Environment by shankar ias academy

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SHANKAR·. lAS ACADEMY Pl t o.1742, lst ·lo r, 18th Main Road, rma J':'ag~, Olen'nai- 60 040.

• Phone: 044-26216435, 64597JZ1,43533445, Mobile ~44416b·r ~ www.shankariasaca~emy.coin

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Facebook Group: Indian Administrative Service ( Raz Kr)

. - ----SD4!CMS richn and endemiSQl as well as of agro-biodiversity, India, with only

m supports~~ astounding 8.1% of the world's piodiver~ity. She also supports

a~Well.as 18%of-tlieworld's cattle popula~on. In fact, an estimated 70o/o of India's

eDlmCJaent locally on natw:al ecosystems for subsistence means of livelihood, including fuel,

J, 'att:'r, ~d_security of~ealth. Conseq~ently, the country's biodiversity faces immense pressure.

1b vironmental problems in India are growing rapidly. The increasing economic development and a

r 1 'ing p I 1 ation are putting a.strain on the envirorunen t, b"od· versity, and the country's na ral

re ourc s. IndustJ:ial pollution, soil erosion, deforestation, poachfug, rapid indust?alization,_ ·~rbanization, -

• a1 d uegradati~n are all worsening-problerns. Overexploitation of the country s resourc s, b it and or

h <1~ re~u ted ·n the environmental degradation . ·

· There is ·so far a positive of information for the student and general public on Environment.

I a1n pleased to therefore ~troduce this book "ENVIRONMENT'', 1-vhich covers on Environmental

E o o gy, Bio-di ersity and Climate Change 'tNTfh reference to In d ia, a pioneering attempt by the

SHR KAR lAS ACALJE~Y, presented in a ~oncise and visually appealing format to raise the level of

lr...n~lwledge and awareness among the people from aH _ v~?lks of life.

This book is exclusively prepared for all aspirants who prepare for Civil Services Ex~mination and

other Competitive exams.

ccwe Need-Ecol~gical Grow.th-Not.Mere Economic-Gr-owth!' .· -----··uNature Pr~tects If She Is Protect.edn

ALLTHEBEST

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D. SHAI'iKAR

DIRECTOR -

SHANKAR lAS ACADEMY

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• us Year UPSC Questi~.n paper analysis .............................. ~ .......................... : ...... , ................. ; .... :. ;,i . . . .

PART·I

ENVIRONMENT ECOLOGY . . .

1. ECOLOGY ···································-············· ·························································-·····················." ............... 3-9 , J!. . PY OF EC ~ LOGY ... .... . -............ ........ : .... ....... : ...................................................................... 3

r ENVIRONMENT & ITS COMPONENTS ................................. ................................................. 3 ... . ..

• •• 0 • • • • ••••• • •• •••• •• •• • ••••• •• ••• • •••• • •• .... . ............ . ................ . . . ..... . ............. . 4

1. · r·1 I~"' ' ·s OJ: ·\ ·1 rros 'Sl"F ·1 -· .... '- ._,j - · ... ~ .. . ..... ....... ......... ...... . , .. .. .... ..... ...... . . .. .. .. . - ......... . .... ..... ... ...... ... ... 10-20

)> ENERGY FLOW .................... · ...................................................... ·--···-··-··--···--·· ........... ........... .... 10 . . > fl10D CHAIN ... ...... . : ....... : ....... ....... .... .... .. ..... ........ .. ......... .. ..... ............................. ..... .... ..... ......... 10

.r FOOD vVEB ...... : ......................... ... .............................................................. _ ........... ...... .... ..... ........ 11

> ECO OGJCJ·...t-P"YAA~ -1 D .... .. .... .. ............ ............. .. ....... ........ ........ .... .... ,~ ........ .. ... .. ... ... ... . : ...... . 12

> POLLUTANTS & TROPHICAL L EVEL ... ... ............. .. ................. ... ....... .. : ............ ........... ... ...... 14

? BIOTIC JNTERACTION ........ .... ... ... ............... ... .................... .. ~ ......................... ............. ............. 15

? BIO-GEOCHEMICAL CYCLE ................... ~ ....................... .... :· . ~:·.~--~~~: . : ·:~- --- ~ ....... ....................... 15

;... ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION .... ............. ... ...... ................. .......... ....................................... .... ... 19

3. l 'ERRES"fRlAL "ECOSYS EM ...................................... : ......................... -............... .' ............................ 21-30

> TUNDIZA ... ............................... =: ............. .................................................. _ .................. . .... . ............ 21

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> FOREST ECOSYSTEM ......... .. .. .' .. .... ................................................................... : .. ~-:~. ~ . .-.-: .~ ........ ..... 2f ____ --

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}> INDIAN FOREST -ra.r'PES ....................... : ............................................... .-..... , .......... : .................... 23

)>. DEFORES'fATION ...................... :.,._.· ...... : ............................................................... ... ................. ... 24

> GRASSl~AND E OSYSTEM .. ................................ ......... .......... ... ..... - .............. ... .... ................ .... 26

, DESET<T ECOSY TF 1 (TI-JAR ~ .. COL ) ................ ......... ......... .' ...... .. .. ........................... ; ......... 27

) DESERTIFICATION ................. ~···· ........................... ~ .................. .............. _ ....... : ........... ......... : .... 30

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·-···· .. ·-··· .... ········ .... .. ..... . ...................... . .. . . . . . .. .. ....... ........ · · · · ··~ · · · ···· ····· · · ··· ···· ··· · ··· · ...... ,

........ .. ... , ........... . , ...... . ······· ... .... .... .. .... ......... .................................... ........ .. .... . N.. . ..... ..... ......... ......... ..... .. ............ . . .................... 34 ................................................ .

..... .. ... ... ................ ..... .... .~ ... .... ..... ... .............. ..... .... ................... :····,··············37 "' N ERVATI N PR RAMME ................................................ .40

l 't::t\1 ....... :.·· ·· .. ···· .. ·· ··· .. ···..... . ... _ .......... .... .' ....... - ........ ... ............... ·11 8 ..

~ • 1 .. .. .. . ~ ...... .. ... .. ... ...... ........ .......... ..... .. .................................. .. .. ....... .... 43

F, .. ..... ..... ......................................... ........ : ....... .. : .... : .................................................. 45 ... ...... ...................... ~ · .... .. .............................................................................. 46

E T ASTAL ENVIRONMENT ..................................................... 48 .·

1 P tJTJON .................... ...... ............ ................. .. .............. : .............. .. .. ........ 49-70

liT NT .......................................... ...................................................................................... -49

• ............ '-'""-'····· ............... .......... -...................................................................................................... 50

• ! :>( _ l . 1TJ ·yN .. .. ... ...... ... ... .... .. ... .. ... .... .. ....... .. .. ... .. ..... .. ..... ........ ... ....... ... ...... . - .

• FL ASH .. .......... , ............ .. ........ .... ...... ........................ .... ........... .' ......................... .................. 52

· .. ... · -· · r ~ ~: ·o · : ... .... ........ .. ............... ... .. .. .... :: ............ ... .. .. ....... .. ... .......... ............. .. ..... . 55

> \\ATER POLLUTION .. ...... .. ..... .................. ..... .. ..... ..................... .......... , ... ......... ........ ... ............... 55

...., IL . LLU.f lO ................ ................................ .. ........................ .... .......................................... 5b

ISE f>()LLliTION ....... .... ... .. ... ... .. .. .. .. .. , ... .. .. .. ... .... ...... .. .... ....... .... ... ... ..... ........ ..... .. ......... .. .. ..... .. 60 -· DIO CTI E POLL TIO I ............ .. ........... ... ... .... ...... .... .... ..... .. ... ... .. .... .. .... ... ...... .......... .... .. 61

);:- E-\ ASTE ........... .. ...... ... ... ..... .. .. ...... .. .... ...... ..... .... ~- ... ......... ..... ... ...... .... ... .......... ... ...... .... .. ....... ... ..... 62

~ LID ; STE .... ..... ......... ........ ...... .. .......... ... .' .... ...... ... ... .. ....... ... .. .... .. .... .. · .. ~ .. .......... ...... ..... ..... ... .. 65 9.

> BlO-REMEDIATlON ...... ... ........ .. .......... ... ... .... .... .. ...... ......... ..... ....... .............. .. ....... ...... ............... 67

> E VIRO l'v1E TAL Hv1PACT ASSESSMENT .. .......... : .... : .. ... .. ... .... .. : .. .... ... .. ... .. .. .............. ....... 69

·PART-II .

BIO IVER ITY ~ -

6. .BIODIVERSJTY .... u ................... - ............................................................... .-.................................. ...... 72-75

)> B10Dl ERSI'f¥ .. .. ........... ............ ~ ....... ... ........... ........ ~ ..... .... .. .......... ................ .. ........... ..... _ ........... 72 . .

LEVEI..S OF BIODIVERSI.TY ................................ ........................................................ ................ 72 10.

. EASUREMENT OF BIODNERSITY ..... ....... ... .. .. .. ................. ................................................. 73 - . ~. .

r BIODIVERSI1"Y SERVICE$ ...... ......... ................................................ ~ .......................................... 74

,.. ODES OF CONSERVATION .. .. .. . : ..... ............. ..... ..................................... ~ ..... - ...................... 75

BOTANICAL GARDEN&. ZOO.................. ..... ..... ......... ...................................... ................ 7

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················--··-.. ····················································································· 76-84 I HICALCLASSJFICATION .......... .................. ..... ..... .. ........... ... ...... . 76

DIVERSITY ................... .......... ........ ....... ... ..... .... .. ..... ... .... ............................................. : .. 80

> INDJ N WILDLIFE ............................ ........ .......... .. ... ... ....... .... ...... ...... ·· ···-································· · 82

.... 19'Pl~ DlVERSITY OF lNnlA .. - .. ···-················---······~···········-~·-········:·~·-· ·· ····· -~-- -· · ·· ·· ······· ··-· ·-85-98 . . . . )> RED BOOK DATA ......... ................................. .. .. :··············· ... ...... .......... .... ....... ... .... .... .................. 85

)> IUCN CLASSIFICATION ...... :~ ................... ... .. ...... ..... .. .......... .. _ .. : ... ... , ....... .. .. .... ......................... 85 . -)> CRJTICALLY ENDANGERED MAMMALS ........... ·: .. : ............... ... .................................... .. ...... 87 }:- ENDANGERED MAMMALS ........................................ :_: ....... , ..... : ..... ......... ...... ... ........................ 88

);> VlJI_NERABLE.MAMMAl5 .................................. ..... .. .. . : ......... ........ .. _ .. ......... .... ...... .................. 90

)> 1\.fARl, E lvli\t ,1J,IALS ... .. .................................. .... .... .... ...... ..... ... .. ....... .. ................ .. .. .................. 91

EG . A'11l\JG :iv1A.! ilvlA ... .............. .. .... .... .... ...... ........ ... .. ...... ..... .... .. .. ..... .... ..... ....... .. .... ......... 91

> A 1ARSUPIAL .... ...... .-....... ....... ....... ........ ........... ... ······ .... ········· ·· ··:·····'······ .. .. ... ..... ............ · ............... 92 ')::. CRJTir T.Y EJ'TDANGERED BIRDS ..... ....... .... .. .... ....... .... .............. ... ... . · .. .... ..... .. ... ................. 92

)> CRJTICALLY ENDANGERED REPTILES .. ...... ... ..... .. ... , .. ·.:: ......... ..... ....... ......... .... ...... ..... ...... .. 94

.;--_ - D CALLl L 'DA1 GEJ?ED F. S :· ....................... ........... ." ... ................ .... .. ... ............ .... .. : .. . 95 . ~ . -..

);> CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPIDERS & CORJ\L ..... ....... .. . · .... ...... : .......•. .... ......... .......... .. ... 9? > BIRD. 11GRATJO 1 .. . ........ .. ... ..... .... .. ......... .................. . . .... . .. .. : .... . ...... . ....... . ....... . ... ...... ............. . . 96 . . )> W1LD LIFE· DISEASE ..... ................. ........ .. ... ....... ..... ..... ... .... .... ... ...... .. ......... ...... .... .... ......... .. .. .... .. . 97

SPECIES EXTL ~CTlON ... ... ... ... .. ... ................. : ..... ... ..... ..... ... .. .... ... ....... ..... .. ::-:·.. ........... ... ..... ...... 97 ·----- -- ,. :;::. :MA N- ANI viAL CONFLICT ....... .... .. .. ..... ..... ....... ............ ...... .. .... ..... ..... ..... .. ....... ... ......... .... : ...... 9 8

9. PLANT DIVERSlll' OF INDIA ................. .... ....... .............. .... ............ ...... ......... ...... ......... : ............ 99-107

> PLANT CLASS!FICATION ................... .. ............ .... ..... .... ... ..... .... .. ... .. .. .. .... .. ........ .... ......... .... ... .. 99

> EFFECT OF ABIOTIC COMPONENTS ON PLANTS .... ........ ... .. .... ... .. ...... .-......... ......... .... ...... 99

r Ll\JSECTIVOROUS PLANT ............... ....... ... ......... ....... .. ...... ... ... ... .. .... ... .. ..... ... .. .... ... ............. .. ... 100

> INVASlVEAUEN SPECJES , ... : ...................... ...................... ... .. ... ~ .. .. ... . ... . .... ........ ... .... ........ ..... 102

r INVASIVE ALIEN FLORA OF INDIA .... ..... ....... ......... .... ............. .... . : .. .... ... .. ......... .. ........... .... 102

r MEDICINAL PLANTS ........ .' ..... : .. : .................................. : ... : ........ ... .. ... ... .. : .... ... .. - .. ................. 104 . .

r TREEGIARAC-r-ERS ................ ~ ........ ... .............. .... ....... _ ... ........ ....... ~.; ................ ....... ...... ....... :105

10. MARINE ORGANISM ...... · .. .................... ..... ......... ....... ....... ................ ..... ... .-.... ...... ..... .. ............... .. 108-110

r ~Kl'ON -~·- ··· ······················~· ·· ··· · · --· ··· : :··: .. ....................... ...... ............. .......... .......................... 108 )> PHYTO:PLANKTON .... ... ................. .. .......... .. ... .......... . : ................. ..... ~ .... ... ... ...... ..... ................ 108

,.. ZCXJ..Pl..ANKTON .... ........... ....... ...... ............. ........ ............ , ............ ... ........ .. ........... ............. ....... 110

;,;; SEA GRASS ...... -:-.................................... .. .............................. : .........................•.......................... 110 ,. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. ... . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. . . . .. ] 1

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• • •• . . . . . ......... ...................... ~ •••••••••••••••••••• ~ ..... . ....... . .... . . . .. t\. .. . .. . .. . . 112-126

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N UARY & NATIONAL PARKS ..... ........ ... ..... .... ..... ................ ......... . 112

V. 11 N RESERVES & COMMUNITY RESERVES ..... ........................ ...... : .. 1 i4 PROTEC..JED AREA$ ............ : .................................... ............. ................. ........... 114 . .

