Environment & BioDiversity by Shankar IAS Academy Part 1 of 5

5/24/2018 Environment & BioDiversity by Shankar IAS Academy Part 1 of 5

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S NK R l S C DEMYPl t o.1742 lst lo r 18th MainRo ad rma J : a g ~ , Olen nai- 60 040.

Phone: 044-26216435 64597JZ1 43533445 Mobile 4 4 4 1 6 b rw w w s h a n k a r i a s a c a ~ e m y c o i n .

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Facebook Group: Indian Administrative Service ( Raz Kr)


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. - ----SD4 CMS richn and endemiSQl as well as of agro-biodiversity, India, with only

m s u p p o r t s ~ ~ astounding 8.1 of the world's i o d i v e r ~ i t y She also supportsa ~ W e l l a s 18%of-tlieworld's cattle o p u l a ~ o n . In fact, an estimated 70o/o of India's

eDlmCJaent locally on natw:al ecosystems for subsistence means of livelihood, including fuel,J, 'att:'r, d s e c u r i t y o f ~ e a l t h . C o n s e q ~ e n t l y the country's biodiversity faces immense pressure

b vironmental problems n India are growing rapidly. The increasingeconomic developmentand ar 1 'ing p I 1 ation are putting a.strain on the envirorunen t, b od versi ty, and the country's na ra

re ourc s. IndustJ:ial pollution, soil erosion, deforestation, poachfug, rapid indust?alization,_~ r b a n i z a t i o n- a1 d u e g r a d a t i ~ n are all worsening-problerns. Overexploitation of the country s resourc s, b it and o

h < 1 ~ r e ~ u ted n the environmental degradation . There is so far a positive of information for the student and general public on Environm ent.

I a1n pleased to therefore ~ t r o d u c e this book ENVIRONMENT'', 1 hich covers on EnvironmentaE o o gy, Bio-di ersity and Climate Change 'tNTfh reference to In d ia, a pioneering attempt by thS R K R lAS A C A L J E ~ Y presented in a ~ o n c i s e and visually appealing format to raise the level o

r n ~ w l e d g e and awareness among the people from a H v ~ ? l k s of life.This book is exclusively prepared for all aspirants who prepare for Civil Services x ~ m i n a t i o n an

other Competitive exams.

ccwe N e e d E c o l ~ g i c a l Grow.th-Not.Mere Economic-Gr-owth' .--- -uNature P r ~ t e c t s fShe Is Protect.edn

LLTHEBEST

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D. SHAI'iKARDIRECTOR-SHANKAR l S ACADEMY



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. . .. us Year UPSC Q u e s t i ~ . n paper analysis .............................. .................... ......: ..... ................; ...:. ;,i. . . .P RTI

ENVIRONMENT E OLOGY. . .1. ECOLOGY - -. ..............3-9, J . . PY OF EC LOGY . .. .... . ........... ........: ... ....... : .................................................................... .3

r ENVIRONMENT & ITS COMPONENTS ................................. ................................................. 3... . .. 0 . . . . . . . 4

1 r I ~ ' s OJ: \ 1 rros 'Sl F .... - . _ j - ... ~ .. . ..... ....... ......... ...... . , .. .. .... ..... . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . - . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . ...10-20> ENERGY FLOW .................... .................................................. ... --------.............. ........ ....10. .> fl10D CHAIN : : ....... .... .... ....... ........ .. ......... ....... ............................. ..... .... ..... .........10r FOOD vVEB ...... : ........................... .............................................................._.......... ...... .... ... .. ........11> ECO O G J J . . . t - P Y A A ~ 1 D .... .. .... .. ............ ............... ....... ........ ........ .... .... ........ .. ... ..... ... ... . ..... .12> POLLUTANTS & TROPHICAL L EVEL ... ................ .. ................. ............: ........... .................... 14? BIOTIC JNTERACTION ........ .... ... ... ............... ... .................... .. ......................... ............. ............. 15

BIO-GEOCHEMICAL CYCLE ................... ....................... .... ~ : . ~ ~ ~ ~ : : ~ - - - - ....... .......................15;... ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION .... ............. ......... .... ............. .......... ........... ............................ .... ...19

3. l 'ERRES fRlAL ECOSYS EM ......................................: ........................ .............. ...........................21-30> TUNDIZA ... ............................... : ............. .................................................. _ .................. ..... ............21> FOREST ECOSYSTEM . ....... .. .. .. .... ................................................................... : . : ~ . . . : ........ ..... 2f_

}> INDIAN FOREST -ra.r PES .......................: .............................................. ..... , .........: ...................23)>. DEFORES'fATION ...................... :.,._. ..... .............................................................. ... .................... 24> G R S S l N D E OSYSTEM . ................................ ......... .......... ... .....- .............. ... .... .................... 26, DESET


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N. . . .......... .................. ..... .............. . . ....................34................................................ ...... ... .............. ..... ..... ... ...... ....... ..................: 37' N ERVATI N PR RAMME................................................ .40

l t::t\1 ....... . .. .. . .... . . .._ . ........ .. .. ....... - .......................... 11 1 .. .. ... ...... .. ... .. ... ...... ........ .... ........... .................................... .. ......... .... 43

F, .. ..... ..... ........... ........................... ... ........: ...... ..: ... . ................................................ 45... ..... ... ................... .... ................................................................................ 46E T ASTAL ENVIRONMENT ..................................................... 48

1 P tJTJON .................... ...... .. ... ....... .. .... ........... ................ ............. .. .. ........49-70l iT NT ......................................... ...................................................................................... -49

............ '-' -' ............... ..........-...................................................................................................... 50 :>( _ l . 1TJ yN .. ..... ......... ... .... .. ... .. ... ...... ....... .. .. ... .. ..... .. .. ... ........ ... ....... ... ...... . - . FL ASH ............ , ........... .. ........ .......... ........................ .... ........... '......................... .................. 52 .. ... - o .. .... ... ..... ............... ... .. :: ........ .... ... ......... ... .......... ............. .. ..... .55> \\ATER POLLUTION .. ...... .. ..... .................. ..... .. ..... ...... ......................... , .. ......... ........ ... ............... 55

