMexico
GermanyTurkey
7
12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/466860034151
83
In the OECD area where fertility rates tend to be low, net migration has played a key role in driving population and employment growth. Indeed, inward migration has exceeded outward migration since 1987 in the area, with the effect on population growth being particularly marked in former “emigration” countries, such as Spain, Portugal, Ireland and Italy. Other countries to experience strongly positive net migration include Australia, Canada and Switzerland. A new phenomenon, according to the OECD International Migration Outlook 2008, is the return of temporary migration, and in particular, circular migration, as between a fifth and a half of long-term immigrants leave the host country within five years.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
1986 1991 1996 2001
MigrationTrend of net migration
as % of total resident population, OECD countries
8
12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/466861461214
Public debt (or general government debt) has risen quite sharply in the OECD as a whole since 1987, from 59% of GDP to 75% in 2007. Japan’s rose from below 60% to 170% of GDP. The figure of 60% of GDP was one of a handful of targets European governments set to prepare for economic and monetary union, and eventually the euro. But in 2007 euro area public debt stood at 71%, though this represents a decline from over 80% in 1998. The figures for France and Germany have risen, and Italy’s debt now exceeds 100% of GDP. US public debt stood slightly higher than 20 years ago, and Canada’s slightly lower. Other countries to reduce their public debt/GDP ratios include Australia, Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, Netherlands, New Zealand and Spain. General government debt covers central and local governments.
84 Public debtAs % of GDP
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
BelgiumGreece
ItalyNetherlands
JapanCanada
PortugalDenmark
New ZealandIreland
United StatesHungary
Euro areaAustria
OECD totalSwedenPoland
SpainUnited Kingdom
FranceSlovak Republic
GermanyCzech Republic
NorwayIceland
SwitzerlandAustralia
FinlandKorea
Luxembourg
1988
2007
9
12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/466885478204
The female employment rate rose in all OECD countries in our graph between 1987 and 2006, except in Finland and Sweden. (Some of the Swedish decline reflects changes in labour force survey methods in 1992-93.) The OECD average employment rate stood at 58% in 2006, up 6 percentage points since 1987. However, while women participate less in the work force than men in all OECD countries, the Nordic rate is higher than in other OECD countries. Interestingly, the countries with the highest female employment rates also report the highest birth rates. OECD believes raising female participation would boost economic performance, and this demands reforms, to provide more accessible and affordable childcare and suitable workplace arrangements for a better work-life balance. See Babies and Bosses at www.oecd.org.
85Female employment ratesEmploment/Population Ratio, 15-64
0 20 40 60 80 100
Spain
Ireland
Italy
Greece
Belgium
Netherlands
France
OECD countries
Canada
Finland
Norway
Denmark
Sweden
1987
2006
10
12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/467002635603
86
Health spending has risen as a percentage of GDP in every OECD country in the last two decades. It accounted for below 7% of GDP on average across OECD countries in 1987 but nearly 9% in 2006. Spending exceeded 10% of GDP in seven countries in 2006: the US, Switzerland, France, Germany, Belgium, Portugal and Austria, compared with only the US in 1987. About three quarters of health spending on average is publicly funded in the OECD area. The public share of health spending has fallen in some countries, but has risen in others, even in the US, from 40% to about 45% in 1990–2005; in fact, despite the private sector’s dominance, US public spending per capita in health is still higher than in most other OECD countries. See OECD Health Data at www.oecd.org/health
Health spending Total as % of GDP
0 5 10 15
TurkeyPolandKorea
MexicoCzech RepublicSlovak Republic
LuxembourgIrelandFinland
JapanHungary
SpainUnited Kingdom
NorwayAustralia
ItalyGreeceIceland
SwedenNetherlands
New ZealandDenmark
CanadaAustria
PortugalBelgium
GermanyFrance
SwitzerlandUnited States
1987
2006
11
12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/467072418213
87
Road fatalities have declined in OECD countries, thanks to a mix of better technology and design, and stricter enforcement of rules against drink driving and speeding. Greece reported the highest road fatality rate in the OECD in 2006, followed by the US, with the Netherlands and Sweden the lowest. Traffic crashes remain the single biggest killer of 15-24 year-olds in all OECD countries, particularly for young men. The World Health Organisation ranks road deaths as the main cause of global mortality by injury, far ahead of the likes of suicide, drowning, fires or war. The problem imposes great social and economic costs on individuals, families and societies; the US government has put the cost of crashes involving 15-20 year-old drivers into tens of billions of dollars. See www.internationaltransportforum.org and www.who.int
Road fatalitiesKilled per 100 000 population
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Portugal
Hungary
Korea
New Zealand
Belgium
Poland
United States
Luxembourg
France
Spain
Austria
Greece
Canada
Switzerland
Ireland
Australia
Finland
Germany
Czech Republic
Italy
Denmark
United Kingdom
Iceland
Netherlands
Japan
Sweden
Norway
1990
2006
12
12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/467106846317
88
Ever since the first Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the environment has been at the top of the global policy agenda. But since 1996 development aid for the environment has declined in relation to total aid. By 2005, environmentally-related aid was about $12 billion, up on its level of $10 billion in 1997. However, its share of total official development assistance (ODA) nearly halved over the same period, from 19.6% to 10.2%. Changes in aid structure explain some of the decline, while such as conservation, waste management and similar “core” programmes fell as more ODA went to debt relief and emergencies. As for water, aid remains above 40% of total environmental aid on broad definitions related to access and resource management, but ODA to water supply and sanitation declined from about 11% of total sector-allocable ODA in 1997 to about 8% in 2006.