• SA ED GROVES OF INDIA .......................................................................................... 115 • EXPORT PROHIBI1'ED ~EMS ........................................................................................ 116

. L BAL lT<JI JIATIVE

• AN AND BIOSPHER£ .......................... ................ ......... .. ..... ......... .... ..... : ................... ... 117 . . . • BIOSPHERE RESERVES .................................. .' ....... .-..... .. .. .. : ....... ...... .. .. .. .. ..... ........ ....... .. .. 117

. . • NATIONAL BIOSPHERE RESl!RVE PROGRAMME ·: ................................................. 119

• WORLD.NETWORK OF BIOSPHERE RESERVES .. .................................................... . 121

• BIODIVERSn'Y HOTSPOl"S ............................... .................. ........... ............ ......... ... ......... 122

• WORLD HERITAGE SITES ................... · ................. ...................................... ......... ........... 124

12. CONSERVATION EFFO~S ..... ......................................... ..... ............. ..... ...................... .............. 127-139

· · }> PROJECT TJGER ..... ...................................................... .. .............. : ........ : .................. .................. 127

}:> PROJECT ELEPHANT .................... .. ........ .... ....... .. ..... ........................ , ............ .. .. ..... .. ...... .. .... ... .. 130

. ~ VUL l 'URE ........... ................................. :., .................. ............................. ........... .. .. ....... ............... .. 132

? oNE HOR1 ED RHJ TJCBEtms~·- ·~,-~--~_·:·~,~~~:~~ ~~: : ::~ :: : :~ .................................... .. ........... : ....... ..... 135

~ PROJECT SNOWLEOPARD ... .. ... .. ....... ... .... ... ... .. .... .... ... ... ... .. .. ...... ... ... ........... .... .. ...... .. ........ .... 136

}> SEA TURTLE PROJECT .......... ... .............. .... ... .......... ..... .......... .............. ........ ........ ... .. ... ....... ...... 137

}> CROCODILE CON SERVATION PROJECT ... .. .. .. ... .. .... .. ..... .. ...... .. ... .. ... .. .. ........ ...... .......... .. .... 37

}> PROJECI' HANGUL ... ..... .... ..... ..... ..................... ..... ...... .... .. .. .... ............. ... .................. ._ .......... .. .. 138

}> CAP'flVE BREEDING .................... ..................... ...... .... .... .... .......... .... ...... .......... ... .. ......... .. .. ..... 138

GA NCES DOLPHI 1 ..... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. .. ..... ... ..... .......... . . · .. . ....... .... .... . ........ ...... . ....... .. ...... ........ .. .. 138

PART-Ill

CLIMATE CHANGE

-13 CLIMATE CHANGE ................................... .... ...................... .. .. .... ............... ................................... l-:11-149

):> GLOBAL WARMING ......... ................ _. ........ ... ........ .............. .............. ...... ..... ..... .. ... ............ .... .... 141

~ -6-REEN HOUSE EFFEcr.:.::.::: .. :: :.:.:::::.::-.. : .... ... :.: ..... .-... ~ .. : ...... :: ........ ................ ..... ................... .. 142 •

,. GREEN HOUSE.GASES ............................. : ............................ ...... ........................ : .................... 143

}> CLIMATE FOR ON G ....... ... ............................... .... ·········· ·· .. ..... ...... ... ·····:···· ······· ··--·--·--· ··: ....... ... 146 . , ............ · ·: ... . . . .

GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL ...... .. ....... .. .... ........ ... ........ ......... ...... .. ............. : ... ., ... .. -, ..... 147

}> GLOB A EM MISSJON&........................ .... .. ... . .. .. ... ...... .. ... .. ... .... .. ... .. .... ...... ......... .. ................... 8

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l N ............................................................................................................................ 150-156

IN;~;;;;;~~;:;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ·:::::::::: :::: :·.: : •.. :::.:::: ::::: ~~· >

5. ZONE l > LE ................................................... - .................... ~······················ ··· ·· 157 161 .................. .... ............ .. -. IMPACf ( IMATE CHANGE- INDIA .............. ~ ........................ ~ .................. ~ ...... ~ ....... ." .... 162_167

> AG l' CUL'fURE&F~ .: ................... :: ............................................. : ............... :162 > ·\VATER STRESS · . & WATER INSECURfi'V ....................................................... .. .. ............. .... .-.. 163. > SE.t JEVEL RJSE .................................... ."........................................ . 1·64

• 0 ... ... .... ..... ... . . .......... 0 ........ - .. . • • .. • ............ •

> EC< YSTEM & BiODIVERSITY .................................................................. · ......... .. ....... . .-:: ........ 165

)> CL TECHANGE&HEALTH ..................................................................................... : .... ;. i66

17. MITIGATION STRATEGJ.ES ............................................... :··········--·--········----....... ~ ..................... 168-172 )> CAl.., BON SEQUESTR..t\l'lON ........................................................................ ........................... l68

> AJ BC..)N ' 11'-lK ......... ............ ..... ... .... .... .... ... ... .. .... .... ......... .... ...... ... .......... .. ........... ...... ........ ....... 169

)> CARBON CREDIT ........... .. : ........................................ ..... :·--····························· ······ ······ ··············170 )> C.ARBGN-0 FSEmNG .. ....... ... ............ ... ...... ............... .. ... .... ... .. ... ................ : ... .. .. .... . : .. : .... :. 70

)> CARBON· TAX .............. ... .... : .... ........ ....... ................ .. .- ..... ... .. ...... .................. .. ... ..... .............. ... .. :.17.1

.:. "r- --GEO- E:l .G:i1 'EERI G .................. .. ......... ......................................................... ........................... l7 .

-18. INDIA AND CLll\1ATE CHANGE ............... · ................. : ............................................ ~ .. .... .......... 173-l<Jn . .

> INDIA'S POS1TION ON-CLIMATE CHANGE .......... ......... : .. .. : .. .. ...... : ..... ..... .. ..... .... .. ... .... :. 173 . . . . .

)> OBSERVED CLIMATE AND WEATHER CHANGES IN INDJA .... : ......... ........... .... .... ... ... .-174'

)> CORRECT ACTlONSFO ADAPTATl01 A 0 l\tflTlGATIOi 1 ........... . ....... . ....... ....... ... .. 17-1

)> NATIONAL ACTION PLAN. ON CLIMATE CHANGE ............................... ........................ 175 . .

? INDIAN NE1WORK ON CLIMATE CHAN6E ASSESSMENT. ............... .. ............. .......... : 181

}:;> NATIONAL COMMUNICATION (NATCOM) .................... : ............... ...... ... .... .... ...... ... ....... 182

)> J 1DIA'S POLICY STRUCTURE RELEVANT TO GHG NIITIGATION ....... .. .. ... ....... ..... ... . 183

)> GI~~EN BUILDING ······· ··· ······ ···· ···· ······ ········· ············ ···· :·· ··································--· ···· ············ ····184 . . > GRIHA ... .. .......... : ....... ..... ..... ....... ... ... .... ..... ..... ~ ........... .. ................... , ~ ... :· ................ ............ ........... 185

> NATION~L INITIATIVE ON CLIMATE RESILIENT.AGRlCULTIJRE ........ ..... ............ : .. 188

> · BSE G REENEX ................................... ...................... ; ............. ." .................................................... 189 •

> 24 OTHER CRITICAL ENTITIES .......... -... : ..... ..... ......... : ....................... :: .............. .................... 190 . .- . .

19. CUMATF. C'JIANGE ORGANJSATJQNS ........ : ............................................... : ... ............ ......... .. 191-203 . . .

~ tJ1'J ·c::c ........ ~ ................................. :·.-........................... ~ ........................ ~.-.... ... .-.. : ....... :.-........... .-.. : .... 191

)' KYOTO PROTOCOL ....... : ...... ... .... ..... .. _. ........................ :.: ........... : ....................... .. .... ...... : ......... 191

> , BALI MEET ... : ..... : .. .... .. .... ..... ................................ .. .. : .............. : ... ~ ......... _~ ··· : :···· ··· · ::· ·····-- · : . _ .......... 193 > COPENHAGEN S,lJMMl1' ............. ........................... ::.~ ....................... ~~-········· ···· ··· ·---·--·· ······· ···194

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. . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . ........... . .................... ········ ........................................................ 197 NM NT FA ILJ11 .............................................................. : ................ 199

T A ICULTIJRE ......................................................................................... 199

............................................................................................................................................. ····· 200

TI N L GREEN HOUSE GAS INVENTORIES PROGRAMME .................................. 201

G EE1 .ECONQ~ ... , .......... ~ ........ _. ..................... .:············ ·· ···· ·····::········:·: ........ ........................ 202

PART-IV

AGRICULTURE 23. l~ '" ··.

20. GRICULTURE ........................................................ ~.·············································.·····················-·····205-221 }> CROP AND ITS CLASSIFICATJON._ ....................................................................... ............... 206

}> CROPPING SYSTEM AND PATTERN .................................................................................... 210

}> FARMING SYSfEM ................................................................................................... .. ............... 212

}> SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE .............................................................................................. 213 . . . . ..

}> J TEGRATED FAR1v1ING SYSTEM ....................................... ....... ...... .. ........ .... ... .. .... ...... ... · ... .. 214 . . .

)> SOIL SCIENCE ............................................ ~ ............................................................................... 217

~""RT"-v-· - --·--·· .. ·· .. . _ :·.. . . .. . . . . c: • • , ..

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21. ACTS AND POLICIES ............................................................................................................ ........ 223~229 . J> "\\TJLD LIFE PROTECTION ACT 1972 ...... ... : ... ..... ............. .. ............................. .... .. .. .... .. . ~ .. -2-23-

~ ENVIRONMENTALPROTECTION ACT 1986 ........................................................ ... ... ........ 224

> NATIONAL FOREST POLICY 1988 ............................................................. : ........ .... ................ 225 , .

.. -:>-· .BIOLOGJCAL DfVERSITY ACT 2002 .............. ..... ..... ................................ ...... .. ... .. .. .... .... ...... . 225

}> SCHEDULE TRIBES AND OTHER FORESf DWELLERS ACT 2006 .............................. .. . 226 ,-

~ COASTAL REGULA'nON ZONE ........................................................................................... 227 . . . . . . . . . . . - .

)> WE'fLAND RULES 2010 .................................................. ~ ..................................... ~ ...................... 228 J> NATION GR-gEN l"'RIBUNAL ..... ~ ....................................................................... _. .................. 228

J;> THE OZONE DEPLETING SUBSTANCES RULES ........................ :.: ..................... , .............. 228

22. INSTITUnON AND MEASURES-.~ .. •··· ............................... -... · ........... ;-;.,..~ ... ;;-;· ... ;;-:.;~;:;.~ ....... ~ .............. 229-235 " ~

"' NATIONAL \VIDE LIFE ACTION PLAN ............................................................................ , .. 229 .. -:;

> NATIONAL AFFORESTATION AND.ECO-DEVELOPMENT BOARD ............................ 229 r-!·

> CAMPA ......................................... ~ ............... : ................................................................... ,a·.-•.:.·.-.. ,.-230: ! ·

> , ·JOINT FORESf MANAGEMENT ..................................... -. ~ ................. ~ ............... ." .. ... ............. 230 . . . . -: ~

S()CIAL FORESfRY .. :.............................................................................. . 231 ........................................ ;

NATIONAL BAMB()() ~I.SSION ...................................... ~ ............................ ............. : ........... 232 i· ~ • '

CEPI ............................................................ H ................................................................................ 232

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~ .. ..

..

I N lV ' • .............................. _,_ ....... ·...................... • .. 2· 32 .... , ..................................... . . . . .... . . . . .. .. .. . . . .................. .......... ... .... ......................... .. . ... . .. .. . . . .. . . . .. . .. . . . . '. 233 . .., ................ ... ............. ..

........................................................................... -............ ..................... ..... .. ,. ............................... 233 LJll......... ... .................................................................................. .... ...... 233

TIONA I. Cl.EAN ENERGY FUND ..... ~ ......................... .......... .. : ....... ~:::::::::::~::::::::~::::::::::: 233 NTI . A ONAL MISSION FOR ELECTRIC MOB~ ..... ~ ............. ....... ~ .................................. 234

),> - SCIENCti M.XPRESS- BIODIVERSITY SPECIAL ....... : ............... : ..... : .. .' ................. .-.. :-: ....... .... 234

> MANGROVE FOR FUTURE ......................... -........................... ............. ... ............................... 235

23~NVJRONMENTA.L ORGANISATIONS ................................... ~ ..................... ................. ~ .............. 236-239

> AN1~1AL WELFARE BOARD .......................................................................... ................... ...... 236

)> CEN'TRAL Z()() A U~rHORITY ............. , ................. · .................................................... .. ........ : ... 237 )> NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY AUTHORITY ......... ............. : ............ .. ..... .... ... ............. ... .... .... . 237

)> WILDLIFE CRIME CONTROL BUREAU ........................................ ... ........................ .' .......... 238

~ N TI01 TAL AKE CONSER AT ON PLAN ...... ............ ........ ... ............... ........... .................. 238

> NA110NAL GANGA RIVER BASIN· AUTHORffY ................... ..... ... .................... ....... ....... 239

24. INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS ....................... ............................. 240-255

> U. TED N_A'IJQ .. .:.'-::.-·.~9 .!FERE CE 0 l E . .. 'TI Oil. 1E T./·~ .. ·:c DE\.'E OP ~E: T ..... ~40

>• CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (CBD) ........................... ............................. 241

> >

-RAMSAR CONVENTION ON WETLANDS.' .. ......... .. ................. ................. ... ............ ..... ...... 246

CITES ............................ ........ ........................ ... ........................ : .......... ...... ..... ................................ 247

> _. THE \IVILDLIFE TRADE 10NITORJ rc NETIVORK {TRJ FF C, ... ..... ............ ... ...... .. ...... 248 );> CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION OJ~ MIGRATORY SPECJES (C 15) ..... ........ 248

> COAUTION AGAINST \1\TJLDLJFE TRAFFICKING (CAWT) ... ........................... .............. 248

INTERNATIONAL TROPICAL TIMBER ORGANIZATION (ITT0) ......... ...... . ~~ ............... 249

> UNITED NATIONS FORUM ON FORESTS (UNFF) ............................... ; .... _ ............ : ........... 249

> IUCN ::.: ........... ............................ .. . : .. .... ............... ............ ... .... ......... .. ........ ... ........................ ........ 250

? GLOBAL TIGER FORUM (GTF) ................... · ............................ .. ..... ....................... ..... ............. 251

~ - ___ SI.OCK.HO.LM CONY~NTION. """:: ·""~"""'•·"."'"""""""""'······· ...................................... ... ... 252 ? BASELCONVENTION ......... ... .......... ... · ..... ·~ ..... ............ ... ....... ... : ... ........ ... ........................ · ....... . 252

)> ROTTERDAM CONVENTION·-....... : ........................................................ ~ .................... :: ... : .... 253

>- UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION TO COMBATDESERTIF1CA'110N ......................... 253

}.> INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION (lWC) ............... .. ................. : .................... 254

viENNA CONVENTION AND MONTREA~PROTOCOL ...................................... ~ ......... 254 - -. .

25. ENVIRONMENT ISSUES AND HEALTH EFFECTS .. -............................................................ 256-261

GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................... -:-.· .... 2.62 ................................ • .. ••• •• • a

AUPENDlX .................................... --............... - ............................................. .. 270 1: ........................... •••••••• •• •••• •• - -

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ravi

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ravi

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viu statements: it · i n rm 11y greater in the lower

n1p r d to the higher latitudes. 1 ng th mountain gradients, biodiversity

i. n rmally greater in the lower altitudes as ~ mp d to the hig}:\ r altitudes. · ..

\ · 1i h ~f the statem nts given above is/are correct?

1 nly

b. 29nly

c. Both 1 and 2

d. Neither 1 nor 2

2 ~- ~ee of the follow\ng criteria have contributed io the recognition of Western Ghats- Sri Lanka and indo-Burma regions as hotspots .of bio.

. ·e s·ty.

J.. Spet?es richness

3.

- 5.

ege a 'on ensit •

Endemism . . . -

Ethno-bolanical importance

Threat perception

6. .Adaptation of flora __ and fauna to warm and humid conditions

Which three of the above are cor~~.<;t __ ~Ii_tg~ia in this context?

a·. 1, 2 and 6

b. 2,4and6

c. 1, 3 and 5

d. 3,4and 6

3. Biodiversity forms tl1e basis for l1uman existence in the following ways :

Cl. Soil formation

b...Ptevention of s~il erosion

c. Recycling of waste

d. Pollination of crops Select the correct answer using the codes given

below: . . a . 1,2 and 3 oruy .

. 2,3 and 4 only

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1. W!'ic~ - of ~he following~ be threats to the btodtverstty of a geographi~al area ?.