....,IL . LLU .f lO ................ ................................ .. ........................ ..............................................5bISE f>()LLliTION ....... .... ... .. ... ... .. .. .. .. .. , .. .. .. .. ... .... ...... ...... ....... .... ... ... ..... ............. .. .................. ..60DIO CTI E POLL TIO I ............ .. ........... ... ... .... ...... .... ......... .. ... ... .. .... .. .... ... ......... ....... .... .. 61

);:- E-\ ASTE ........... .. ...... ... ... ..... .. .. ...... .. .. .. ...... ..... .... ... ......... ..... ......... .... ............. ... ...... .... .. ....... ...... .. 62LID ; STE .... ..... ..... .... ........ ...... .. .......... ... .... ...... ... ... ......... ... .. .... ...... ... ............ ...... ..... ..... ... ..65> BlO-REMEDIATlON ...... ... ........ .. ... ....... .......... .. .. .. ...... ......... .. ... ....... .............. .. ....... ...... ............... 67

> E VIRO l v1E TAL Hv1P CT ASSESSMENT . .......... : ... : . ... ......... .. : . .... ... .. ..... .. ..................... 69PART II .BIO IV R ITY

6. .BIODIVERSJTY.... . . 72-75> B10D l ERSI f . ............. ............ ....... ... ........... ........ ... .. .... .. .......... ................ .. ........... ....._ .......... 72. .

LEVEI..S OF BIODIVERSI.TY ................................ ........................................................ ................ 72.EASUREMENTOF BIODNERSITY .... ....... ... ...... .................................................................. 73- . .r BIODIVERSI1 Y SERVICE ............... ................. ............................... ... .......................................74,.. ODESOF CONSERVATION . .. .. . .... ............. ..... ......................... ............ ..... - ......................75

BOTANICALGARDEN&. ZOO.................. ..... .............. ...................................... .......... ...... 7

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.. 76 84I HICALCLASSJFICATION .......... .................. .......... ................ ...... .76

DIVERSITY ................... .... ..................... ... ..... .... .. ........ .... .............................................: ..80> INDJ N WILDLIFE ............................ .................... ... ... .... ... .... ...... .. .... -829 P l ~ DlVERSITY OF lNnlA .- .. ~ ~ ~ ~ 8 5 9 8. . . .

)> RED BOOK DATA ... ..... ................................. .. ..: .. ...... .......... .... ....... ... ........ .................. 85)> IUCN CLASSIFICATION ...... ...................... .. ...... ..... .. ........ .. .._.:......, ......... .. ............................. 85. -)> CRJTICALLY ENDANGERED MAMMALS ..........: . : ..................................................... .. ......87}:- ENDANGERED MAMMALS ............. ...........................:_...... ....: .... ......... ................ ........... ......88);> VlJI_NERABLE.MAMMAl5 ................................. ..... .. .. . ................ .._. ......... .... ...... ..................90)> 1\.fARl, E lvli\t ,1J IALS .. .. .................................. .... .... .......... ..... ... .. ....... .. ................ ...................... 91

EG . A1 l\JG:iv1A . ilvlA ... ..... ......... .. .... .... .... ...... ............. ...... ......... .. ....... .... ..... ....... .. ............. 91> A 1ARSUPIAL.......... -.... ........ .. .. ..... ........ ........... ... .... :' . .. ... ..... ............ ......... ..... 92)::. RJTir T.Y EJ'TDANGERED BIRDS ..... ........... .. .... ....... .... .............. ... ... . . ......... .. ... ........ .........92)> CRJTICALLY ENDANGERED REPTILES .. ...... ... ..... .. ... , . .:: ........ ..... ....... ............. ................. .. 94.;--_ - D CALLl L 'DA1 GEJ?ED F. S ............................... ... ... .................... .. ... .................. . .95. . -.);> CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPIDERS CORJ\L ..... ....... ... ......... : ....... ............. .......... .. ... ?> BIRD. 11GRATJO 1 .. . ........ .. ........ .... ........... .................. .. .... . .. .. :.... . ...... . ....... . ....... .... ... ................. . 96. .)> W1LD LIFEDISEASE .... ......................... ..... ....... ..... ..... ... .... .... ... ........ ......... .............. ......... .. .. .... .. . 97

SPECIES EXTL C T l O N ... ... ...... .. ....................: .... ... ..... ..... ... .. .... .......... ..... ..:-:............. ........ ...... 97- -- -- ,.:;::. :MA N- ANI viAL CONFLICT ...... .... .. .. ..... ............ .................. .. ......... ............ ................... ....: .....9 8

9. PLANT DIVERSlll OF INDIA ............................ .............. .... .................. ......... ............... ........... 99-107> PLANT CLASS FICATION ................... .............. .... ..... .... ........ .... ..... .. .. .. .... .. ........ .... ......... .... ... ..99> EFFECT OF ABIOTIC COMPONENTS ON PLANTS .............. .. .... ..... ...... -......... ......... .... ...... 99r Ll\JSECTIVOROUS PLANT .............. .......... ......... ....... .. ...... ... ... ... ...... ... .. ..... ... .. ...................... ... 100> INVASlVEAUEN SPECJES , .. ..................... ......................... .. ... .. .. ... .... ..... ........... .................102r INVASIVE ALIEN FLORA OF INDIA .... ..... ....... ......... ..................... . . .... ... .. ......... ............. .... 102r MEDICINAL PLANTS ........ ....: . : ................................. : ... ............. ... ... ..: ... ... ..- .. .................104. .r TREEGIARAC-r-ERS................ ........ ... .................. ....... _ .......... ....... . ; ....................... .............:105

10. MARINE ORGANISM ...... . .................... .............. ....... ....... ........................ .......... ..... .. .................108-110r ~ K l O N ~ ~ .. ....................... ...... ....................... .......................... 108)> PHYTO:PLANKTON .... ... ................. .. .......... .. ... .......... . ................ ..... .... ... ... ...... ..... ................ 108.. ZCXJ..Pl..ANKTON .. ............. ..... .. ...... ..................... ............ ............ ... .... .... .. ........... ..... ........ ....... 110;,;; SEAGRASS ...... -:-................................ .... .. .............................. : .................................................. 110. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. .. . .. ] 1 - ---=-----. - - - - : . - - - ~ . . . . : . . . . . t i i L . . - 1 - - - .._ - --=--- . . ;__-.