0
5
10
15
20
25
1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005
Other environment related support
Water supply and sanitation
Water resources management
"Core" environment sector
Aid for the environmentODA to the environment sector as % of total ODA, 1990-2006
13
12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/467110781177
89
Twenty years ago global warming was a sideshow debate, but has since been recognised as mankind’s main long-term challenge. As carbon dioxide (CO2) generated by homes, businesses,
transport and other economic activities plays a role, then economic tools such as taxes and carbon markets must be in the solution. Most carbon emissions come from the OECD area: the US and EU together generated nearly 10 billion tonnes of CO2 emissions in 2006. However, emissions from
developing countries are rising, with China now around the same level as the US. And given its low emissions per capita, China has room to grow much further. Meanwhile, Luxembourg is the highest emitter per head in the world, while Russia emits more CO2 per head than Germany or Japan. See
www.oecd.org/environment
Climate changeEmissions from fuel combustion, total and per capita, 2006
0 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
IndiaBrazil
TurkeyMexico
ChinaPortugalSwedenHungary
SwitzerlandFrance
Slovak RepublicIceland
South AfricaSpain
ItalyNorwayPoland
EU27GreeceAustria
United KingdomNew Zealand
JapanKorea
GermanyDenmark
IrelandNetherlands
BelgiumRussian Federation
Czech RepublicFinlandCanada
United StatesAustralia
Luxembourg
Million tonnes, upper scale
tonnes/capita, lower scale
14
12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/467213443808
Globalisation has led to a shift in trade patterns over the last 20 years. China’s economic emergence is one reason: in 1988 China supplied just over 1% of total OECD imports in goods, but by 2006 this had risen to some 10%. There has also been a steady decline in the share of OECD trade among OECD countries: OECD imports from other OECD countries slid 15 percentage points, from 80% to 65% of the total. More interaction with India and China, largely because of outsourcing, helps explain this trend. A US-owned computer bought from a subcontractor in China counts as an import from China. On the other hand, OECD merchandise exports to China have risen moderately, by 4% in 2006 compared with 1% in 1988.
90 Trading partners% of merchandise trade (imports + exports)
Difference between 1988 and 2006
0.7
1.6
2.3
2.8
6.0
7.7
10.8
-10.7
-3.4
-3.3
-2.7
-2.0
-1.9
-1.8
-1.3
-0.2
-0.1
-15% -10% -5% 0% 5% 10% 15%
OECD
United States
Germany
France
United Kingdom
Netherlands
Italy
Belgium, Luxembourg
Japan
Africa
Middle East
Non-OECD America
Mexico
Canada
China
Non-OECD Asia
Non-OECD
15
General notes
Cut-off dateCut-off date for the data: August 2008.
StatLink
Totals and averages
Notes and abbreviations.. Not available or not applicable.
- Nil or negligible.
+ Growth of more than 500%
••
••
Data are for the year specified or for the latest available year. In the latter case, the data are followed by a number, corresponding to the number of years of difference from the indicated year. For instance, -1 means that the data are one year older than the other figures in the column.
91
The OECD’s award-winning StatLink delivers Excel spreadsheets of the data underlying the tables in this book. Beside each StatLink logo you will find a link or code to the corresponding spreadsheet. The OECD’s StatLink uses Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs). To download a spreadsheet, either simply go to the OECD in Figures online and click the appropriate link, or type it into your Internet browser. For instance, for background data on GDP, use StatLink: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/864662528136. For more information, visit www.oecd.org/statistics/statlink.The online version of OECD in Figures contains additional information, including footnotes for some items.
OECD total refers to the OECD countries as a whole. OECD average is the unweighted, arithmetic average of OECD countries shown in the table. EU refers to EU27, unless otherwise specified. EU15 refers to the 15 EU member countries prior to May 2004.
Data from earlier years
For further informationPlease consult the source publication specified at the bottom of each table. Sources of graphs are available on the online edition. All OECD publications are available at www.sourceOECD.org, the OECD online library. All OECD books can be purchased on www.oecdbookshop.org.
16
Glossary of terms used in OECD in Figures
TWh Terawatt hours.
GDP Gross domestic product. The standard measure of the incomes generated from productive activity in a country.
GNI Gross national income. GNI = GDP + net receipts of wages, salaries and property income from abroad.
ISCED International standard classification of education. A system designed by UNESCO to ensure comparability of education statistics. ISCED classifies various education programmes by their level of education (primary, secondary, tertiary...) and field of education (general programmes, humanities and arts, science...).
PPP Purchasing power parities (PPPs) are the currency conversion which eliminates the differences in price levels between countries. They are used to compare the volume of GDP in different countries. PPPs are obtained by evaluating the costs of a basket of goods and services between countries for all components of GDP; PPPs are given in national currency units per US dollar (in euro per US dollar for euro area countries).
93
PCT Patent Cooperation Treaty. An international patent law treaty which provides a single procedure for filing patent applications in each of its contracting states (139 countries).
DAC OECD Development Assistance Committee.
PCT Patent Cooperation Treatry.
92
SNA The Systems of National Accounts includes definitions that ensure international comparability of national accounts aggregates such as GDP.
Mtoe Million of tonnes of oil equivalent. This is defined as 1013 kilocalories. This quantity of energy is, within a few per cent, equivalent to the net heat content of 1 million tonnes of crude oil.
NGO Non-governmental organisation.
ODA Official development assistance. Government aid to developing countries designed to promote economic development and welfare. ODA can be bilateral (from one country to another) or multilateral (via agencies such as the UN or the World Bank).
ICT Information and communication technologies.
LDC Least developed countries, group of 50 countries established by the United Nations. To be classified as an LDC, countries must fall below thresholds established for income, economic diversification and social development.
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