1_. Global warming 2. Fragmentation of habitat · 3. Invasion of alien species · 1. :.- .Promotio~ of · ·vegeranan1sm ·

Select the correct answer using the codes given below. · . ·

a. 1, 2 and 3 only

b. 2 and 3 only

c. 1 and 4 C?nly

d. 1, 2, and 4

2. ln which one among the following categories of protected areas in India are local people not allo'lved to col ect and use the biomass?

a. Biosphere Reserves

b. National Parks

c. Wetlands declared' under Ramsareunventrorr ·

d. WHdlife Sanctuaries

3. Consider the following protected areas

1. Bandipur · .,. ... 2~---"Bhitark«iml<a-----

3. Manas 4~ Sunderbans

Which of the above are declared !iger Reserves?

a. ·1, 3 and 2 oruy

b. 1~ 3 and 4 ·only

c.· 2, ~ f1!l~ 4 only • d. 1, 2,3 ~d 4

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a,

le

at

a! ls.

t?

m ?ly

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hi h r inf II that supports luxuriant t ti growth.

nfluence of different bio geographical

otic and. inv~sive. ~c~de~ have not been .._ • ....,.duced m this regton.

d. has less human interference.

12. If a tropical rain. forest is removed, it does not regenerate quickly as compared to a tropical deciduous forest. This is because ·

a. the soil of rain forest is deficient in nutrients b. propagules ofthe trees in a rain forest ha ·e poor

viability c. the ~ain forest species are slow-growing . . · d. exotic species invade the fertile so}l of rain forest.

-13. When the b.ark of a tree is removed in a

circular fashion all around near its base, it gen~rally dries up and dies because

a. 'Vater from soil cannot rise to aerial parts.

b. Roots are starved of energy c. Tree is infedl:d-b oil microbes d. Roots do not receive oxygen for respiration

CLIMATE CHANGE

14. c_ons!der the fo!J:~~~n_g : _ _

1. Photosynthesis 2. · Respiration 3. Decay of organic matter 4.. VoJcanic action WhJch of the above add carbc;l dioxide t"o the carbon cycle on Earth 1 · a. 1. and 4 only · b. 2 and 3 only c. 2,3 and 4 only

1 2 3 and 4

-ll-: _Co_nsjder - ~~e _fol1owing statemen~s : Cholorofluorocarbons, know.n as ozonedepleting substances, are used

1. in the.production of plastic foams . 2. in the production of tubeless tyres 3. in cleaning certain electronic c0mpo~ents

4. as pressurizing agents-in aerosol cans Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a. l, 2 and 3 only b. 4only c. 1, 3 and 4 only d. 1, 2,-3 and 4 •


t "'' t rv r th d it

th ultraviolet part of th ol n. i I . .

1n1 s1 n~ U the solar radiations. wr ] nts? •

d. th infrared ~of the solar radiation

.. .

ion of ozone hole in the Antartic 13. lbe acidification of oceans is incre~sing. Why ha .. 1: een a cause of concern .. .\'Vhat is this phenomenon a cause of concern?

e the reason for the formation of this 1. The growth and survival of calcareous ole?

· cs - C'.' .. ;tJm · ntt oposp encturb 1 ence; d =n o .: of chlorofluoro carbons ·

p.,.. ~e"!'l e f -r j e t pola r f n · ·<lnd

stratospheric douds; and inflow of chl?ro

1 __

1_c_._ Absence of polar front and stw:1tospheric douds;

z d iJ .flcv.- of me ane and dlloro fluorocarbons.

d. Increased tempera~re at polar region due to global' ~arm_~g

17.

a.

b.

c.

Regarding '"'carbon credits'', which one of the following statements is not correct? ,

The. carbon credit system was ratified in conjunction with the-Kyoto Pro~ocol Carbon credits are awarded to countries or . groups that have reduced greeftheuse gas~s below their emission quota . .

The goal of the ca~bon c:redit system is to limit the increase of carb(ln einission quota . ·

arbor crcj · tS are 1!a ed at a pri e f~ d from tim to time by the United Nations Envuorunept

rogramme.

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phytoplankton will be adversely affected. 2. . The growth and survival of coral reefs will be

adversely affected. 3. The survival of some. -animals that have

hytoplanktonic arvae wjll b~ ad 'ezsely affected.

4. he cloud seeding and formation of clouds. will be adversely affected.

Which of statements given above is I are correct ?

a. 1,2 and 3 only b, 2 only c. 1 and 3 only d . 1,2,3 and 4

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ildli tuaxy

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5. Among the following SJates,. whjch one has the most suitable climatic conditions for the cultivation of a l~ge variety of orchids with minimum cost of production, and can develop an export ·oriented industry in this field.?

a. Andhra Pradesh

.• rui achal Pradesh

t c._ ~adhya Pr~~esh , d. t: a radesh

6. A sandy and saline area is the natural habitat of an Indian ?nima] species. The.anima] has no predato~s in that area but its existence is threateneq due to · the destruction of its habitat. 1-\Thjch one of the foJJowing could be that animal ?

a. lndian wild buffu)o

b. Indian wild ass

c. Indian wild boar

d. Indian Gazelle

7. The '1Red Data Books' published by the International Uniov. for Cons.ervation o Nature and Natural Resources (lUCN) contain lists of ·

a. Endemic plant and animal species present in the biodiversity hotspots. Threaten d plant and animal species.

c

. What is th differ::n:c:-b~·tw:----=====. ryx and Chiru? n the antelop

a.

b.

Oryx is adapted to live in h t d· . whe!eas Chiru is adapted to liove ~stand areas semi-desert areas of cold high ~pes and . mountams. Oryx IS poa0ed for its antlers whereas oiliu . poached for Jts musk. · Is

c. Oryx e:xists in western India orJ.y whereas Cruru eXIsts m north-east India only. _ . ---

d. ~one of the statements··a, b, and c given abov IS correct. e

5. Consi~er the following : 1. Black-necked crane 2. Cheetah

3. Flying squirrel 4. Snow leopard

'\7JUch of the abo e are n aturally found in India? a. 1,2 and 3 only

b. 1,3 and 4 only

c. 2 and 4 oJ:lly ·.:.:.:.:.1,2,.;L<IDd-4 .....

6. Cpnsider the following ldnds of organisms

1. Bat

2. Bee

3. Bhd

Which of the above is/are polli.nuhng agent I agents?

a. 1 and 2 only

b. 2 only

c. 1 and 3 only

d.l, 2 and 3

7·. Which one ·of the following groups of animals _elongs to the _cate.gor.y.-of . .end-arigei:ed

species?

a. Great Indian Bustard, Musk Deer, Red Panda and Asiatic WHd Ass

b. Kashmir Stag, Cheetal, Blue Bull and .Great Indian Bustard ...

c. Protected sites for conservation of nature & c: natural resources in various countries.

Snow Leopard, Swamp Deer, Rhesus Monkey and Saras (Crane) ·

of the statement given above is I are correct?

3

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d. Lion-tai~d Macaque, Blue BuJl, Langur and Cheetal

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Hanuman

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L.JeoC'OinJ)4~r i roorganisms to the surface. utri ts to th surface.

Hon-dwelling·organisms to the surfare.

f the sta~em~ts given above is/are correct? 1 and ... •

2only

2and3

d. 3 ·nly

9. The 20~ Tsunami made people realize that mangroves ~an serve as a ~eliable safety

_TV-I . ENVIRONMENT'~

What would ~appen if phytoplankto of oceafs completely destroyed for som~ reaso~

1. The ocean as a carb<?n sink would be ad 1 affected. . verse y

2. The food chains in the ocean would be ad 1 affected. verse y

.. · :

3. The density of ocean water would drasticall deqease. Y

Select the using codes given bel~w : a. 1 and 2 only

b. 2 only

c. 3 only

d. 1,2 and 3

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9. .Wilh reference to the wetlands of India, consider the following statements; ~

!,

h dge ag~st. coastal calarnit.ies. How do l . a gr ves fu ction ns a· s .. fety e ge?

& 'The country's to al geographical area under the ;

~ categ,oryof "\1\'et ~~.~.record~d rnore · · Gujcuat t . . . a. The ma.ngroves swaps separate the human as compared to other States. ~

2. .In India, the total geographical area of coastal ~ ·w tlan s · s arge r than hat ehl land "'.e trnd.-<>or-t-~

settlements from the sea by a wide zone in which t- l f ~ e :u:· •'-er Ev~ r ,'er re o t

b. The mangroves rovide both food and medicines w.hlch people ar~ in need of after any natural disaster.

W[rich of the statements gjven abov~ is/are co a. . 1 only -b. 2only

The mangroves trees are taU with dense canopies c: and ser.·e as an excellent shelter during a cyclone Both 1 and 2

Neither 1 nor 2 or tsunami . d.

d. fhe mangr.:H·es trees do T IOt get uprooted by storms and tides because of their extensive roots_

ect?

10. There is a concern over the increase in 10. Vnltures which used to be very common in harmful algal blooms in the sea waters of Indian countryside s(>me years age are rarely ·

.. I

India. \That could be the causative factors seen no\ 'adays. This is attributed to · ; ;

for this phenomenon 7 a. the destruction of their nesting sites by .new t i 1. Discharge of nutrients from the estuaries. inva~ve species. 1

2. Run-off. from the I~d during the monsoon. b. a drug used..by cattle own~rs for treating their ,~ .. · diseased cattle. 3. Upwelling in the seas.

Select V"ae correct answer from the' codes given c. scarcity of food available to them f below : d. a widespread, persistent and fatal disease among , ,

ili~ l a. 1 only

b. 1 and 2 only

2 3 y 1 ,2 3

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T &: POLICIES t I dia, the

ds:

rt ( ontrol) Act, 1947.

Min~al Development (Regulation)

u t m~ et, 196.2 Indi 1 For st Act, 1927

"<=!' ~ abo:ve Acts have relevance to I bear~g on I tversrty conservation in the country ? . ·

1 and 3 only

b. 2,3 and ~ only c. 1,2,3 and 4

d. None of the above Acts

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14. ·The Natipnal Green ... T. .b · · ·· n unalA enacted in consona· . ct, 2010 w as

nee Wllh h" h following ·provisions of th c~ ': . 1~ .. ~f th e India? e onshtUtion of

1. Right to healthy environm t .

2. part ~f part of Rightto life :~de;~~; I as a

Pro":Js_ion of grants .for raising the 1 l f ·a~mllll9trntiGn ·in the Schedtd d A efve o · e reas · or ····- ·-_welfare of Scheduled Tnbes underA:rtide 275(1)

Which of the statements giv~n above iS/are correct? a. 1 only. • · .

b. 2 only

c. Both 1 and 2

d . · Neither 1 nor 2

15. How does National Biodiversity Auth ority · (NBA) help in .pro t ec t ing th e Indian agriculture?

1. "NBA checks the b]opiracy and protects the indigenous and tra~tional genetic r~sources.

2. NBA diriTtJy monitms aJitfsapenise-rr-lte scientific research on genetic modification of crop plants. ·

3. Application for intellectual P roperty Rights related to genetic I biological resources cannot be made without the approval of NBA.

Which of the statements given abov e is/are correct?

a .. 1 only

b. 2 and 3 onlv J

c. 1 and 3 only

d. ·.1 ... 2 and 3

CURRENT AFFAIRS 19. Recently, "'oilzapper was in the news. What 16. Governm-en-t -of -India encourages · the

is it 1. . · · - • cultivation of :sea buckthorn< What is the a." · It i s an eco-friendly technology for . the importance of this plant?

remediation of oil sludge and. oil spilJs. a. It helps in controlling soiJ erosion and in

tis e a test echnoJogy developed for under. preven!ffig desertification. ·sea oil explorati~. b. It is a rich source of biodie5e1.

c_ 1 is a gen e ticalJy engineered high biofuel c. It has nutritional value and is well-adapted to yielding ma~e variety. live in cold areas of high altitudes.

s he ]a te~t tec'hno]ogy to control the d. Its timber is of great·commerci al value.

acc::Ja4erna11y caused flaines from oil \.ve1l._s_. __ _.li.-~- ---------~- ~------1

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y nother, with its source

............ _ . t a place only a short o the co st of Bay of Bengal

flo ing into the sea. This is an im rtant site of wildlife and bio-diversity nd protected area. Which one of the

f llowing (oiil'd he this ?

. .Bhitarkanika

Chandipur-on-sea

c. Gopalpur-on-sea

d. Simlipal

2011 - Answers

7. A Particular Stat · In · h . . e In d1a ha the following

c aractenstics :

1. It is located on the same Latitude w hich passe through northern Rajasthan.

2· lt has ovey BO% of its area under fores t cover. 3· <iver 12% of forest cover constitutes Protected

Area Network in this State.

W)Uch one anwng the. follq,\,,:ing Stn_ cs h;Js a he above characteristics? ·

a. Arunachal Pradesh b. Assam

c. J1imachal Piac;l~.h d. Uttarakhand .· ·

20i2 - Answers

ll(b),. 12(a), 13(a), 14(c), 15(d), 16(b), 17(d), 18(c), ll(d), 12(d), 13 (a), iii(~), 15{c), 16(a), 17(a)

19ta), 20ta)

tQ.no. 7 is disputed)

2011

UPSC MAINS EXA~iiNATION

PA ERl.

2012

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Evolution of Green Benches (12 marks) Causes and the Extent of 'Desertifi cati on' in India and Remedial Measures (25 marks)

Impact of C. C. on Indian at r resources (12 marks) · Endosulphan ~25 marKS)

Phase IV of tiger monitoring programme (5 n1arks) Tiger tourism (25 n1arks)

• ·PAPER%

2011 2012 . 'E-waste (5 mar.lqij Permaculture (12 marks}

Diminishing popuJation of VuJture (5 marks) CBD (5 marks) . .

En~onment Sustainability (S marks) · Billion Acts of Green (2 marks)

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·:-ECOLOGY -o.

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1 uniti . rth- .. a·t

i ~ nd nt n n igh ttring ~,......"'n"'.,.,.·l led soo ti s. Th )yare ·

n ' ithiR a maj r community n~ completely independent ' and nutrient dyn mi s are

t of lichen on a cow dung pad.

tructureof a community

mmunity the , wnb r 9f specie~ and size ft. :Tf fU al\n Y<H _ -. at y. , ('( l!n "l 1 't r n a_:

C'r .everal s ecies.

~ t: t.n\i 1 e1 < c rs Ern i1 th characteristic of the co1nmunity as' ell as the pattern

f hiT!' i.1 .

The characterisb pattern of the community is : .::. ... ~ · .._;: c-C:L.C c.. I ". ; hi l is ' t .: .. n 1 c cJ ! ..

played ) various population, their range, the f rea t e~· j a it, the di 'ersity o f s ~;..: ie

in 1e mmum the spectrum of i1 ter bern een them.

co- ~s e

An ecosystem is defined as a structural and fun ional unit of biosphere consi ting of con1muruty of living beings and the physical environment, both interacting and exchanging materials bet-ween them ..

ro •stem · s a · complex set of r ] a tion~ 1ip among the living resources, habitats, and residents of an area. It includes plants, trees, animals, fish, birds, miGro-organisms, water, soil, and people.

EcOsystems vary greatly in size and elements but eadt is a functioning unit _of nature. Everything hat Jives in an ecosystem is dependent on the

r ecies and · f' mt:n . that are also pa~t ,f t a

ecological community. If one part of an ecosyst m

1 damaged or disappears, it has an impact on e rything else.

"yst m is healthy(~ .. sustainable) f> J ·m nt. livP in ~aJ nc~ ar d a e

, t Jves. Ecosys~m can tr oraslarg asentir fo ·st.

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iffr .n •1 tw .- vir H

osystern.

Components of Ecosy$lem

TI1e omponentsof thee osys t m is categorised ·nto abiotic of non-Hv.in · and · o · c of living components. Both the components of ecosystem and n rir 1 m e1 l re sam .

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1. mpo nt

Abjotic c m p onents are the inorganic and nonliving parts of the world. The abiotic part consists of soil, wa r, ai1·, and lig~t e~ergy etc. ll also in olves a ]ar~e number of chemical hke xvoen, rutrooen

tc. an p 1ysi al processes inc u ing volcanoes, earthquakes, floods, eforest fi.res, climates, ~nd w al r onditi ns.