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. . . . . . . . . . . \. . . . . 112 126

N UARY NATIONAL PARKS ..... ........ ... ..... .... ................. ............. .112V 11 N RESERVES COMMUNITY RESERVES ............................. ...... .1 4PROTEC..JED AREA$ ............ : .............................. ... ........................... .. .........114. . SA ED GROVES OF INDIA .......................................................... ...............................115

EXPORT PROHIBI1'ED ~ M S ................................................ ........ ..... ...........................116. L BAL lT SEA TURTLE PROJECT ..... ..... ... .... .......... .... ... ............... .......... .............. ........ ........ ... .. ... ....... ...... 137}> CROCODILE CONSERVATION PROJECT ... .. .. .. ..... .... .. .. .. ...... .. ... .. ... .. .......... ...... .......... .. .... 37}> PROJECI HANGUL ... ..... ......... ..... ................. .... ..... ...... .... .. .. .................... .................. _.......... .. .. 138}> CAP flVE BREEDING ..... ............... ........................... ........ .... .......... .... ...... ............. ........... .. .. .....138G NCES DOLPHI 1 ..... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. .. ..... ... . . . . .... .... . .. ...... . ....... .. .............. .. .. 138

PART IllCLIMATE CHANGE

-13 CLIMATE CHANGE............ ................................................. .. .. ................... ................................... l-:11-149):> GLOBAL WARMING ....... .. ................ . ...... .. ... ........ .............. .... ................ ..... ..... .. ............... .... ....141

~ REEN HOUSE EFFEcr.:.::.::: .. : :.:.:::::.::-.. ... ... :.: .... ... ..: ..... ::........ .............. .......................... ..142, . GREEN HOUSE.GASES ............................ : ......................................................... : ................... 143}> CLIMATE FORONG ....... .................................. .... . ..... ......... : -- ---- : .... .. ...146. , ............ : ... . . . .GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL ...... ......... .. .... ........ ... ....................... .. .............: .. , .. .. -, ..... 147}> GLOBA EM MISSJON&........................ .... .. ... . . .. ... ...... .. ... .. ... .... .. ... .. .... ...... ......... .. ................... 8

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l N ............................................................................................................................ 150-156I N ; ~ ; ; ; ; ; ~ ~ ; ; :::::::::: :::: .: :.:::.:::: ::::: ~

5. ZONE l >LE .................................................. - .................... 157 161..................... ........... .. -.IMPACf ( IMATE CHANGE- INDIA .............. ....... ........ ........ . .................. ...... ....... ....162_167> AG l C U L ' f U R E F ~ .:...................:: ............................................: ..............:162> \VATER STRESS .WATER INSECURfi V ...................................................... .. ............... .... -.. 163 .> SE.t JEVEL RJSE .................................... ........................................ . 164

0 . . 0 . > EC< YSTEM & BiODIVERSITY ................................................................. .......... ........ -:: ........ 165> CL TECHANGE HEALTH ............................................................... ......................: ...;. i66

17. MITIGATION STRATEGJ.ES ............................................... :--------....... .....................168-172> CAl ., BON SEQUESTR..t\l'lON ........................................................ ......... ....... ........................... l68> AJ BC.. N ' 11 -lK ......... ............ ..... ... .... .... .... ... ... ...... .... ......... .... ...... ... ... ....... .. ........... ...... ............... 169> CARBON CREDIT ........ .. ..: ............................................ :-- 170> C.ARBGN-0 FSEmNG .. ....... ... ...... ...... ... ...... ..... .......... .. ....... ... ........ .............: .. .. .. .. ... : 70> CARBONTAX .... ..... ..... ... ....: ........... .................... ... .. ..... ... .. ...... .................. ..... ..... .............. ... ..:.17.1

: r- --GEO- E:l .G:i1 'EERI G ................. .. ......... ....... ............ ............................................ ..................... l7 .-18. INDIA AND CLll\1ATE CHANGE ............... .... ......... ...: ........... ......................... ....... .. .... ..........173-l INDIA S POS1TION ON-CLIMATE CHANGE .......... ......... : . .. : . .. ...... .... ..... ....... .... .. ... .... :. 173. . . . .> OBSERVED CLIMATE AND WEATHER CHANGES IN INDJA.... ........ ........... .... .... ... ... 174> CORRECT ACTlONSFO ADAPTATl01 A 0 l\tflTlGATIOi 1 . .......... . . .. . .. 17-1> NATIONAL ACTION PLAN .ON CLIMATE CHANGE ........................... ........................ ...175. .? IND IAN NE1WORK ON CLIMATE CHAN6E ASSESSMENT. .............. .. ............. .......... :181}:;> NATIONAL COMMUNICATION (NATCOM) .................... : .................... ... .... .... ...... ... ....... 182> J 1DIA S POLICY STRUCTURE RELEVANT TO GHG NIITIGATION ....... .. .. ... ....... ..... ... .183> G I ~ ~ N BUILDING : -- 184. .> GRIHA ..... .......... : .... ....... ..... ....... ...... .... ..... ..... ........... .. ................... ... :............... ............ ........... 185> N T I O N ~ L INITIATIVE ON CLIMATE RESILIENT.AGRlCULTIJRE ........ ..... ...... ...... : . 188> BSE G REENEX ................................. ........................; ............ .................................................... 189 > 24 OTHER CRITICAL ENTITIES .......... ..: .... ..... ......... : .............. ........ : ............. .................... 190.- . .

19. CUMATF. C JIANGE ORGANJSATJQNS ........ : ..............................................: .. ............ ...........191-203. . .~ tJ1 J c::c ........ ................................. . ........................... ........................ .... ... ..: ...... . ........... ..:... 191) KYOTO PROTOCOL .......: ..... ....... ..... .. ........................ :.: .......... : ........................ .... ...... : ........ 191> , BALI MEET ...: ....: . .... ...... ............................... .... .. .. ..: ............. : .. ......... : : : - - .......... 193> COPENHAGEN S,lJMMl1' ............ ........................... : ~ ....................... ~ 9 4,. .I S 10. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ... ~ . .. .

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. .......................... . .. .... ................ 6.. . . . ..................................................... 1J 1. . . . . ........... ................... .............................. .... .................. 197

NM NT FA ILJ11 .............................................................. ...............199T A ICULTIJRE ......................................................................................... 199

............................................................................................................................................. 200TI N L GREEN HOUSE GAS INVENTORIES PROGRAMME ..................................201

G EE1 E C O N Q ~ ... , ......... ........ ..................... : :::: ...............................202PART IV

AGRICULTURE20 GRI ULTURE 2 0 5 2 2 1

}> CROP AND ITS CLASSIFICATJON._ ....................................................................... ............... 206}> CROPPING SYSTEM AND PATTERN .................................................................................... 210}> FARMING SYSfEM .................................................................................................. .. ............... 212}> SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE ..............................................................................................213. . .}> J TEGR TED FAR1v1ING SYSTEM ....................................... ....... ...... .. ........ .... ... .. .......... ... ....21 4. . .> SOIL SCIENCE ............................................ ............................................................................... 217

~ R T - v - ---- .. ._ . . . .. . .21. ACTS AND POLICIES ............................................................................................................ ........ 2 3 ~ 2 2 9.J> \\TJLD LIFE PROTECTION CT 1972 ...... ... .. ..... ............. .. ..................... ........ .... .. .. .... .. . ..-2 23-

~ ENVIRONMENTALPROTECTION ACT 1986 ........................................................ ... ... ........ 224> NATIONAL FOREST POLICY 1988 ............................................................. : ....... .................... 225 , .-:>- .BIOLOGJCAL DfVERSITY ACT 2002 .............. ..... ..... ................................ ...... .. ... .. .. ........ ... ... .225}> SCHEDULE TRIBES AND OTHER FORESf DWELLERS ACT 2006 .............................. .. .226

~ COASTAL REGULA'nON ZONE ........................................................................................... 227. . . . . . . . . - .)> WE fLAND RULES 2010 ...................... ....................... ..... ..................................... ...................... 228J> NATION GR-gEN l"'RIBUNAL ..... ....................................................................... . .................. 228J > THE OZONE DEPLETING SUBSTANCES RULES ........................ :.: ..................... , ............. 228

22. INSTITUnON AND E S U R E S . ~ .. ............................... -... . ......... - ; . . . ~ ... ;; ;.. ; : . ; ~ ; : ; . ~ ....... ..............229-235"' NATIONAL \VIDE LIFE ACTION PLAN ............................................................. ........... .... . 229 ..> NATIONAL AFFORESTATION AND.ECO-DEVELOPMENT BO RD ..................... ....... 229> CAMPA ........................................ ............... .................................................................. a.:... .-230 :> , JOINT FORESf MANAGEMENT..................................... ................. ............... .. ... .............230. . . .

S()CIAL FORESfRY ..:.............................................................................. . 231.......................................NATIONAL BAMB()() I S S I O N ...................................... ............................ .............: ..........232CEPI ............................................................H 232

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I N lV ............................._,_ ...... ...................... .. 232.... .................................... .. ... . . . ................. .......... ... .... ......................... .. . .. . .. . . . . . 233. .., ................................

........................................................................... ............ . . ............................... 233LJll.................................................................................................. ...... 233

TIONA Cl.EAN ENERGY FUND ..... ......................... .......... ..: ...... ~ ~ 233NT .A ONAL MISSION FOR ELECTRIC M O ~ ..... .................... .................................. 234

),> - SCIENCti M.XPRESS- BIODIVERSITY SPECIAL .......: .............. : .... .. ................. .. : ....... .... 234> MANGROVE FOR FUTURE ............... .......... -........................... ............. .............. ............ ........ 2352 3 ~ N V J R O N M E N T A L ORGANISATIONS ................................... ..................... ................. ..............236-239> A N 1 ~ 1 A L WELFARE BOARD ............................................................................................. ...... 236

)> CEN TRAL Z()() A ~ r H O R I T Y ............. , ................ ................................................... .. ........ : .. 237)> NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY AUTHORITY ...... ................ : ........... .. ..... .... ... ............. ....... .... .237)> WILDLIFE CRIME CONTROL BUREAU ........................................ ........................... ......... 238

~ N TI01 TAL KE CONSER T ON PLAN ..... ............ ........ ... ............... ............................. 238> NA110NAL GANGA RIVER BASINAUTHORffY ............................................... ....... ....... 23924. INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS ....................................................240-255> U. TED N_A IJQ . - : : . - . ~ 9 .FERE CE 0 l E .. TI Oil. 1E T . / ..:c DE\.'E OP ~ E : T .....

> CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (CBD) ........................................................ 241>>-RAMSAR CONVENTION ON WETLANDS. . ......... ....................................... ............ ..... ...... 246

CITES .................................... ........................... ........................: ......... ...... ..... ................................ 247>_. THE \IVILDLIFE TRAD E 10NITORJ rc NETIVORK {TRJ FF C, ........ ............ ... ...... .. ...... 248;> CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION O J ~ MIGRATORY SPECJES (C 15) ..... ........ 248> COAUTION AGAINST \1\TJLDLJFE TRAFFICKING (CAWT) .............................. .............. 248

INTERNATIONAL TROPICAL TIMBER ORGANIZATION (ITT0) ......... ....... ............... 249> UNITED NATIONS FORUM ON FORESTS (UNFF) ............................... ..._........... ........... 249> IUCN ::.: ........... ............................ .. . . .... ........................ ...... .... ......... .. ........ ........................... ........ 250GLOBAL TIGER FORUM (GTF) ................... ........................... .. ..... ....................... .................. 251

~ ___SI.OCK.HO.LM C O N Y ~ N T I O N : : ~ ' ' ' ...................................... ... ... 252BASELCONVENTION ......... ... ............. .... ..... ............ ... ....... ... : .. ........ ... ........................ ...... . 252

)> ROTTERDAM CONVENTION-....... : ....................................................... .................... :: ..: ... 253> UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION TO COMBATDESERTIF1CA 110N ......................... 253} > INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION (lWC) ............... ...................: ................... 254

viENNA CONVENTION AND M O N T R E A ~ P R O T O C O L ...................................... ......... 254- . .25. ENVIRONMENT ISSUES AND HEALTH EFFECTS .-............................................................ 256-261GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................... : ..... 2.62.. aAUPENDlX ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ............... - ............................................. ..270: - -

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viu statementsit i n rm y greater in the lowern1p r d to the higher latitudes.

1 ng th mountain gradients, biodiversityi. n rmally greater in the lower altitudes asmp d to the hig}:\ r altitudes. ..\ 1i h ~ f the statem nts given above is/are correct?