A i tic factors a re th e m o st jmport ant determinants of where and how well an organism ex ·. L ·n v·rC' ent. Alt ough th e e ac o ~

intera t ith ach oth r, OJ e sin gl I tor an limit the range of an organism.

a) Energy

Energy from the sun is essential for maint~ance of life. In the ase of plants, the SW1 ire tly supplie the nece sary energy. ince animals cannot use solar nergy directly they obtain it indirectly by eating

plants r animals or both. Energy determines the djstril: uti on of organism~ in_ th_e en ironment.

b) Rainfall . .

Water is essential for all liVing beings. Majority of bioch 'nu al reactions tak p1a .in an aqu 0

m dillin. · ~ h lps l r gul, e bu ·Iy len r. i It. . .

Further, water bodies f rm th habit,pt f r many aquatk plants and animals.

c) Temperature

Temp r ·ture-isacritical fact r f th vinmn nt \. ; d b ... l t J · i ufl 1 ·' ;. · · , ! ·, 1 • • •

C"Jrga i.'m: • n tol , t o 1ly l1 < temp,~ratllrt' ctn i humidity. •

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wid v ri tysmall animals

ts f pl r -pw t and nutrients. Organisms

qu ~c. Terr trial animals live qu tic lants, animal and microbes live in

teras ell as in th s a. Some microbes live in h water nts under the s~a.

(i)

J J

at rials:

rganic compound such as proteins, r h} drat ~, lipids, h umic subsfances

are formed fiom inorganic compound on decomposition.

organi compound such as carpon,· carbon dioxide, water, suJphur, nitrates, phosphates, and-ions of v_arious;neta]s are essential fot: organisms to survive.

~£1 1 e a d a tihtde

Latitude has a strong influence on an area's emperatur~ resulting i~ change of climates such

as polar., tropical, and temperate_ 'These climates determine different natural biomes.

From seale;;eJto highe t peaks, wild life is influenced by altitude. As the altitude increases, he air becomes colder and drier, affecting wild life

accordingly.

2. Biotic Components . Biotic -components include living organisms

comprising plants" animals and microbes and are classified according to their fun~tiqnal attributes into

) 'on um r I t rotr ph uJ hct i oh

(other nou.rishin g) onsumers are incapable of producing th ir wn

food (photosynthes·s).

~ They depend on organic food derived from __ .m1ts, animals or both.

~ Consumers can be divided into two broad groups namely micro and macro consumers.

(i) Macro consumers

~ They feed on plants or animals· or both and are categorised on the .basis of th~ir food sources.

~ Herbivores are primary consumers which feed mainly on plants e.g. cow., rabbit.

);> Secondary consumers feed on pdrnary · consumers e.g. wolves.

);> Carnivores which feed on secondary consumers are ca1Jed tertiary consumers e.g. lions which can eat wolves.

);> 011ll1iY9.~~? .i:l:r~ .~~g~isms which consume both p~an san-d animals e.g. man.

C i) icro consumers - S aprotrophs (deco p sers or osmotrophs)

);> They are bacteri.u anctfungi-whit:h obtain energy and nutrients by decomposing dead organic substances (detritus) of plant and animal origin.

);> The products of d ecomposition such as inorganic nutrients which are released in the ecosystem are reused by producers and thus recycled . .

.. . -~ ... Earthworm and certain soil organisms (such as nematodes, and arthropods) are detritus feeders and help in the decomposition of organic matter and are called detrivores .

C~~ssification ,of Eco-system:

producers and consumers. - ----- ·-- - - - -- - -___ . ____ Natural. Ecosystem ·

I • a rimary producers - Autot.tophs (self-

n · • • g)

, rimary producers are basically green plants

r-..+.;·r.. bacteria and algae).

the ise carbohydrate from simple •Dr.tDI* rawmaterials like carbon dioxide and

pr en e of sunlight by the process PllmiD&lmtlnesis for therns Jves" and supply

r on-produ rs.

•• Terrestrial

~ • Forests

• Grasslands • Deserts

~-··· ·· ··········· .Aquftic·

• Fresh Vv t r • . Saline \-Vat rs

• .Marine VV ters

The detailed ·study .of e sy. h'm will b d !t .;_. th ~ubs u >nt ch. pt rs. •

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ECOLOGY

r·.2. ~i':fVIRONMENT gy is a sci ntific study of the reciprocal lationship_bet:Ween organisms (includiDg

microb s, plants, animals, mali) with _Evexyt~gthatsurroundsoraffectsanorganism • · vironm · nt. It dea)s with .the. ways in whi~ _4ur~ng tts hfe ti:me is collectively known as. its anis:ms are moulded by their environment, how · . env)ro~e~t whi~ .comprises both living (biotic)

they make use of environmental resources including. · .and n.onhvmg (abwtic) components. energy flow and m ·neraJ cycling. · · · All organisms(from vii-us to man) are obligatorily

The term ecology was coined only as ]a teas 1868. dep~ndent on the en ironment for food, energy

h been water, oxygen_. shelter and for other nee s '

lt as derived from two Greek words namel~ · · · · · ·m anin me or pla e to live in and ' logos'. The e iro men is d efined as ' t e su["l o a

meaning study. Litera~'y it is the study of the home of li ing, non- i\:ing comp onents; influence an ' of nature. . . ev~nts,. su~<?unding an organism .

Ecology is defined '' as a scientific study of the relationshi of the Jiving organisms "\"lith each other and with their environment."

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1.1 .• HISTOR~- OF ECOLOGY The roots of ecology lie in Natural History,

which is as o]d as human civilization itself. Since ez : history, man has indulged in ecoJogy in a practical sort of way, knowingly and unknowingly. In primitive societies .every individual was required to have an intimate knowledge of .his environment for their survival; i.e., about the forces of nature and of plants and animal~ around him.

Our ancient Indian texts have references to ecologica) principles. The classical texts of the _ Y~ic. period such as_ the Vedas, t}}e Samhi tas, the Brahmanas and the Aranyakas-Upanish~ds contain many re~ces to ecological concep~s . ..

1be Indian treatise on medicine,. the .CarakaSamhita and the surgical text Susruta-Samhi't~, s~w that people during this period had a good \U.\derstanding of plant and animal ecology. ·

These texts contaii) dassification of animals on the basis of habit and habitat, land in terms of nature of soil, climate and vegetation; and-description of pW\ts typical to various JocaJities. Carai<a- Samhita

· · fnrmn · n that air, land, W;)tP.r and 5<'flSOn

\CWiDEns b]e for 11fe and thnt po1Juted air and injurjous for health.

·1.2.· .·· C n ee . f e ·~ro e

·The re1ationship and interaction behveen organism _and envi~onrnent are highly complex. N? _organism. c~ hve alone without iJ!teracting '-n lh o tJ- e~ o rganlSrns. So each organism has other

9rganisms as a part of its environment. Each and everyJ;hing vvith which we interact or which V.Teneed for ur s ustenance forn s our e vironmenl. . .

The environment is not stat ic. Both biotic and abio:ic factors are in a flux and keeps changing contlnuouslv. .r

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ComP.onents of Environ~ent

.Abiotic Biotic

'Energy Green. plantS Radiation Non-green plants Temperature & heat flow D~composers \"later Parasites Atrnosp~erjc gases and wind Symbionts. Fire

. Gravity Animals Man Topography

Soil . :

Geologic substratum· . '

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ir nt t f pul ti js .group of ory,an i. .rn~ lly of

lh same sp des, crupying hn urm " a sp cific thne.

· I bi tic nvir nm nt consists of microscopic all d pl fl~8ft es weli as aquatic

nt and anim ls and decomposers.

nt mal environment of fish

It is enclosed by the uter body surface.

~ The internal envir nment is relatively stable as compared to the external environment.

~ However, it is not absolutely constant. Injury, :1 e s or e. ces ive s tress upse ts the internal

\ ·ro· e t.

· ~ For e.xample, ·fa marine fish is transferred to a frE~ 1 'ater environn1ent, it ·il not be able to

1. 0 LS SAT IO S

TheJTiain levels of organisation of ecology are six and are· as fo lov s .

?.1. Jndj "d

• Organism is an individual living }?eing that haS ability toact r function independently. It maybe ~ animal, ba t =-rium, fungi, etc. It is a body made r gans, organelles, or other parts that ~.~·ork

e variou! prr Cf'. ·• ~s of1if~.

Population growth r a t is th percenta c variation between the number of in dividuals :a population at two different times. Therefore the population growth rate can be p ositive or negative.

. The m_nin f~ctor: thut make pQptl lation grow are b.iJttl and 1IDm1gration. The main factors that make po~ulation decrease are death and emigration.

The main limiting factors for the growth of a population a~e abiotic and biotic componentS.

Populatio~ de!lsity is the relation between the number of ind_ividua]s of a popul ation and the area they occupy.

1.3.3. Community

If we lo_ok around ourself, we will notice that population o f p lants and animais seldom ocarr by themselves. The reason ior this js quite obvious. Jn order t~ survive, individuals of any one species depen~ on indi iduars of · fferent species ·i h which they active]y interact in several ways.

For eg: Animals require plants for food and trees for shelter. PJ_an ts· require an.imais for poUination, seed dispersa l, and soil microorganism to fa cilitate nutrient supply.

Communities in most instances are named after the dominant plant fonn (species).

For example : A gr ass land community is dominated by grasses, though_ i t m ay contain herbs, shrubs, and trees, alongwith associated animals of different _species. ·

A commu nity is not fixed or rigid; communities may be large or _small.

Types of Community

On the basis oi size and d gree of relative independence communities n'lny be divided into two types: •

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ter ~~:-J<."• ·

m 'lh orgCliW;ms whic ur · .1 , bundantly in thi ~ 7.0n "r> ,. , n_man! ,.. r 1 : >. t

1 1 't·. 1 'n a c. c .. p · r; n t 1 t rres na ceo ystl!m§eClg effe . . 11• ·

i n f f , fu I and fibr applicable to birds. 1 sp eta Y f h It rand building materials ;..

. l'Or example the density of birds 1· 9 g t . ti n fair and wat r h · d h hi f rea er m t e mtxe a tat o the ecotone between th. f t i.fi tion and d composition of wastes and the deserl e ores

ta ili:lati and moderation of the Earth's climate Niche · > d ration f floods, droughts, temperature

·tr m sand the forces of wind. A ~~c~e is the uniq2te funciional role or place of :> - Gl'ttt!f tion and rene~al of soil fertility, including:v::---,aro-. ~~p~e_aes ~ an ecosystem. It is a description of all ..

nutri nt cycling. the biOlogtcaJ, phys1cal and chemical factors that a ~ Pollination of ·plants, including many crops species needs to survive, stay healthy and reproduce.

Control of pests.and dise~ses A niche is unique for a species, which means no · :> Maintenance of genetic resources as key inputs two species have exact identical niches. Niche plays

to crop varieties and livestock breeds, medicines, an important role in conservation of organisms. and other products 1f we have to conserve species in its na tive

)> Cultural and aesthetic benefits habitat we shquld have knowledge abou t the niche Ecotone requiremen~ of the species and should ensure that

all requirements f ~ts rJd-e are fu lfilled . Ecoton is a zone of junction bet-ween h vo or more di erse ecosvstems. For e.g . the mangrove Types of Niche forests represent' an ecotone between marine J. Habitat niche- where it ]jves an terres ria e os),stem. Other examples are - 2. Food niche-what is eats or de:omposes & what gra'ssland, estuary and river bank species j cc . e es . 7

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-- - -- --· Ecotone- --- -- · Characteristics of Ecotone > It may be very narrow-or'<luite wide. );> It has the conditions intennediate to the adJacent

ecosystems. Hence it is a zone of tension. · · > It is linear as jt shows progre.ssive increase in

species composition of one in coming community and-a simultaneous decrease in species of the. other ouf going adjoining community. A well developed ecotones contain some organisms which.are entiz!!ly different from that of the adjoining comrn~nities.

,. So l:t · IH<: • tl c numLer of sp il:s nd tl population d nsity of some of the _species. is much greater in thiszonethan either commuruty, Thi -1 all d edg effect.

3. Reproductive niche-how and when it reproduces. 4. Physical & chemkai n · che - temperature, land

shape, land slOJ-te, humidity 8y other requ irement.

1.3.5. B~ome

The terrestrial oart of the iosoh ere is div isible into enormous regions called biomes, which are characterized, by climate, vegetation, animal life and general so.i] type.

No two biomes are alike. The climate determines the boundaries of a biome and abundance of plants and animals found in each. one of them . The most important climatic factors are temperature and precipitation.

COLD ..

WARM

NW~~-----------------------BJQJVIE Distribution b s 1 on mp ratur

• and Precipitation ~----------. ---- _______ .....

------------------------------------·------~--~-------·-------------------~----~--..

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Temperate

Deciduous

Forest

Tropical forest • ·

Savannah

rain

Grassland _ •

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una Devoid of trees ·except stnnted shrubs in the ~outhem rart of tundra biome, ground flora mcludes lichen, mosses and sedges.

The typical a~als are reindeer, arctic fox, polar bear, snowy owl, lemming, arctic hare pta~igan. Reptiles and amphibians are almos~ absent.

Northern Ell!'ope, AS!.~Bn&~-+>The dommatigg vegetation is conifero~s North America. Moderate evergreen·mosUy spruce, with some pine afid temperatur~ than tundra. firs. · Also known as boreal forest. The f~una co~sists of small seed ·eating birds,

hawks, fur bearing carnivores, little mink, elks, puma, Siberian tiger, wolverine, wolves etc.

Extends over Central and J1te flora includes trees like beech, oak, maple Southern Europe~ Eastern and cherry. N·orth America, 'Vestern Most animals are the familiar vertebrates and China, Japan, New Zealand invertebrates. etc. Moderate average temperature and abundant rainfall. These are generally t h e ~ o s t p r o d u c.t.Lv e ~ gr i cu ltura l are as of h e

...earth

Tropical areas in the equatorial regio:ns, which is abound vvith Jde. Temperature and_ rainfall high. . - - ~ ·· .

------· · :..:..:....:..:.::.:.:;;.: ·..::...:..·_· · ...

Tropical rainforest covers about 7o/o of the earth's surface & 40% of the world's plant and animal species. Multiple storey of broad-leafed e·v~rgreen tree species are in abundance. Most animals and epiphytic plants are concentrated in the canopy _or tree top zones .

Tropical region: Savannah Grasses with scattered tree~ and fire resisting is most extensive in Africa. - thomy shrubs. ··· ···· · · · ·

North America, Ukraine, etc. Dominated by grasses. Temperate conditions with rath r low rainfall.

The fauna include a great diversity of grazers· and browsers such as antelopes, buffaloes, zebras, elephants and rhinoceros; the carnivores include liof\ cheetah, hyena; and mongoose, and many roden.W t.- -- .· · ----·- -- ·-·----"-

Grasses dominate the vegetation. The fauna include large herbivores li~e bison, antelope, cattle, rodents, prairie dog, wolves, and a rich and diverse array of ground nesting bird.

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Continental interiors with The flora is drought resistance vegetation very low and sporadic such as cactus, euphorbias, sag brush. Faun : rainfall with low humidity. Reptil s, M mm ls and birds. The days ar very h t but mghts a cold.

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m ; how·cvcr. li zon s, with regions d anim Hfe. The major

n the v rious aquatic zones are , I v ls of dissolved nutrients, ~rater

th f sunlight penetratipn.

qua tic ccosyst m

Fresh Water Ecosystem

Characteristics

Fresh water ecosystem are dassified as ]otic (moving. water) or len tic (still or stagnant water). Lotic w.ater system includes freshwater s fie am· s, springs; rivulets, creeks, brooks, and rivers. Lentic water bodies include pools, ponds, some swamps, bogs and lakes. They vary considerably in physical,

c . .3.6. Biosp1tere::-----_::·:-~~~~!.

Biosphere is a part of th th _ . B' . e ear wher lif .

~XlSt. , l?sphere represents a highl r. e e can Jnteracting zone comprisi~g f Y mtegrated and hydrosphere (water) and litho~ hatmo(lsphere (air),

. p ere and). It IS a narrow layer around th f th lf . . e sur ace of the

ear I . th ~~ VlS~alise the earth _to be the size of an app e e Iosphere would be as thick as its skin.

Life in the biosphere is ~btifiafl!ll betWeen 200 metres { 660 feet) below the surface of the ocean and about 6,000 metres (20,000 feet) above _sea level.

----<--+~hemicai and biological- --_ char~cteris tics.

1arine Ecosvstein

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Estuaries

,

Nearly three:_ · quarter of earth's surface is covered by ocean with an average d epth of 3,750 m and with salinity_ 35 ppt, (parts p·er thousand), about 90 per cent of which is sodium chloride.

Coastal bays, river mouths and tidal

. :m~r~}:les for~_th~ estuarie-s. ln estuaries, fresh water from rivers . .. . meet ocean water and the two are mixed by action of tides. Estuaries

· are highly productive as compared··;o the d'ac~t river or sea.

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Biosphere

··---------Biosphere" is absent at extremes of the orth

and South poles, the highest mountains and the deepest oceans, since existing hostile conditions there do not support life. Occasionally spores of fungi and bacteria d~ occur at great height beyond 8,000 metres, but they are not metabolically acti e, and hence represent onl 'dormant life .

T-he energy required for the _life within the bi_osphere co:ines from the sun. The nutrients

-----necessary for iTv'lng-organismscoine from air, water . and soil. The same chemicals are recycled over and . over again for life to continue. .

Living organisms are not uniformly distributed throughout the biosphere. Only a few organism live in the polar -r-egions~ while the ·tr pi~~l rain f r s have an exceedingly rich diversity of plants nd :mima1s. •

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FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

·.

i .n of an· system is a broad, vast llnd mpl t dynamic system. It can be tudi d under the following three heads.

flovv

utrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)

Ec ·logical succession or ecosystem development

2.1 ENERGY FLOW En~rgy is the basic fprce responsible for .all

ic a j i ti es. Tl flow of energy fron1 co ·-u e rR L · ,J e e e rg_ ' flow

c · 1 al.

The· study of Trophic level interaction in an · -· ~ E te:r 0}pes an i ea 0 1. • l E ener gy fl ov~·

t.hro.ugh the ecosystem.

2.1.1. ropnic level inte~ction -T 0ph"~e-Hnteracfon de Js ith how the r e . e rs of v ecosystem are corJlected based· on nutritional needs.

1 Autotrophs

11 Heterotrophs Herbivore (primary consumers)

m He~rotrophs Carnivores (secondary con u m ers)

IV Heterotrophs Carnivore (tertiary consumers)

Heterotrophs - . . '

Energy flows through the trophic levels: fr.om producers to subsequent trophic levels .. This" energy always flows from lower (producer) to higher

erbiv01e, carnivore etc.) trophic level. lt never flows in the reverse direction that is from carnivores o rbivores to producers.

re is a loss of oome energy in the form · o{ a at each trophic lev 1 o that energy

t I. firr t r J j }·· : np . ~H 1

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As a resun ·there~~ usnmty four or fi"\\"e h hie - . levels. ~d seldo~ more than six as beyondupthat very ~ttle energy IS left to support any org~m. Trophic l~vels_are numbered accord~g to'the steps . an organism IS away from the source of food or energy, that is the producer.

The trophic level interaction involves three concepts namely :-1.· Food Olain

2. Food Web

3. Ecological Pyramids

2.2. OOD CHAl Organisms in the ecosystem are related tq.each

o er Ll-tro g. !'ee j g nTe anism o tr E s, i.e. one organism becomes food for the other. A . ~- e ce of org<'rr· sm~ at fee en one ano er, form a food chain. A food chain starts with prod ucers and ends With top carnivores. _ ·

The sequence of eaten and being eaten, p roduces transfer of food energy and it is knuvvn as food chain. The plant conver ts so]ar energy into protoplasm by p otosynthesis . ·-- ·- - ·-

Small herbivores consume the vegetable matter and convert them into animal matter. These

. herbivores are eaten by large carnivores:

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r t d ins hav

rs whi :h start th food chain, utilising as their food, constitute the grazing

:1 d1ain b gin. from green plants at . rimary consumer is herbivore.

Grazing Food Chain

For example, In terestriat-ecosystem, grass is ea en up by caterpillar, which is eaten by lizard and Jizard is eaten _by snake. .

~l .. -:.qu~tic tcosystezn pry to Janktons {primary p .. oducers) is eaten by zoo plank tons which is ~a ten by fishes and fishes are eaten by pelicans.

ii. Detritus food chain - . . -'The food chain starts from dead organic matter

ci decaying animals and plant bodies to the mlcrcr g and U n to detritus feeding organism ~ed

·r an to ot er prPch-Itor~ .

, ot r f' nf f Tl('f y ihl f od chaiii

matt i or d · tritu .

-----·--·~UN . TIONS OF -- ANEosys ·M·

- two food ch ins are linked - -. -. -. ....:_:..::.:.:.:._:... $Our~ for d tritu food .h .· . .-The lnltial n rgy

• , C <Hn lS th \ , and dead organic matter fro th ~~ te mntc j<l

. m e grazmg food chain 2.3. FOOl:> WEB . .

A food chain represe~ts or\J · . . . . · . . or energy flow through Y one part of the food

an ecosystem and im · li ~imple, isola'ted relationship, which s~)do ~- ~sa m the ecosystems. . m occurs

An e~osyst~m ~ay consist Of sevefal interr~lated food chams. More typ. icallv the sam f d . · • · J' e oo resource lS part of ~ore than one Chain, especially when that resource ~sat the lower trophic levels. ··

uA food web illustrates, all possjble transfers of energy and nutrients among the organisms in an ecosystem, whereas a food chain traces : only one pathway of the food". ,._ · ··

If any of the intermediate food chain is removed, · the succeeding Hnks of the ch?in will be affected largely. The .. food web provides more than one_ alternative for food to most of the organisms in an ecosystem and therefore increases their chance of survivaJ. · ----------- --.. --- - -.--

For example, grasses _may serve food for rabbit or grasshopper or goat o:r;- cow. Similarly a herbivore may be food SQurce for many different carnivorous species_.

Also food availability and pre'ferences of food of the organisms may shift seasonally e :g·: · ·p~ "'a'f .

watermelon in summ~r an_q peaches in the 'Wint r. Thus there are interconne~ed networks off eding relaUonships that take the fo~ of food webs.

If any of th in rmedi~te food chain·is r t;n ved, the ~u cc ling Iinke; of th :hain. ~ · 1 be afkded lar ly. 'l ht• f()()d w l> proviJ s mur,· U\ 1 e • d · l:1

• food to rn s~ of tl1 • >rg ni ·ms in L n n • td th r for • in 11 • · :1h ar :h. f u


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miv r f nn th tip. Oth r 1 in b twc n.

nsi ts of a number of horizontal Hie tr phic levels which are_

uenti Ily from primary producer level rbi 9

[" I runivoreon'\ 'cltds; -:fhe lt:llglh of ret>re:;ents the t tal number of individuals

vel in an ~ osystem. nun;ber, bion~ass and energy of organisms

duall decrease with each step from ~e producer 1 1 to the c nsumer level an~ the- ·diag~ammatic representation assumes a pyramid:shape . .

T e LO] gic;:~l pyr n i s are of three categories.

1. P)-ram · d of numbers,

Pyramid f biomass .. and

)> · 3. Pyramid of energy or productivity.

)Tami of .. urn ers.

11tis deals with the relationship b~tween the .1' ... :. ~ • _ ; t- rim<:.I) t' 1::: t: · cers · d - S'.JJJ us of d ifferent levels. It is a graphic represen~~tion of the , • ... . j, : . ~ t.r i1 · · · · ue:.ls cf · i(ertr s_p:cie::;, be onging to each trophic level in an ecosystem.

Depend ing upon th e s ize and bjom ass, the p_· a id of numbers may not always be upright, and may even be completely inverted .

z.. y:-amid o f l1 1m ers- -prigh•

;> In this pyramid, the number of individuals is decreased hom lower level to higher trophic level.

~ This type of pyramid can pe seen in grassland ecosystem.

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xt high r tr phic l _ v n m r- h ~bivor ( ampl grasshopper).

> Til individ.u 1 numb r f grn!:shoppcr i~ less than thnt of grass. The n x "ncrgy 1 v 1 is primary carnivore (example - rat).. ·

> The number of rats are less than grasshopper because, they feed on gras~hopper. The nex; higher· trophic level is secondary carnivore (example -snakes). They feed on rats.

. )> The next higher trophic level is the top c<lrnivore. (Ex.Hawk). ..

)> .. With ea.ch higher trophic level, the number of indiviaual decreases.

(b) Pyramid of numbers - inverted

)> In this pyramid, the number of individuals is increased from lower level to higher trophlc level.

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Hyper-p;or~ e' ·. :::··.-· . ..· \---..-~--~-~~~~~-

> A count in a forest would have a small numberof-- --large producers, for e.g. few number of big trees.

)> This is because the tree (Primary producer) being few in number and ·would repr~sent the base of the pyramid and the dependent herbivores (Example- Birds) in the next higher trophic level and jt is followed by parasites· in thenexttmphlc leveL Hyper parasites being at hlgher trophic level represen~ higher fu number.

)> And the resulting pyramid is in inverted f>hape. A pyramid of nu~bers does not take into. ~ccount the fact that the si:t.t:: of rgani ms being (' tf>d in c>ach trophic lP ' t~ l C;> '"n'

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rr ch individuals in each trophic level are i instead of b ing counted. 1bis give$ us a

n"U"'~n'l·d f biomass, i.e., the total dry weight of an anisms at each trophic level at a particular time~

· Pyramid of biomass is usually . determined by col1ecting all organisms occupying each trophic level separately and measuring their ,dry weight. This. overcomes the size difference problem because all ' .kin s of org"anisn1s ~t a trophic level are weighed. Biomass is measure~ in glm2.

(a) Upward pyramid

For most ecosystems. on land, L'"le pyramid of 1 ma. , has a ;:n e ba. e oJ prjmary producer with

a ~maller trophic level perched bn top.

Pmnory C cmtvorf!

Producers

Upright Pyramid of Biomass

The biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the maximum .. The biomass of next trophic level i.e primary .consumers is less than. the producers. · Th~ biomass of next high_er trophic level i.e secondary consumers i~ less than the primary consumers. The top, high uuphjc le. el has vtry less amount ofbiomass.

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In cont~ast, in many aqua'tk -:-eco.,._ f b • ~stern~ the

o 10m ass may assume an m· J t d .f, . ver e orm.

... -. ., .. ~

This is because the producers are t iny phytoplanktons that grow ~d .z:eproduc~ rapidly. · ere, he p ramid of b·omass has a srna ase,

with th~ consumer biomass at _any ·instant actually ex ~ceding ti1e p roducet biv.:J:ass anct--the-pyrarni<Y- ·:..._:·_ .. :...· · assumes in~erted shape.

2.4.3. Pyramid of Energy

To compare the functional roles 6£ the trophic levels in an ecosystem, an energy pyramid is most su j t~ble. An energy pyram · d, reflecls t e la\. ·s of thermodynamics, with conversion of solar energy to_chem.ic:al energy and he·at energy at each trophic

· level and with loss of energy being depicted at each transfer to another trophic level. Henc~ the pyramid is always upward, with a Jar-ge energy .hase at the bottom.

Let us explain this with an example. Suppose· an ecosystem receives 1000 calories-of-light enetgy-rn-a-- --given day_Most of the energy is not absorbed; some

··is· reflected back to space; of the energy absorbed only a small portion is utilised by green plants, out of whkh the plant use~ up some for respiration and

f the 1000 calories, the~efore only 100 cjl}ories are stored as energy rich materials:

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Pyramid of energy

'\.V suppose an animal, say a deer, eats the plant containing 100 cal of food energy. The deer uses some of ·u rits "rn etabo ~ . and stQr s only 10 cal as food

.. on at eats the deer gets an even smaller amount of energy. Thus--usable energy decreases

1 sunJight t produ er t -n eroi ·ore to cam.i ore. Therefore, the energy pyramid will always be upright.

Energy pyramid concept helps tc) explain the phen menon of bio og)cal magnification-the tenancy or OY. c ~ ~tances o · crease i co ce ation

progressively at higher levels of the food chain.

2.5 POLLUTA TS Al D TR PH C LEVEL

Po1lutants espedaJ!y n eg a a Je o es mo e thro gh t e Yarious trophic evels in an ecosystem.

Nondegradabale pollutants mean materials, hich cannot be metzbolized by the living organi ms.

Example: chlorinated hydro~arbons.

We ~re concerned about these phenomena because, ogether hey enable even small concentrations of chemicals in the environment to find their way into org_arusins in high enough dosages to -cause problems. •

1ovement of these pollutants involves two main processes:

Bioaccumulation .. B iornagnification.

2 .1. Bioaccn.mulation

lt el rs to how pollutants cntet a· food chain.

n ioaccumulation there is an increase in tt oiapoJJutant fr m th nvirorun nt

r ani min ' f od f'hain.

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Biomagnific

»- Biomagnification r f •rs to th t d . rnJlutantstocon (>nfrilt a tJpym n frn(y Of

. ov rn n trophic 1 vel to th n x . ·

);:- Thus in biomagnification ther 1·s . . • . an mer as ln co[ ~dcentr~tion of a pollutant from one link in ·a oo cham to anoth r.

Biomagnification

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In rder for biomngn ifica =o o o ui, he pollutant t:JlUSt be: long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats, biologically active.

If a pollutant is short-lived, ]t will be broken down ~clore_ it can become dangerous. If it is not moJ:>ile, it will st~y in one p lace and is unlikely to be taken up by orga.Jiism~. If the pollutant is soluble in water, it will be excreted by the organi m . Pollutants that dissolve m fats, however, may be retained for a long time.

It is traditional to measure the amount of . pollutants. in fatty tissues of organisms such as fish. In mammals, we ofte test the n · r tl

y fern es, ince t e n1i ~ s o• of fa t i1 i nre often more .susc ptible to damage fr rri t ins (poisons). If~ p Uutant is not activ bi 1 ally, it may biomagnify, but we really don't vorry ut it inu , since it probabl w n't cnn , y r bl m ~xarn 1 ; DT.

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-Biotic Interaction

s..No.. . Species 2 Type Spices 1

J..._ Mutualism .. (+) (+)

. Commensalism . (+) . . (0) ..

3. Competition (-) (-)

. Predation. (+) (-}

5. Paras.l~ism (+) (-)

6. A.mensalisni (-) (0)

7. Neutralism (0) (0)

( +) Benefited . . (-) Hanned

(0). T,;:• ... er B- 1ef.t ·d c: .c. n e .

2.6.1. Types of b~o~c intera~on

r .l.a a 'sm: o · ,speci~s be efi .

T: Y3 . Je: ·in -poll" a ti o m u tua sm s, e pollinator gets -food (pollen, nectar), and the plant has its poJ}en transferred to other flowers or cre ss-fertilization (~eproduction).

r Commensalism: one species benefits, the other 1s unaffected .

Example: cow d ung provides food and shelter. to dung beetles. The beetles have no effect on the-cows. . . ..

> Competition: both species are harmed by the interaction.

Exarr.ple: if h\'O .• pedes eat the same food, and there isn't enough for both, both may have access to Jess food than they would if alone. They both suffer a shortage of food

> Predation and parasitism: one species benefits, the other is harmed. · . .

Example : predation- one fish kills and eats arasitism: tick gains benefit py suck]n . blood;·

t is harmed' by losing blood.

AIIRCJIIAI m :One species is harmed, the other aHected.

shades a small plant, of the smalJ plant. ·The

1 rg : t1 (·. fit or harm

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NCTIONS Y T M ·• • t ra tions, the CQsts and ben fits . d b cl

expen n c y efl 1 Ra~er are. ex_actly th e same s tha t

they su~ to zero. It is not. deai how often this happensmnature. Neutralism is alsosom ·ti. d . . b d h e m s

esc:1 : as~~ e relati<:>nship between two . speoes inhabl~g the same space and using the same resources, but that have no effet.--t on each othe;- _In !his _case, one could argue that they aren t mteracting at alL

2. 7. BIOGEo c·HEMICAL cYCLE . . , . . .