1 nlyb. 29nlyc. Both 1 and 2d. Neither 1 nor 2

2 ~ of the follow\ng criteria have contributedio the recognition of Western Ghats- Sri Lankaand indo-Burma regions as hotspots .of bio.. e sty.J.. Spet?es richness3.

- 5.

ege a on ensit Endemism.

. . -Ethno-bolanical importanceThreat perception

6. .Adaptation of flora and fauna to warm andhumid conditions

Which thr of the above are c o r ~ ~ < t ~ I i _ t g ~ i a in thiscontext?a. 1 2 and 6b. 2,4and6c. 1, 3 and 5d. 3,4and 63. Biodiversity forms tl1e basis for l1umanexistence in the following ways :Cl Soil formationb...Ptevention of s ~ i l erosionc. Recycling of wasted. Pollination of cropsSelect the correct answer using the codes givenbelow:. .a . 1,2 and 3 oruy .

. 2,3 and 4 only

. . .

. 20121 W ' i c ~ of h e f o l l o w i n g ~ be thre ts to thebtodtverstty of g e o g r a p h i ~ a l re ?1_. Global warming2. Fragmentation of habitat 3. Invasion of alien species 1 P r o m o t i o ~ of vegeranan1sm Select the correct answer using the codes givenbelow. . a. 1, 2 and 3 onlyb. 2 and 3 onlyc. 1 and 4 C?nlyd. 1 2 and 42. ln which one among the following categories

of protected areas in India are local peoplenot allo'lved to col ect and use the biomass?a. Biosphere Reserves

b National Parksc. Wetlands declared' under Ramsareunventrorr d. WHdlife Sanctuaries

3. Consider the following protected areas1. Bandipur

. .... 2 ~ - - - B h i t a r k i m l < 3. Manas

4 ~ SunderbansWhich of the above are declared iger Reserves?a. 1, 3 and 2 oruyb. 1 ~ 3 and 4 onlyc. 2 f 1 l ~ 4 only d. 1, 2,3 ~ 4

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a

leatals.t?

m?ly~

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hi h r inf II that supports luxuriantt ti growth.nfluence of different bio geographical

otic and. n v ~ s i v e . ~ c ~ d e ~ have not been_ ...,.duced m this regton.d. has less human interference.

12. If a tropical rain.forest is removed, it does notregenerate quickly as compared to a tropicaldeciduous forest. This is because a. the soil of rain forest is deficient in nutrientsb. propagules ofthe trees in a rain forest ha e po or

viabilityc the i n forest species are slow-growing . . d. exotic species invade the fertile so}l of rain forest.

-13. When the b.ark of a tree is remov ed in acircular fashion all around near its base, itg e n ~ r l l y dries up and dies because

a. 'Vater from soil cannot rise to aerial parts.b Roots are starved of energyc Tree is infedl:d-b oil microbesd. Roots do not receive oxygen for respiration

CLIMATE CHANGE14. c_ons der the o J : ~ ~ ~ n _ g :_ _1 Photosynthesis2. Respiration3 Decay of organic matter4 VoJcanic actionWhJch of the above add carbc;l dioxide to the carboncycle on Earth a 1.and 4 only b. 2 and 3 onlyc 2,3 and 4 only

1 2 3 nd 4

-ll-: _Co_nsjder ~ ~ e _fol1owing s t t e m e n ~ s :Cholorofluorocarbons, know.n as ozonedepleting substances, are used

1. in the.production of plastic foams .2. in the production of tubeless tyres3. in cleaning certain electronic p o ~ e n t s4. as pressurizing agents-in aerosol cansWhich of the statements given above is/are correct?a. l, 2 and 3 onlyb. 4onlyc. 1, 3 and 4 onlyd. 1, 2,-3 and 4



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t '' t rv r th d itth ultraviolet part of th ol ni 1n1 s1 n ~ U the solar radiations.w r ] nts? d. th infrared o the solar radiation

ion of ozone hole in the Antartic 13. l e acidification of oceans is n c r e ~ s i n g hyha . : een a cause of concern . .\'Vhat is this phenomenon a cause of concern?e the reason for the formation of this 1. The growth and survival of calcareous

ole? cs - C'.' .. t m ntt oposp encturb 1 ence;d n o : of chlorofluoro carbons p.,.. ~ e " ' l e f -r j e t pola r f n


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,,

i.,"

. -

.

ildli tuaxy

5. Among the following SJates,.whjch one hasthe most suitable climatic conditions for thecultivation of a l ~ g e variety of orchids withminimum cost ofproduction, and can developan export oriented industry in this field.?

a. Andhra Pradesh. rui achal Pradesht c _ a d h y a P r ~ ~ e s h ,

d. t: a radesh

6. A sandy and saline area is the natural habitatof an Indian ?nima] species. The.anima] hasno p r e d a t o ~ s in that area u t its existenceis threateneq due to the destruction of itshabitat. 1-\Thjch one of the foJJowing couldbe that animal ?

a. lndian wild buffu)ob. Indian wild assc. Indian wild board. Indian Gazelle7. The '1Red Data Books' published by the

International Uniov. for Cons.ervation oNature and Natural Resources (lUCN)contain lists of a. Endemic plant and animal species present in thebiodiversity hotspots.Threaten d plant and animal species.

c. What is th i f f e r n : c : b ~ t w : = = = = = .ryx and Chiru? n the antelop

a.

b.Oryx is adapted to live in h t d .whe eas Chiru is adapted to liove s t a n d areassemi-desert areas of cold high ~ p e s and. mountams.Oryx IS poa0ed for its antlers whereas oiliu .poached for Jts musk. Isc. Oryx e:xists in western India orJ.y whereas rurueXIsts m north-east India only. _ .d. ~ o n e of the statementsa, b, and c given abovIS correct. e

5. C o n s i ~ e r the following :1. Black-necked crane2. Cheetah3. Flying squirrel4. Snow leopard'\7JUch of the abo e are n atura lly found in India?a. 1,2 and 3 onlyb. 1,3 and 4 onlyc 2 and 4 oJ:lly

: : : :1 2 .;L


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L . J e o C O i n J ) 4 ~ r i roorganisms to the surface.utri ts to th surface.Hon-dwellingorganisms to the surfare.f the t ~ e m ~ t s given above is/are correct?

1 and 2only2and3

d. 3 nly

9. The 0 ~ Tsunami made people realize thatmangroves ~ a n serve as a ~ e l i a b l e safety

_V I . E N V I R O N M E N T ~What would a p p e n i f phytoplankto ofoceafs completely destroyed for o m ~ r e a s o ~

1 The ocean as a carb


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T : POLICIESt I dia, theds:

rt ( ontrol) Act, 1947.i n ~ a l Development (Regulation)

u t m ~ 196.2Indi 1 For st Act, 1927


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ynother, with its source_ . t a place only a shorto the co st of Bay of Bengal

flo ing into the sea. This is anim rtant site of wildl ife and bio-diversitynd protected area. Which one of thef llowing (oiil'd he this ?

. .BhitarkanikaChandipur-on-sea

c. Gopalpur-on-sead. Simlipal

2011 - Answers

7. A Particular Stat In h . . e In d1a ha the followingc aractensti cs :1. It is located on the same Lti tude w hich passethrough northern Rajasthan.2 l t has ovey BO of its area under fores t cover.3


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.

.

. ..

: ECOLOGY o.

..



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1 uniti .rth- .. at

i nd nt n n igh t tring~ , . . . . . . ' n ' . , . , . l led soo ti s. Th )yare

n ' ithiR a maj r communityn ~ completely independent' and nutrient dyn mi s aret of lichen on a cow dung pad

tructureof a communitymmunity the , wnb r 9f p e c i e ~ and size

f t . :Tf fU al \ n Y


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wid v ri ty small animals

ts f pl r -pw t and nutrients.Organismsqu ~ c Terr trial animals livequ tic lants, animal and microbes live in

teras ell as in th s a. Some microbes livein h water nts under the ~ a

(i)

J J

at rials:rganic compound such as proteins,r h} drat lipids, h umic subsfances

are formed fiom inorganic compound ondecomposition.organi compound such s carpon,

carbon dioxide, water, suJphur, nitrates,phosphates, and-ions of v_arious;neta]s areessential fot: organisms to survive.

~ 1 1 e a d a tihtdeLatitude has a strong influence on an area s

e m p e r a t u r ~ resulting i ~ change of climates suchas polar. tropical, and temperate _ These climatesdetermine different natural biomes.From seale;;eJto highe t peaks, wild life isinfluenced by altitude. s the altitude increases,he air becomes colder and drier, affecting wild lifeaccordingly.2. Biotic Components .Biotic -components include living organismscomprising plants animals and microbes and areclassified according to their u n ~ t i q n a l attributes into

) on um r I t rotr ph uJ hct ioh(other nou.rishin g)

onsumers are incapable of producing th ir wnfood (photosynthess).They depend on organic food derived from

__ .m1ts, animals or both.~ Consumers can be divided into two broad

groups namely micro and macro consum ers.(i) Macro consumers

They feed on plants or animalsor both and arecategorised on the .basis of h ~ i r food sources.Herbivores are primary consumers which feedmainly on plants e.g. cow., rabbit.

;> Secondary consumers feed on pdrnary consumers e.g. wolves .;> Carnivores which feed on secondary consumersare ca1Jed tertiary consumers e .g. lions whichcan eat wolves.

;> 1 1 l l 1 i Y 9 ~ ~ ? l r ~ ~ ~ g ~ i s m s which consume bothp ~ a n san-d animals e.g. man.

icro consumers - S aprotrophs (deco p sersor osmotrophs)

;> They are bacteri.u anctfungi-whit:h obtain energyand nutrients by decomposing dead organicsubstances (detritus) of plant and animal origin.

;> The products of d ecomposition such as inorganicnutrients which are released in the ecosystem arereused by producers and thus recycled. ... . ~ . .. Earthworm and certain soil organisms (such asnematodes, and arthropods) are detritus feeders

and help in the decomposition of organicmatterand are called detrivores

~ ~ s s i f i c a t i o n ,of Eco-system:producers and consumers. - - - - - - - - ___ .____Natural.Ecosystem I a rimary producers - Autot.tophs (self-n g

, rimary producers are basically green plantsr-.. .;r.. bacteria and algae).the ise carbohydrate from simple

D r . tD I * rawmaterials like carbon dioxide andpr en e o sunlight by the process

PllmiD lmtlnesis for therns Jves and supplyr on-produ rs.

errestrial Forests Grasslands Deserts

.Aquftic Fresh Vv t r . Saline \-Vat rs .Marine ters

The detailed study .of e sy. h'm will b d t ;_.th ~ u b s u >nt ch. pt rs.



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H PTE - 1ECOLOGY

r.2. ~ i : f V I R O N M E N Ty is asci ntific study of the reciprocallationship_et:Ween organisms (includiDgmicrob s, plants, animals, mali) with _ E v e x y t ~ g t h a t s u r r o u n d s o r a f f e c t s a n o r g a n i s m vironm nt. t dea)s with .the.ways in h i ~ _ 4 u r ~ n g tts hfe ti:me is collectively known as . itsanis:ms are moulded by their environment, how . n v ) r o ~ e ~ t w h i ~ .comprises both living (biotic)they make use of environmental resources including. .and n.onhvmg (abwtic) components .energy flow and m neraJ cycling. All organisms(fromvii-us toman) are obligatorily

The term ecology was coined only as ]a teas 1868. d e p ~ n d e n t on the en ironment for food, energyh been water, oxygen _ shelter and for othe r nee slt as derived from two Greek words a m e l ~ m anin me or pla e to live in and ' logos'. The e iro men is d efin ed as t e su [ l o ameaning study. L i t e r a ~ y it is the study of the home of li ing, non- i\:ing comp onents; influence anof nature. . . v ~ n t s . s u ~ < ? u n d i n g an organism.

Ecology is defined as a scientific study of therelationshi of the Jiving organisms \ lith each otherand with their environment.. .1.1 I S T O R ~ OF ECOLOGY

The roots of ecology lie in Natural History,which is as o]d as human civilization itself. Sinceez : history, man has indulged in ecoJogy in apractical sort of way, knowingly and unknowingly.Inprimitive societies .every individual was requiredto have an intimate knowledge of .his environmentfor their survival; i.e., about the forces of nature andof plants and a n i m a l ~ around him.