The living world de·pends upon the energy . f.low and the hutdents circulation that occurs through ecosyst~m. Both influence the abundance of organisms, the metabolic ra~e at w hich they liv e, and th,~ e<:>mplexity of the ecosystem. ·

Energy flows through ecosystems enabling the organisms to perform various kinds of w ork and this energy is ~ timately lost as heat fore er in tenns of the usefulness-of the system. On the other h an d, nutrients of food matter never get used up. They can . ·..,e re ·-yc e rtgai, arid -g2in indefinitely.

For e.g. when we breath e we ~ay be inhalin.g~--sever al .million atoms of elem ents that may h ave

•been inhaled by our ancestors or o ther organisms.

C a rbon, hydrogen, o x ygen , nit r ogen an d ph osphorus as elements and compounds make u p 97% _ 9f the m ass of our bod ies an d ar.e more than 9 ~o of the ma~s of all li ·ing organisms. ln addition to these about 15 to 25 other elements are n eeded in some form for the survival and go_Qg_heaJth .of plants and animals. · .

These elements or ririneral nutrients are always in circulation moving from non-living t<? Hving and then back to the non-living con1ponenfs of the ecosystem in a more or less circular fashion. TIUs circular fashion is known as biogeochemiCal cycling (bio j o,; living; geo for atmosphere).

2.7.1. Nutrient Cycling

The. nutrient cycle is a concept that describes how nutrient;S move from the physical environm ent to th e li in g rganisffi:S,. and subs u 1 tly recy 1 back to the phY.,sical environment.

This movement of nutrients fr o m th enviro:unent into plants and anima ls and again back to th environment is ess ntial fo r life and it is th vit ' l fun ti n of thf> ec l ~v of anv reo ion. In p rtiru' .r nvironment, t n1aint lJl .it · ~~ u a su . ta· ed mann r, the·Im tri n t ·I n u ;t

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Nutrient cycling_

son. 1\umu.! and miMrols . :. . .

T'_rpes of utr· ent Cycfe

}> Based on the replacement period a nutrient cycle is rt!ferred to as Perfect or Imperfect cy cle.

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A perfect nutrient cycle is one in which nutrients are replaced as fast as they are utilised. Most gasec s cy cles are generally considered as perfect cycles.

In contrast sedilnentary cycles are considered ·relatively imperfect, as some nutrients are lost from the cycle and get locked into sediments and so become unavaila.ble for immedi_ate cycling.

Based on the nature of the reservoir, there are two types of cycles namely Gaseous and sedimentary cycle . . . --

eou Cvc1e - where the reservoir is the phere' or the hydrosphere, and ·.

,._.. ..... · ..... entary Cycle- where the reservoir is the ·•. ru .

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2.7.2.

L t u fir t study som f th rn . t iU\port n g s us cyd s; na~ely - wat ' orb nan nitr g~n. (a) Water Cycle (Hydrologi )

Water as ~ important ecological factor detennmes the struchue a d fu . n

nchon of the ecosystem. Cycling of all other nutrients is also dependent upon water as it provides their transportation during the vad~us steps. It acts as a solvent medium for their ~take. of nutrients b_y ·or_g_anisms.

The hydr<?logiccycleis the continuousciiculation of water in the Earth-atmosphere s),stem. which is driven by solar energy. Water on our plan~t is stored in major reservoirs like atmosphere, ocearu, lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfields, and groundwater. Water moves from one reservoir lo · another by the processes of evaporation, transpirati on , conden.sa ti on, p ecipita f o n , .ep osi i0n , n o , . infi ltra ion, and gro nd1 -ater flow.

·· Water Cycle .. L_ __ ~------~---:----'

(b) Th~ Car~on Cycle

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Carbon is a minor constituent of ·the atmosphere as compared to oxyge~ ~d nitrogen. However, without ca:rb. n ~mode l.i.fi u}dnotexist, ca 1t1s 'l .al r • the production of carb hyd:at s thr gh_ phot synthesis by pl_an ·. lt 1 th 1 m t that... dK,>rsallcrgam.r sul.:-·t.m - d oil t NA (d oxyri

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p of photosynthesis, and then llft)re;:s of respiration and_decomposition

.nr.~-v-·_ matter it returns back to atmosphere. It art term cycl .

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Carbon Cycle

Some carbon also enters a long term cycle. It accumu ates as u..'l- ecomposed orga.J ·c matter i e peaty layers of marshy soil or as insoluble carbonates in bottom sediments of aquatic systems which take a long time to be released. ..-.

In deep oceans such carbon can remained buried for millions of years till geological movement may 1ift these tocks abo ·e ~ea ]e';el. These rocks ma} be exposed to erosion, releasing their carbon dioxide, carbonatesandbicarbonatesintostreams.and rivers.~

_ Fossil ~such as coals, oil and natural gas etc. are _ organic compounds that were buried before they could be deoomposed and were subsequently transformed by tiJ.ne and geofogical processes into fossil fUels. Whe-n they are burned the cat bon stored in them is released

ack into tr..!! a ospl cr~ as carbon:dioxide.

e ilrogen Cycle

itrogen is an essential constituent of protein · a basic building block of all living tis~ue. It

CGDIIIIII. tuft!!& y 16% by weight of all the proteins.

st~lt.: ~ l-'1} uf l ilHJ~t.'J 1 m nt 1 fonn c~ 1 not

t of the Jiving organisrns .

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Nitrogen fixation on earth is accomplished in three different ways: · ·

(i) By microorganisms (bacteria and blue-green· algae)

(ii) B · rr.a. - c-in g L. d"uE- t1iz.l T':c-·E.sses 'fe:~:Iizer

• factories) and

(~ii} To a limited extent by atmospheric phenomen n such as thunder and lighting

The amount of Nitrogen fixed by man thro gl- in t:st:rial rocess as far e. ·ceed ed the amount fixed by the Natural Cycle. As a result Nitrogen has become a po11utant which can disrupt the balance of nitrogen. ltmay lead to Acid rain, Eutrophication and Harmful Algal Blooms.

Certain microorganisms are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium ions. These include free living nitrifying bacteria (e.g. aerobic Azotobacter and ana~r-eb-ic-Clo.sttidium) and -~ymbiotic rutrifying bacteria living in association with legumi"nous plants and symbiotic bacteria living in non leguminous root nodu le p1a ts ( .g. .izobiui · s ">'e I as 1 ~ e gr e algae Anabaena, Spirulina):

Ammonium ions can be directly tak n up as a source of nitrogen by orne plan'ts, or are oxidized to nitrites . or nitratPs by · two groups of specialised bacteria: Nitro om na ba t ria pr m te traJ fom''' iuH Jt i.l.ll~H • J. ... th •nfurther trnn form dint Nit rob ct •r. ·-

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li~ of soil nitrates, being highly r, lost to the 'ystem by being y by stiff~· e run-off or ground

s n swell as oceans there are special ~ cteria ( .g. ;pseudomonas), which

. . nitrates/nitrites to elemental nitrogen. · llu n1tr g n escapes into the atmosphere, thus

mf 1 ting th cycle.

. The ~eriodic thunderstorms convert the gaseous rutr gen m the atmosphere to ammonia and nitrates ·hi . 1. · _ntu lly reach the earth's surface through

rr l f 1 a n a d then into the soil to be utilized by I ants.

The main storage for phosphorus is in the earth's · crust. On land phosphorus is usual1y found in the form of ~hosphates. By ~e proe~ss-of-~eathering and eros10n pho~ph a e enter rivers and stre 2 ms

·that transport them to the ocean.

·In the ocean once-the . os ho s CI CC1Jm1 1 a t?-~ 0

·con?nental shelves in the form of insoluble deposi ts. (\ ~~ . illi f r-..u r m ons o ye<ns, th e c-u ~ta plates 1i~e freT.!-. lh e

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sea floor and expose the phosphates on land . After m o re time, weathering '\'\~ill release them fro rock ·- -and the cycle's geochemical phase be~s again.

2.7.3. Sedimentary Cycle

Phosphorus; ·calcium and magnesium circulate by means of the sedimentary cycle. Th~ element involved in the sedimentary cycle normally does et c_:de through the atmosphere but foJlows a

basic patte~f..flow ihrough erosion, sedimentation, mountain building, volcanic activity and biological transport through theexcreta of marine bi!ds~ -(a) Phosphorus Cycle ·

(b} SulphurCyde

The sulphur rese1 :·oir is L'l the soil and sed imeJ ts where it is locked in organic (coal, oil and peat) and inorganic deposits (py rite rock and sulphu r rock) in th_e formofsulphates, sulphides and organic sulphur.

It is released by weathering of rocks, erosion a 1 runoff and decomposition of organic matter and is carried to terrestrial_ and aquatic ecosystems in salt solution. · · · · · ·

Tilesulp ufcyc1e 1s mostly sedimentary exc~pt two of its compounds hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and sulphur dioxide (S0

2) add a gaseous component to

Phosphorus plays a central role in aquatic··· ···· · its normal sed!mentary cycle. . .. ecosystems and ater quality. Unlike carbon and Sulphur enters. the atmosphere from se eral

g i xocpriman1y from l1 e atmosphere, sources !ike volcanic eruptions, combustion of fossi l. - ·---phorus occurs in large am0unts as a ~eral in fuels, from surface of ocean and from gases released

hat rocks and enters the cycle from erosion · l?Y de.composition.Atmospherichydrogen sulprude g activities. This is the nutrient considered also gets oxidised into sulphur dioxide. A tmo ph ric

Of excessive growth of rooted su1 phur dioxide is carried back lo th r~ rth · fter · oscopic plants in lakes. . being dissolved in rainwat r as weak u1phuric cid .

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Sulphur Cy~Je

h source, sulph 1 r i1 the form of e u by r a t and inco porated

trOt: .. 3 ri of me~a r C p OCESSeS in O S 1lphur b aring ?mino acid which is incorp01;ated in the

roteins of autotroph tissues. It then-passes through e-g z.j, . g ood am.

. bo nd in r j g 0 sm jc:; carrie back to the soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakes and seas through_- excretion and decomposition of

ea organic material. The Bio-geochemical cycles d iscussed h ere

are only a few of the many cycles present in the eco ystem . Tnese cycle usually do not per ate mdefe:tdent]y bu t interact with E.'ilCh other a some point or the other.

2.8. SUCCESSION Succession is a universal process of directional

ar·gc in \ C;g<:t aliun, u an ecologi al time ' 1 Succession oc~rs when a series of co~ unities

replace one another due to large scale des~ction ei r natural or manmade. This process continue~one community replacing another community,_ tmtil

bl , matur community develops. :, I ·s '- psugrc~s1v~ ~t:!1cs of c l.allg~.::s

t l}, · !>t«Jbli!:.hrn •nt of a relatively stable

omr u ity.

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· Ecological Succession

2.8.1.. Primary Success ion

Jn primary succession on a terrestrial site he new _si te is first colonized by a f~w hardy pio eer species that are often microbes, lichens and mosses. T e p ioneers over a fev,r genera io .s <1 ter:l.e .. ab ita! conditions by their. grow th and development.

These new conditions may be conducive to the estab1ishrnent of ad ditional organisms that may subsequently arrive at the site. The pioneers through their death any .decay leave patches of organic matter in which small animals can Hve. ·

The organic matter~ produced by these pioneer species produce organic acids during decomposition that dissolve and etch lhe substratum releasing nutrients to the substra_tum. Organic d~bris accumulates in pockets and crevices, providing soil m hich seeds can become lodg d and gxow.

As the cmnmtmity of or-ganisms continue to develop, it becomes more diverse and compe_tition increases, but at the s ame time new ni h e

opportunities de elopE.-. The pioneer sp des di nppear as th habi~

, t 1 di tim ~: c <P t;t.. ~.- n d i'J 'o~~iu d l ' F ' :c • ~ d' lh 1..,.,. mnn t of the· r o g - s c.6, It, a . 111 g t o r p en. "

pr ceding c mn unity.

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s i n is the sequentiAl f i ti ommunities after the

J p rti I d struction of the existing unity. Am tur or. intermediate community

d troyed by natura) ev*:?nts such as floods, h~ fires, O!,. storm~r by human intervent!_ons

defoxcstation, agriculture, overgrazing, etc

This abandoned farmland is first invaded by h a rdy species of grasses ~at can survive in bare, sunbaked soil. These grasses may be soon joined _by tall grasses and herbaceous plants. These dominate the ecosystem for some years along with mice, rabbits, -insects and seed-eating birds. .

Eventually, some trees come up in this area, seeds of which may be brought by wind or animals.

0\'cr the years, a forest community de_velop s. Th g an abandoned farmland over.a period .l?~comes

~ n- u·.at 'y trees an is transformed mto a fores t

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bet~m prim ry and secondarf lljlielldfm, th secondary successi n starts n a

,.,.,[email protected] i1 alieady formed a t th ... ite.Thus· secondary succession is relatively foster as compared to primary succession which m ay ft ej1 requite hundreds of years.

2.8.2. Autogenic and Allogenic Succession

· When succession is brought about by living inhabitants of that community itself, the pioa?Ssis c:alled au~c su~cession, while chnnge brought about by outm'ae forces is known as allogenic Succession. _____ _

2.8.3. Autotrophic a~d Heterotrophic ~cr~~oo •

Succession in which, initially the green plants are much greater is ~antity is known as autotrpphi~ ·Succession; and the ones in whi¢ the heterotrophs are greater in quantity is known as heterotrophic succession.

Succession would occur faster in area e~sting in the middle of the large continen t. This is because, here all propagules or seeds of plants b elongjng to the different seres would reach much faster, establish and ultimately result in climax community.

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CHAPTER-3

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS

The interrelations between organi_sms and environment on the land constitute ~Terrestrial Ecology". Dl}e to variation in

the topographic features of valleys, mountains arid sl pes, ertain differences occur. These differences are reflected in both the material and biotic diversities. Altitudinal and Jati tudinal vaFiations cause shh'is and · differ nces in the climatic patterns. Due to varied c1i 2 e, the plant and an·mal life existing in different t r cstri 1 · xeas ary ·.vhich result in differentiation of ecosystem as segments within the large biosphere. The mo~t · m portan t Hm · ting· factors of the terrestriaJ

. ecosystems are moisture and temperature.

The v;ord hmdra means a "barren land" since U1ey are found where environmental conditions are

. very severe. There are two types of hllldra- arctic <!.fld a~pme·.

> Di5tribution: Arctic tundra extends as a continuous belt below the polar ice cap and above the tree line in the northern hemisphere. It occupies the northern fringe of Canada, Alaska, European ~ussia, Siberia and island group of Arctic Ocean. On the south pole, tundra is very small since most of it is covered by ocean.

Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains above the tree line:-Since mountains ·are 7ou_n_d af"all -latitudes therefore-alpine tundra shows day and night temperature variations. .

) Flora and fauna: Typical vegetation o(arctic tundra is cotton grass, sedges, dwarf heath, ~illows~ birches and lid1ens. Animals of tundra are reindeer, musk ox, arctic hare~ caribo~·s, lemmings and squirrel.

Most of themhave1ong life e.g. Salix arctica (i.e) arctic willow has a life.sp~ of 150 to 300 years. They are protectPd from chi11nes~ by the presence of thick qmde and epic:lermal hair. Mammals of the tundra region have large body size and small tail and ear

~ to avoid the loss of heat from the surface. The body

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is covered wilh fur for insulation. Insects have short life cycles which are completed during _favourable p_eriod of the year.

3.2. FOREST ECOSYSTEM . .

The forest ecosystem includes a complex assemblage of different kinds of biotic communities. Optimum conditions such as temperature and grolll!d . moisture are responsible for thE esl List e of forest communities.

The.natur.e.of soil, dimate and local topbgraphy determine the distribution of trees an their abundance in the forest vegetation. Forests mav-·be· .

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evergreen or deciduous. They are distinguished on · the 9asis of leaf into broad-leafed or needle leafed .. coniferous forests in the case of temperate areas.

The forest ecosvstems have been Classified into .r

three major categories: coniferous forest, ter.1pera e forest and tropical forest. All these f rest biomes are generally arranged on a gradient from north to south latitude or from high to lower altitude.