Our ancient Indian texts have references toecologica) principles. The classical texts of the_ ~ i c . period such as _he Vedas, t}}e Samhi tas, theBrahmanas and the r a n y a k a s - U p a n i s h ~ d s containmany r e ~ c e s to ecological c o n c e p ~ s . ..1be Indian treatise on medicine,. the .CarakaSamhita and the surgical text S u s r u t a - S a m h i t ~ ,

s ~ w that people during this period had a good\U.\derstanding of plant and animal ecology. These texts contaii) dassification of animals onthe basis of habit and habitat, land in terms of natureof soil, climate and vegetation; and-description ofpW\ts typical to various JocaJities. Carai


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-

ir nt t f pul ti js .group of ory a n i. r n ~ lly oflh same sp des, crupying hn urma sp cific thne .

I bi tic nvir nm nt consists of microscopicall d pl f l ~ f t es weli as aquaticnt and anim ls and decomposers.

nt m l environment of fishIt is enclosed by the uter body surface.The internal envir nment is relatively stable ascompared to the external environment.However, it is not absolutely constant. Injury,:1 e s or e ces ive s tress upse ts the inte rnal

\ ro e t. For e xample, f marine fish is transferred to a

f r E ~ 1 'ater environn1ent, it il not be able to

1. 0 LS SAT IO SThe JTiain levels of organisation of eco logy are sixand areas fo lov s .

?.1. Jndj d Organism is an individual living }?eing that haSability to act r function independently. t maybe

a n i m a l ba t rium, fungi, etc. It is a body madegans, organelles, or other parts that ~ ~ o r ke variou prr Cf . ~ s o f 1 i f ~

Population growth r a t is th percenta cvariation between the number of in dividuals:apopulation at two different tim es. Therefore thepopulation growth rate can be p ositive or negative. The m_nin f ~ c t o r : th ut make pQptl lation grow areb iJttl and 1IDm1gration. The main factors that mak e

p o ~ u l a t i o n decrease are death and emigration.The main limiting factors for the growth of a

population a ~ e abiotic and biotic componentS.o p u l a t i o ~ de lsity is the re lation between the

number of ind_vidua]s of a popul ation and the areathey occupy.1 3 3 Community

I f we lo_ok around ourself, we will notice thatpopulation o f p lants and animais seldom ocarr bythemselves. The reason ior th is js quite obvious.Jn order t ~ survive, individuals of an y one species

d e e n ~ on indi iduars of fferent species i hwhich they active]y interact in several ways.

For eg: Animals require plants for food and treesfor shelter. PJ_an ts require an.imais for poUination ,seed dispersa l, and soil microorganism to fa cilitatenutrient supply.

Communities in most instances a re named afterthe dominant plant fonn (species).For example : A gr as s land comm unity is

dominated by grasses, though_ t m ay contain herbs,shrubs, and trees, alongwith associated animals ofdifferent _pecies .

A commu nity is not fixed or rigid; communitiesmay be large or _mall.

Types of CommunityOn the basis o size and d gree of relative

independence communities n lny be divided intotwo types:

-



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re

ter~ ~ :J ,. n_man .. r 1 : >1 1 't . 1 'n a c. c ..p n t 1 t rres na ceo ystl meClg effe . .i n f f , fu I and fibr applicable to birds. 1 sp etaf h It rand building materials ;... l Or example the density of birds 19 g tti n fair and wat r h d h hi f rea ert e mtxe a tat o the ecotone between th fi fi tion and d composition of wastes and the deserl e ore

ta ili:lati and moderation of the Earth's climate Niche> d ration f floods, droughts, temperaturetr m sand the forces of wind. A ~ c ~ e is the uniq2te funciional role or place:> - Gl'ttt f tion and e n e ~ l of soil fertility, including:v::---,aro- ~ p ~ e a e s ~ an ecosystem. It is a description of

nutri nt cycling. the biOlogtcaJ, phys1cal and chemical factors that~ Pollination of plants, including many crops species needs to survive, stay healthy and reproduc

Control of pests.and i s e ~ s e s A niche is unique for a species, which means:> Maintenance of genetic resources as key inputs two species have exact identical niches. Niche plato crop varietiesand livestockbreeds, medicines, an important role in conservation of organisms.and other products 1f we have to conserve species in its na ti

> Cultural and aesthetic benefits habitat we shquld have knowledge abou t the nicEcotone r e q u i r e m e n ~ of the species and should ensure th

all requirements f t s rJd-e are fulfilled.Ecoton is a zone of junction bet-ween h vo ormore di erse ecosvstems. For e.g . the mangrove Types of Nicheforests represent an ecotone between marine J Habitat niche- where it ]jvesan terres ria e os),stem. Other examples are - 2. Food niche-what is eats or de:omposes whgra 'ssland, estuary and river bank species j cc . e es .

~ . 1- -- -- Ecotone- - - - - -

Characteristics of Ecotone> It may be very narrow-or' It has the conditions intennediate to the adJacent

ecosystems. Hence it is a zone of tension . > It is linear as t shows progre.ssive increase inspecies composi tion of one incoming communityand-a simultaneous decrease in species of the.other ouf going adjoining community.A well developed ecotones contain someorganisms which.are entiz ly different from thatof the adjoining o m r n ~ n i t i e s .

,. So l:t H


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4

5

6

7

Toi

TemperateDeciduousForest

Trop ica lforest

Savannah

rain

Grassland _

icuna

Devoid of trees except stnnted shrubs in the~ o u t h e m rart of tundra biome, ground floramcludes lichen, mosses and sedges.The typical a ~ a l s are reindeer, arctic fox,polar bear, snowy owl, lemming, arctic harep t a ~ i g a n . Reptiles and amphibians are l m o s ~absent.

Northern Ell 'ope, A S . ~ B n & ~ - + > T h e dommatigg vegetation is c o n i f e r o ~ sNorth America. Moderate evergreen mosUy spruce, with some pine afid

t e m p e r a t u r ~ than tundra. firs. Also known as boreal forest. The f ~ u n a o ~ s i s t s of small seed eating birds,

hawks, fur bearing carnivores, little mink, elks,puma, Siberian tiger, wolverine, wolves etc.

Extends over Central and J1te flora includes trees like beech, oak, mapleSouthern u r o p e ~ Eastern and cherry.North America, Vestern Most animals are the familiar vertebrates andChina, Japan, New Zealand invertebrates.etc. Moderate averagetemperature and abundantrainfall. These are generallyt h e o s t p r o d u c.t.Lv e

g r c u t u r a are as of h e...earthTropical areas in theequatorial regio:ns, whichis abound vvith Jde.Temperature and_ rainfallhigh. . - - .