3.2.1. Coniferous forest (boreal forest):

~ Cold regions with high rainfall, strong seasonal climates with long winters and short s-ummers aie characterised by boreal coniferous f~rest

)> . This is characterised by -evergreen plant species_ such as Spruce, fir and pine trees, etc and by aJli.mal::; ··ucl1 Js t 1 Jyn: , '·c lf, 1 , !' f , porcupin~ squirrel, nnd am1 h.ibi;u\5 like Hyla, Rana, et(! · ·

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. nutri nts. d r min ral deficient. nt of large amou~t of

ugh th il, without a significant r-upward movement of ~''aro:l!t~

luble nutri nts lik calcmm, mtrogen tas~ium which are leached sometimes

h<l>' •~d the reach of roots·. This process leav~s n alkaline oriented cations _to encounter the

r anic acids of the accumulating litter.

The producti ity.and community stability of a real f rest are 1 'ver than those of any other

forest ecosystem.

. 2..2. Temperate deciduous forest:

Y. The t~perale lor~sts are characterised by a rat ·· ·ll'1 ~ -n · r·o d-le fe deciduo 1s

trees, which shed their leaves in fall; are bare over winter and grow new .foliage in the spring.

r t: p c'p1 a ··ivll ·s a ·riy unilom ll roughout.

? ~0 ·1c: 'T e ate . re~ s il re p 0d ozo1ic a d fairly deep. . .

3 . ~.3 . Temr era e e rer green forest: · ----- --·

> Farts of the :W.orld that have Med iterranean type of climate are characterised by warm, dry ~ummer, and coo}. moi t winters.

r- Tnese are commonly inhabitated by low broad Jeafed evergreen trees.

)> Fire ·is an important hazar9ous factor in this ecosystem and the adaptation of the plants enable them to regenerate quickly after being burnt.

. . 3.2.4. Temperate rain forests:

The temperate rain forests exhibit a ma~ked easonality with regard to temperature_ ar.::l

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biotic div rsity of t ·mpcrat rain fore ts i~ high as comparerl tooth r t ' rnperate fon:.-st. Howev r, the diversity of plants and animals is much low as compared to the tropiCal rainforest .

3.2.5. Tropkal rain forests:

')> Tropical rain forests occur near the equator.-

}> Tropical rain forests are among the most diverse and rich communi ties on the earth .

)> Both temperature and humidity remain hlgh and more or less uniform . . .

)> The annual rain fall exceeds 200 em and is generally d istributed throughout the year.

)> The fl~ 1y ~ed-· .. , .. .. ";_:: ·~:.:· · .. .....

)> The extreme dense vegetation of the tropical rain fores s remains ertically stratified \Vith tall trees often covered w ith vines, creepers, lianas, epiphytic orchids and bromeliads.

')> The lowest layer is an unde~s tory of trees, shrubs, herbs, like ferns and palms.

;· -- sor-ot tropical rainforests are red latosols, and they are very thick.

)>_ The high ra te of leaching m akes the~e soils virtuaily useless for ·a·gnrultural purposes, bu t' when left undisturbed,. the rapid cycling of nutrients wi thin the litter layer, formed due to decomposition can compensate for the n atural poverty oi the soil.

)> Undergrowth is restricted in many areas by-th-e--- -lack of sunlight at ground level.

3.2.6. Tropical seaso!'al forests: )> Tropical seasonal forests also _!<nown as monsoon

forest occur in n~gions where total annual rainfaJJ is very hlgh but segregated into pron01mced wet and dry perf'ods. . .

- ~ This ki.n.d of f01·est is found in South East Asia,

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central and south America; northern Australia, we5tem.Africa artd tropical islands of the eaci.fic

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-u ·tro ·i al.r~ for~sts f fairly high rainfall b~at

iff r nce5 belween ·winter

iph are common h~re. nimaJ life of subtropical forest is very similar

to that of tropical rainforests.

.3 . . INDIAN FOREST TYPES Indja has a diverse range of forests from the

rainforest of Kerala in the south to the alpine pastures f Ladakh in the north, f~om the deserts of Rajasthan

in the west to the ev.ergreen forests in the north-east. Climate .. soil type, topography, and ele~ti?n_~re th~ main factors that determine the type of forest. Forests

aried according to their nature and composition, "le _-pe of climate in which they thrive, and its

relationship with the surrounding environment.

Forest types in-India are classified by-Olampion and . eth into sixteen type~. ~ ~ · rr. • -- 1 u r t · ..... (XU>.f>Jl-·ferests· · · · · · · · · '· · · · · ... · ~ . . . +J:&}plc~ ",'e ~r0---

\ et evergreeniorests are folllld along the Western Ghats, the Nicobar and Andaman lshmds and all along the north-eastern region.lt is characterized by

·> TEJilRESTRIAL E OSYSTEM -:. 3.3.3. Tropicall\loist deciduous forest --

lv1oist d.eciduous forests are founr~ th gh 1 cl' . t.h . 4 rou out :.r.' .. · ~~ ~--~xc.e.e~ .m ~· western and the lJ.9rt.h-western regxon~. The trees are tall, have broad trunks; branching trunks and roots to hold them firmly to the ground. Some of the taller trees shed their leaves in the dry season. There is a layer of shorter trees and evergreen· shrubs in the undergrowth. Th~se forests are domina Led by sal sod te,ak, .along wH:h mango, baxpboo, and rosewood .

3.3:4. Littoral and ~wa:mp

Littc:>ral an~ swamp foreSts. are found aio~g the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the delta area of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. They have roots

. .t~at consist of soft tissue so that the plant can breathe in the water. ·

3.3.5. Tropical Dry_ deciduous forest

Dry deciduous forests are found throughout t1 e northern part of the country except in the North-East. It is also· found in ·Madhya Pradesh, Gu ·a rat, An"dnra Pradesh, Kamataka, and Tamil Nadu. The canopy of the trees does not- oorma11y excee-d 2~ me res. The common trees are t)le sal, a variety of acacia, .and bamboo.

3.3.6. Tropical Thorn forests

tall,. straight evergreen trees. The more common trees . This type is found in ar-eas-:wi-thi:IJ.ack soil: North, hat are fou:1d here are the jackfruit, betel nut palm, Wes , Central, ;md South lnd ja. The trees do not

jamun, mango, and hollock. The trees in this forest grow beyond 10 metres. Spurge, caper, and cactus form a tier pattern: shrubs cover the layer closer to are typical of this regjon.

·-n\e ground, followed by the short structured trees 3.3.7. Tropical Dry evergreen forest

and then the tall variety. Beautiful fern of various Dry evergreens are found. a}ong Tamil Nadu, colours and different varieties of orchids grow on Andhra Pradesh and Kama taka -coast. It is mainly the trunks of the trees. hard-leaved evergr~en trees with fragrant flowers, 3.3.2. Tropical Semi-evergreen forests along with a few deciduous ~rees.

Semi-evergreen forests are folind in the Westem--~.3.8. ·sub hoplcitl-Broad: leaved forest-s

Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Broad-leav~d forests .are found in the Eastern Eastern Himalayas. Such forests have a mixture of Himalayas and the Western Ghats, along the Silent the wet evergreen trees · and the moist dedd"uous Valley. There is a marked difference in th~ forin of trees. The for~t is dense and is filled with a large . vegetation in the .two areas. In the Silent VaHey, the ariety of trees of both types. poonspar, cinnamon, rhododendron, and fragrant

grass are predominant". _In the Eastern Himalayas, the flora has been badly affected by the shifting cultivation and forest fires. These wet forests consist miliuy of ev~~green trees with·a sprinkling of deciduous here and there. There ur oak, ~ er, chestnut, birch, and cherry trees. There ~re a la.q;e variety of orchids, bamboo and creepers.

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·ons.

ev.•~!l"t ft.rtSts no y have a prolonged cold winter. It generally

.UII.-!.-...n. s ith shining leaves that have Joo . Th forests are round in the

...,.,V111.,··~r Hills and foothills· of the Himalayas up to a . .

..... u···~t of 1000 metres.-

ontane Wet temperate forests

In _the North, Montane wet temperate forests · ound in the region tQ the east of Nepal into

. 1 a a Pra ~ - , recei ·ing a minimum rainfall of 2000 mm. Jn the Nort.h, there are three ]ayers of

• ? • st : t.I- c: higher ayer as mainly conifero s, lhe middle layer has deciduous trees such as the oak . d h~ le> e~t a ?er ·s c0ve ed bv r ododend on and ch~_mpa.

. .: .e - d· 1 i 1 . Q ir 2f 5 C e: ·wgiri Hills, he higher reaches of ·Kerala. The forests in •he r _hern region are denser than in the South. Rho9odendrons and a variety of ground flora can be found here. ·

3.3.1 . 1-Iimalayan 1oist ernperate ores1

This type spreads from the Western Himalayas to the Eastern Himalayas. The trees found in the western section are broad-leaved oak, brown oak, alnut, rhododendron, etc. In the Eastern

imalayas, the-rainfa.l is much heavier and therefore the vegetation is also more lush and dense. Thereare a large _variery of broad-leaved trees, ferns, and bamboo. Coniferous trees are also found here, some of the varieties being differE;Ilt from the ones ~ound

th.

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im I Y n ry temp rate rest . typ j found in Lahul, I<innaur sa.L:_ d

th rp ftheHim . , IAI'.Uil, an . . alayas. fhere ar pn~c.lonlinantl

omf rous treeFJ; illong with broad-) aved trees s J: jun

s t;he oak, mapJe, and ash. At higher elevation fir lper, ~ odar, and chilgoza are found. , '

3.3.14. Sub alpine forest

Sub alpine forests extend from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh between .2900 to 3500 metres. In ~ Wef ~~~ Hithataya-s,-the veget~tion CUilSists

~al Y o JUmper, rhododendron, willow, and black currant. In the eastern p<rrts; red -fir, black juniper bi~ch, ~d .Iar0 are the COI_nmon trees-:-bue to heav; rainfall and high humidity the timberline in this part is higher than that in the West.-Rhododendron of m·any·species covers the hills in these parts.

3.3.15. Moist Alpine scrub

Moist alpines are found all alo;ng the Himalayas an d on the h igher hills near t.l e Myanmar border. It

·}las. a low scrupt dense evergreen fores( consjsting -m ainly of rhododendron and bircn.Mosses and ferns cover the ground in patches. Tills region receives heavy snowfall .

3.3.16. Dry alpine scrub

Dry alpines are found from about 3000 metres to abotn 4900 metres. I:h..varf plants predominate, mainly the black juniper, the drooping ·ju n iper, honeysuckle, and willow.

Importance of Forest

From air we breathe, the food we eat to the paper and wood we use; we depend on forest directly or indirectly. With~ut forests rnc:>st of the are~ would have been deserts · }> Forests keep up the naturaJ balance. }> Forests purify the air }> Forests provide micro climate }> Forests indirectly play a role in precipitation_ }> Forests prevent floods r Forests prevent soil erosion }> · Forests provide inedidrial properties }> Forests provide us fuel ~d timber > · Forests provide raw materials for industries

. 3.4. DEFORESTATION Indiscriminate felfing of trees as a result of

urbanization, industri~tion, mi~g operations, and use of wood fo, domestic and ~~er purposes, hav~ caused heavy depletion of forests .

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quirements

The in ~lf.eas~g demand !or fire\..,·ood with ever growing populatiqn inqeases greater pressure on the forests, which results in increased intensity ·o£ deforestation.

4) Raw Materials

}> Wood is used as a raw material¥by various industries for making paper, plywood, fuiniture, tp@Lch stids, box~s-, crates, packi.I)g cases, et·~~ .... ---

Causes of Deforestation

3.4.1: Causes

J S i P · g cu fiv- tion.:

> In this practic~ a p~tch of. land is cleared, _ , . eSEI LJtio~. i~ ::nped an' L~ e ash L n•ixed with the soil thus-adding nutrients to the soil.

lnd~stries also obtain1:their raw IJ?.alerials. from · plants such as drugs, scents a.nd perfumes, resin, gums; waxes, tuwentine, latex and rubber, t~s, alkaloids, _ _bees wax.

)> This exerted tremendous pressure on forest ecosystem and theirunreshicted exploitation for various other raw materials is the main cause of degradation of the forest ecosystem.

5) Other Causes

)> Deforestation also results from overgrazing, agriculture, mining, urbanization, flood , fire·, pest, d_iseases, defence and communication actiirites .. _ .... ... ,_._._ .... .. . --=-=-

3.4.2. How it affects? 1rus patch of lanci is used for raising crops for - two to three.y~ars, and the yield is modest.

)> Closed forests (based on canopy level ) have Then this area is C'l andoned and is )eft to recover . . being diminished due to deforestation leading its fertility, and the same practice IS repeated __ __ __ _ t9 increase in degraded forests. eJsev~ here on a fresh p·ece of )and . "

r Forests recycle moistu re from soil into their All that is required for this method of cultivation immediate abnosphere by transpiration where is a set of simple tools, not high level of it again precipitates as rain. mechanisation.

2) development project:

The human population have increased considerably, so with their requirements.

Development projects like the hydroelectric projects, large dams and reservoirs, laying down of railway lines and ~oads are_ not only extremely beneficial, but they are also linked with several envirorunerital problems.

Many of t11ese projects require 1mmen~e dt:lvrt:5lation.

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> Deforestation results in an immediate lowering of ground water level and in long-tenn reduction

.. . . .. . . of precipitation.

>:- Due to deforestation, this natural reuse cycle is broken and water is lost through rapid run off.

)> Much- of the minlng acfiVlty m ]ndia"is bem_g_ carried out in forest ~egions. The obvious result is deforestation and erosion.

)> UndergrO\mdmining also significantly den:udes forests because timber is used for supporting the

·roofs of mine galleries. :. · ·· ·· · · •

~ A large number of abandoned mines are l~g in bad shape and are under extensive gully erosion leading to degradation of the habitat .

.» Deforestation affects th~ biota and neighbo~g ecosystems, soil (>rosion, land degradation, alteration of ground wat~r cha.Jlnels_, polluti n and scarce.

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Vfla•,....ation f r lion in r t limat

, th y f und mainly in th high r st oflndi 's grasslands are mainly

f t pp d savannas. :"))t''Dt:l~ forznati 11 O~CupyJarge rea~ Of Sandy

oil; in west rn Rajasthan, where tl:te is mi-arid, average rainfall is less than 200

year with a dry seas~n oflO to 11 months, an~· variation in rainfall. · _ .

1he soil is always exposed~ so~etimes rocky b.ut· more often s. dy' 1 ith fi'<ed or mobile dunes . Forage is available only during the brief wet season. The grass layer is sparse and consists ma~uy of annual

nss s cie~.

n t . cc.:1tra nnd a~ tern· p · r.ts of .Rajas han, where the rainfall is about scm rnrn-per year and the dry season is of six to eight . mon~hs, dry sav~a &r~:d. & co~ ·steJ:. ha·;e ue.'e qp' . '?"h e Jig. shade cast by the sparse population · of trees like W1t ri ·rosvfis t.j e ari ) fuvvurs the gro -.·L f the grasses.

The major difference between steppes and sa 'annas is that all the fo nge in the steppe is provided only during the brief wet season. whereas ·:-the sa ·an as forage is largely from grac::ses that no only grow during the wet season but also from the smaJler amount of regrowth in the dry season.

3.5.1. Types of Grasslands .

Based Ot:\ climatic conditions th~re are six types of grasslands found in the different regions of .the Indian subcontinent. Four major types of grasslands are discussed here.

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t NOt A

. . . SEBIMA,DlCH1rN.

bt6kAN;..CENC.·t.A·SI.

PHR~G • ..sACCH.·tMP.

, A~ 1'HEM.·A~l.Jrm .

~ o ·TEII.Ar-ERATE.· ALPIN

~ : • ~·~EO ZON£; OF T 3-3

1) .dry ~~b humid zone m1e Sehima-clichanthiunl type)

):> It covers the whole of peninsular India (except f'ilg,ill).

):> The thorny bushes are Acacia catechu, mimosa, Zi:z.yphus (ber) and sometimes Deshy Euphorbia, along with low trees of Anogeissu labfolia, ·soymida febri.h.iga and other deciduousspe.cies.

,. Str irna (grass)is more p t: ' :;: cnt on grtl· ·el and th cover may be 27%. Dichanth.ium (grass) flourishes on level soils and mr:~y co ·er 80% 0f the grou d.

2) semi-arid zone (The Dichanthium-cenchruslasi trrus type)

r lt co er the nor! ern portion of Guj;na t, Rajasthan (excluding Aravallis), westem-Httar Pradesh, Deihl and Punjab.

):> · The topography 'is broken up by h.ilJ spurs and sand dunes.

):> senegal, Calotropis gigantia, Cassia auriculata, Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora oloides and ziz.yphits NummuJar· a wh · ch make the sa anna rartgeland look like .~crub .

3) moist subhumid zone(The Phragmitiessacchrum.::imperata type) ..

~ It cov rs the Ganga alluvial plain in Northern Jndia .

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t'Oiuaanas•tnCI•h,....tk!ll·areAcada arabica,Qnlpa, Bu a monospenna. Phoenic

tris Zizyphus nummularia. Some of h cue iepJaced by Borassus sp in the palm · vann~ especially near Sunderbans. . -

The Themeda- ArundineiJa type .

)- This extends to the humid montan~ regions and moist· sub-humid axeas of Assam, M~ipur, West Benga~ Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Prade'Sh and Jammu and Kashmir.

};> The savanna is derived from the humid forests on aero 1t f, hifting cultivation and sheep grazing.

3.5.2. .Economic impor ance of grasslands

}> India teems with arUmals of a11 shapes and sizes fr J1 -~a - Ll.ff 1 es ~o s~ eEp's and tJ ere ar millions of them.

)> The livestock wealth plays a crucial role jn Indian life_ [t-is a major source of ftrel, draught power, nutrition and raw material for village indushies.

~ This huge mas~f-l~tock needs fodder for s ~stenance ul • ere is not e1 ough of it.

}> Only about 13 million hectares in the_ country are dassified as permar1ent grazing lands. On top of it, they exist in a highly degraded state.

};> Grassland biomes are important to maintain the population of many domesticated and wild herbivores such as horse, mule, ass, .CQW,

pig, sheep, goat, buffalo, camel, deer, zebra, etc. which provide food, milk, wool, hide or u:ansportation to man.

> Indian Grasslanps and Fodder Research Institute1 jhansi and Central Arid Zone Research institute, Jodhpur. · ·

3.5.3. Impact of grazing

> Due to heavy grazing pressure, the quality of grasslands deteriorates rapidly, the mulch cover of the soil reduces, microclimate become:;· more dry and~ radiJy invaded by xerophytic plants.

Due tu absencE: of humu!> co-..-~.:I, wi.J&era] soil surface is Jie~vily· trampled when we!~e.;s

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·:· TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM ~ produces pud~ling of the surface layer. In -tum Jt reduces the J~fi]tration of water in~n :!he ~il and accelerates 1ts run off, producing drought.

> These changes contribute to lhe reductiun of energy flow, and the disruption of the stratification and periodicity of the primary producers. It results in a breakdown of the biogeochemkal cycles of water, carbon and nHrogen.

~ Water and :Wind erosion· completely deteriorates • ~i}'assland mi-sH~chmate.-

}> Intensive gra2.ing results in increased areas of b·are soil, which creates a new habitat for burrowing animals sucJ:t. as mice, jack-rabbits, gophers, prairie dogs, locusts etc., which rendei large areas of forage lands sterile.

3.5.4. Role of fire

r fire plays an important role in the management of grasslands.

> ·n er moist conditions fire favours grass over trees, whereas in dry conditions fire is often necessary to maintai grasslands agains t l~ e invasion of desert shrubs.

-; -B·1Hr.ing irrc:reases the ·forage-yi e tds·, e :·g .:- · . Cynodon daotylon.

3.6. DESERT ECOSYSTEM >- Deserts are formed in regions with less than

25 em of annual rainfall , or sometimes in hot regions where there is more rainfall, but unevenly distributed in the annual cycle.

> Lack of ram m· the mid latitude is often due to stable high -pressure zones; deserts in temperate regions often lie in "rain shadows'~ ;-that is, where · gh mountpins block off moisture from the seas . .

> The climate of these biomes is modified by altitude and latitude.·At high altitudes __ ~d _?t . greater distance from the equator the deserts are

.cofd ~dhot near equator and tropics.

}> The perennial plant species like creosote bush, cactus, fetrocactus are scattered throughout the desert biomes.

> In shallow depressed areas with ·salt geposits sarcobatus, geesewood, seepwood · ~nd s,alt gra·sses are common.

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3.6.1. Adaptations-

Desert plants are und~r hot and City conditions.

(") These Jants onsene wa r y foJ owing m thods:

·c a:e. s y _h n.lvS. ..... ... > Leaves are absent or reduced in size.

Leaves and stem are succulent and water storing.

some plants even the s em conta ins chlorophyll fer p otosynthesis. Root system is well developed and spread over :~rge ar a.

The annuals wherever present germina te, bloom and reproduce only _during the short rainy season, and not in summer and winter. This is an ada ptiqn to desert condition.

(ii) The animals are physiologica1Jy and behaviorally adapted to desert conditi ons.

,.. lbey are fast nm.ners.

> They are nocturnal in habit to avoid the sun's h~al during day time.

> They conserve water by excreting concentrated urine.

> Anjma}s ang birds usually have long legs to keep tile body away from the hot ground.

Lizards are mostly insectivorous and ·can live without drinking water for several days.

Herbivorous animals get sufficient water from whkh they eat. •

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.)>. The winter rains of northern 1ndia ra~ely penetrate into the region. ·

)> The cold season starts from about the middle of . .·. No~ember to the middle of. March. )> ··· This season is characterized by ~xtreme

varia t.ions of temperature and the te perature is frequently below freezing point at night.

)> Dudng Apdi to June . the heat .are _intense, frequent sco rch ing winds preva il W ith grea t desiccating.

)> The rela ti ve humidity of the atmosphere is · alw.ays low.

J.> The climate is hostile to all vegetahon, only plants and .<! imals r()~se . s ·n. ~ ,ec:!3L nr:L"r a t i0. ~

being able to establish themselves.

(a Flora

These ada.pl ations in general are of two types, having two dis.tinct objects in view: to enable the plant to obtain vat r, and to retain it vl.~n obtain d.

)> The bulk of the vegetation consists of a kind of scrub made up of shrubs and perennial herbs, capable of great drought resistance.

)> There are a "few trees and these are stunted and generally thorny or prkkly, thus protecting tl emsel 1es ag insl plant feed ing anin a1 .

The proper desert. plants may be divided into two main groups.

i) depending directly upon on rain and .

ii) those depending on the presence of subterranean water.

Tne first group consists of two types:

)> ·depending dire!=lly upon on the rain are of two types- the J ephernerals' and the ram perennials' .

)> The ~phemerals C!re delicate annuals, apparent!Jr ftee from any. xerophilous adaptations, havfug slender stems and root-systems and often Jarg

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. to sOme of India's most magnificent

0 I· • : , ~.!> - J S<il•d · ry :or a · arisn\ · ·c ir , e Great 1ndi~ Bustard .

n.m ng-th mammal fauna, the b lackbuck, wild ass, chinkara, car~cal, and grou e and de ert fox inhabit the open plains, grasslands, and· saline ciep .e~- · on~.

r The nesting ground of Flamingoes and the only o 'Tl p_spulation of As·atic wild Ass lies in the

remot e part of Great Rann, Gujarat.

,. lt is the migration flyway u~ed by cranes and flamingos.

_orne endemic flo ra species of Thar Desert inc udes Calligonum Polyg onoides, Prosopis cineraria, Tecomella undulate, Cenchrus billorus

• and Sueda fruticosa, etc.

3.6.3. Cold Desert/Temperate Desert

. llu. 1 .. I . ; · • · d ladi.tk, ld1 I I · tUrur nd" it i a lley of Him'<I'Chal

ra..._...,. and some part$ of northern Uttaranchal

·::_Tl~ RRE. TI<JAl. : '() ·y TEM .:, --allcl Pikkim. Th('. ari<l ar ·as ur t aff ·t d y nw lnd i;m mon: n ? •c, u ·c th ·y li •inth r:lin-~;h< 1 low >f th • l timoli1yan mo~rn t ai n sy ·t ms. .

'haract ri sed by x tr m cold w ath r and d nud d terrain th y a re n ot suj table for p lant g r w th . Jso.lated, s atte r d and ov r grazed h erbaceous shrubs ar found . mzing period is Jess than 3-4 rri. rnths.

The flora and fauna is unique to the are11 . Oak p in e, deodar, biich ana rhoOoaendrori a"re~ important trees and · ~u shes found there. M ajor ani,m al indude yaks, dwa rf cows, and goats:

3.6.4. Cbar.acters

> Severe arid conditions - Dry Atmosphere

Temperatu re Jess an 00 C for most o f the period,' drops to - SOoC d u ring winter.

> insigruficant m onsoonal- Mean annual rainfall Jess tJ-,an 400mm

> Heavy snowfall occurs etween Io ·ember and march.

> oil type- sandy to sandy loam

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Soil nutrient- Poor organic matter<:antent

Soil has low water r ten bon capncity.

> Vind erosion is more comnton.

Jil r0 ~ gro\· ·n g peri o d ; mo~ t }" wri :· b fhe : JJnmer.

> Due to aforesaid e~ treme cold conditions grow th of vegeta tion is s low and-of-stunted nature.

Bio-diversity

'old desert is the om of highly adaptive, rare endangered fauna, such as Asiatic Ibex Tibetan Arg_ali, Lad_akh Ud yal, Bh aral, Tibetan Antelope ( h nu), Tibe tan Gazelle, Wi ld Ya k, Snow Leop~d, Bro~ Bear, Tibetan Wolf, Wild Dog

-and Ttbetan Wtld Ass ('J(jang' a close relative of ~e Indian w_ild ass) , Woolly-hare, Black Necked

rane, etc. .

'old deser~comprises o! alpine mesophytes and desert vegetation. _

.D~ t mp rature zone : B tula utilis, Sali ~pp. Juruperus recurva. . Alphine zone": Junipers, Birch, Rhododendron .· j Jl r:,. ... , "( ~ Pf'rpehHll snow :1 rw No ,·rg t. ti n d.u f1 pennan ntly frozE·n s i l. • ·

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aus s '» P ulation pressure

1cr ·a~e in attle poJ ulation )> J a~d a riculture

\elopment activities f re tation

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.7.1. Status of Ind.ian desertification

t nti.1l dt f>t'rl

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r e- _ · en :0 an ... an D eg a 0

tlas of India, 2007, the perc.entage of country under _ ry -, 's !s 69.6%. Th~ ·te>tal · re<l lll"!cleT going the process of }and degradation in India is 105.48 million ~ec ares, w ich cons itutes 32.07 percentage of Jndia's total land area.

81.45 million hectares area of the country is nc!u d~:sertification I and d egr a d a I io n \ •i II in

drylands). The details of drylands und e rgoing desertification are given below: ·

~id 34.89 million hectares Semi-Arid 31 .99 mil1ion hectares Dry sub-humid

Control measures

14.57 million hectares

India as a signatory to United Nations Convention to Combat f)esertification (UNCCD) · has c:ubmitted four National Reports to UNCCD in the years 2000, 2002, 2006 and 2010. The fourth · report was submitted in the year 2010. The National Action Programme for combating..desertification' wa prepared in 200l_to take appropriate action in. addressing the problems of desertific~tion.

Some of the major programmes currently implemented that address issues related to land

plK-btion and desertification are-

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Int ';t It- J W. 1 (IWMI ), Nnli t t i n t•nw r, rnr e (NAP),

N< ti narMic: ion f r Cr . ia ( ,JM ,

)> Th Me h a tma an hi National Rur I Employment ~arant S hem (M NR S),

)> Soil onservation in the a tchm nt of River Vnlley Pr ject and Flood Prone Riv r,

)> National Watershed D v"e}opment Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPKA), ·

)> Desert Development Prog·ramme (DDP)

)> Fodder ·and Feed Development Schemecomponent of Grassland D evelopment including GrassReseives, Command Ai-ea Dev~ppment and Water Management (CADWl\1) programme etc.

3.7.2. Afforestation

)> The d esert region s of Rajastl <l n, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Trans-Hirrialayan regions are in scarce of vegetation.

)> · Peo le equ · re fj re wood, ti . er and fe>dder for their domestic consumptions nna livestock

)> Presence of vegetation revents the soiJ erosion and modifies the hostile climate.

)> !' esf.' ~ f o es t a io is i:1c.·: ~l-:.r i 0n c to modify the climate, desertification and to meet the demands of people living in that reg ·on .

Problems for Afforestation )> Hostile climate.

)> Shallow, sandy and ston, soil

)> poor moisture holding capacity

)> Poor nutrient s tatus.

)> Wind erosion.

)> Grazing pressure.

Unless swift to conservationm asur ·s are tak n apd proper employment opportunities are found .. for the.Jocal people, the increasing density of the human and cattle population in trust:lesert area will inexorably lead to further desertification.

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CHAPT£ft .. 4

AQ~ATIC ECOSYSTEM

Ecosyst ms onsistlng<?fwater·as the.main • habitat are .kno~ as aquatic ~c?systems.

Aquatic ecosystems are class1fied based n their salt content. · ·.

i) Fresh water ecosystems~ The salt_ content of fresh bC' ·es is very low, a lways less than 5 ppt (parts per thousand). E.g lakes, ponds, pools, springs, streams, and rivers ·

n Marine ecosv terns- the water bodies containing salt concent~ation equal to or above -that of sea -v.rater (i.e., 35 ppt or above). E.g shallow seas ai 0 en 0 ean

at:J<is water ~cos _ stems- these 7ater bod· P~ have salt c-<>ntent in between 5 to 35 ppt-. e .g. estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps and forests.

4.1. AQUATIC ORGANISMS The aquatic o rganism s are classified on ihe basis

of their zone of occurrence and their ability to cross these zones. .

The organisms (both flora and fauna) i n the aquatic ecosystem are unevenly distributed but can be classified on the basis of their life form or ]oration into five groups

i) Neuston:

);> These are unattached org~Tl1sms which Jive at the air-water interface such as floating plants, etc.

> Some organisms spend most of their li,•es on top of the air-water in_terface .such as . ·: ~ er striders, while others spend most of theu hme just beneath the air-water interface and obtain most of their food within the wat~r-

• E._g., beetles. and back-swimmers.

P~riphyton:

1bese are u.)!an.isms which remain ~ttach~d to tans . .nd le;ves of rooted plants ot substances

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emerging above the b9ttom mud such as se;sile algae and their associated group of animals.

iii) ·Plan·kton:

iv)

This gr oup include bo th microscopic plants like. algae (phytoplankton) and animals like cru staceans and protozoans (zoop ankton) foun d in all aquatic ecosystems, except certajn swift moving waters.

Th _loco m otory ower f th · 1 nK o s :s limite d so that their distribution is controlled, Ia .ely. b C1 ents · the aq 1a ic eco .. :~te s Nekton:

T his group contain$ anima s which are swimmers.

'The nektons are relati\·e y large and powerfu l as they have to overcome the w ater currents.

The animals ange in size fwm e s ': ming insects (about 2.mm long) to the largest animals, the bJu·e whale. ·

v) Benthos:

~ The benthic organisms are those found living in the bottom of the water mass.

~ · Practi ally e ery aquatic e osystem con tains well developed benthos.

4.1.1. Factors limiting the Productivity of Aquatic Habitats

Sunlight and oxygen are ·most important · limiting factors of the ·aquatic ecosystems wh€!€as moisture and temperature are the main limiting factors of terrestrial ecosystem.

Sunlight: .

~ Stinlight penetration rapidly diminishes as it passes down the column of water. Th~ dep~ to which light Pf'netrates a lnke det rmmes the extent of plant distribution.

);> Based on light penetration and plant distribution they are dassi~e~ as photic and a _photic iones --

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