-- ..:..:....:..:.::.:.:; ;.: .::...:.._

Tropical rainforest covers about 7o/o of theearth s surface 40 of the world s plant andanimal species. Multiple storey of broad-leafed

v ~ r g r e e n tree species are in abundance. Mostanimals and epiphytic plants are concentratedin the canopy _or tree top zones .

Tropical region: Savannah Grasses with scattered t r e e ~ and fire resistingis most extensive in Africa. - thomy shrubs.

North America, Ukraine,etc. Dominated by grasses.Temperate conditions w ithrath r low rainfall.

The fauna include a great diversity of grazersand browsers such as antelopes, buffaloes,zebras, elephants and rhinoceros; the carnivoresinclude liof\ cheetah, hyena; and mongoose,and many roden.W t. ----- ----- -Grasses dominate the vegetation. The faunainclude large herbivores l i ~ e bison, antelope,cattle, rodents, prairie dog, wolves, and a richand diverse array of ground nesting bird.,

Continental interiors with The flora is drought resistance vegetationvery low and sporadic such as cactus, euphorbias, sag brush. Faun :rainfall with low humidity. Reptil s, M mm ls and birds.The days ar very h t butmghts a cold.



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1.

2.

3.

m ; howcvcr.li zon s with regionsd anim Hfe.The majorn the v rious aquatic zones are, I v ls of dissolved nutrients, ~ r a t e rth f sunlight penetratipn.qua icccosyst m

Fresh WaterEcosystem

CharacteristicsFresh water ecosystemare dassified as ]otic(moving.water) or len ic(still or stagnant water).Lotic w.ater sys temincludes freshwaters fie ams, sp r i ng srivulets, creeks, brooks,and rivers. Lentic waterbodies include pools,ponds, some swamps,bogs and lakes. They varyconsiderably in physical,

c. .3.6. B i o s p 1 t e r e : : - - - _ : : : - ~ ~ ~ ~ .

Biosphere is a part of th th _. B . e ear wher lif .~ X l S t . , l?sphere represents a highl r e e canJnteracting zone c o m p r i s i ~ g f mtegrated andhydrosphere (water) and i t o ~ hatmo(lsphere (air),

. p ere and).It IS a narrow layer around th fth l . . e sur ace of theear I . th ~ V l S ~ a l i s e the earth _o be the size of anapp e e Iosphere would be as thick as its skin.Life in the biosphere is ~ b t i f i a f l l l betWeen 200metres {660 feet) below the surface of the ocean and

about 6,000 metres (20,000 feet) above _ea level.

- - - - < - - + ~ h e m i c a i and biological- --_c h a r ~ c t e r i s tics.

1arineEcosvstein-

Estuaries

,

Nearly three:_ quarterof earth s surface iscovered by oceanwith an average d epthof 3,750 m and withsalinity_ 5 ppt, (parts perthousand), about 90 percent of which is sodiumchloride.Coastal bays, r ivermouths and t i d a l: m ~ r ~ } : l e s f o r ~ t h ~estuarie-s. ln estuaries,fresh water from rivers.meet ocean water andthe two are mixed byaction of tides. Estuaries

are highly productiveas compared o thed a c ~ t river or sea.

Biosphere ---- --Biosphere s absent at extr emes of the orthand South poles, the highest mountains and thedeepest oceans, since existing hostile conditionthere do not support life. Occasionally spores ofungi and bacteria d ~ occur t great height beyond8,000 metres, but they are not metabolically acti eand hence represent onl dormant life .

T-he energy required for the _life within thbi_ sphere co:ines from the sun. The nutrient-----necessary for iTv lng-organismscoine from air, wate. and soil. The same chemicals are recycled over and. over again for life to continue. .

Living organisms are not uniformly distribu tedthroughout the biosphere. Only a few organism livin the polar - r - e g i o n s ~ while the tr p i ~ ~ l rain f r shave an exceedingly rich diversity of plants nd:mima1s.



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FUNCTIONS OF N ECOSYSTEM

i .n of an system is a broad, vastllnd mpl t dynamic system. I t can betudi d under the following three heads.flovv

utrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)Ec logical succession or ecosystem development

2 1 ENERGY FLOWE n ~ r g y is the basic fprce responsible for .all

ic a j i ti es. Tl flow of energy fron1co -u erR L ,J e e e rg_ ' flowc al.

The study of Trophic level interaction in an E te :r 0}pes an i ea 0 1. l E ener gy f l o v ~ t.hro.ugh the ecosystem.

2.1.1. ropnic level n t e ~ c t i o n - 0 p h ~ e H n t e r a c f o de Js ith ho w ther e . e rs of v ecosys tem are corJlected based onnutritional needs.

1 Autotrophs11 Heterotrophs Herbivore(primary consumers)m H e ~ r o t r o p h s Carnivores(secondary con u m ers)IV Heterotrophs Carnivore(tertiary consumers)

Heterotrophs - .Energy flows through the trophic levels: fr.omproducers to subsequent trophic levels Thisenergy

always flows from lower (producer) to highererbiv01e, carnivore etc.) trophic level. l t never

flows in the reverse direction that is from carnivoreso rbivores to producers.

re is a loss of oome energy in the form o{a at each trophic lev 1 o that energyt I firr t r J j } : np . H

. - .

As a resun t h e r e ~ ~ usnmty four or fi \\ e h hie -levels. d s e l d o ~ more than six as beyondupthatvery ~ t t l e energy IS left to support any o r g ~ mTrophic ~ v e l s a r e numbered c c o r d ~ g to the steps .an organism IS away from the source of food orenergy, that is the producer.The trophic level interaction involves threeconcepts namely :-

1. Food Olain2. Food Web3. Ecological Pyramids2.2. OOD CHAl

Organisms in the ecosystem are related tq.eacho er L-tro g. 'ee j g nTe an ism o tr E s,i.e. one organism becomes food for the other. A~ e ce of org


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-

r t d ins havrs whi :h start th food chain,utilising

as their food, constitute thegrazing: d1ain b gin. from green plants at .rimary consumer is herbivore.

Grazing Food ChainFor example, In terestriat-ecosystem, grass is

ea en up by caterpillar, which is eaten by lizard andJizard is eaten _by snake. .

~ l .. : . q u ~ t i c tcosystezn pry to Janktons {p rima ryp oducers) is eaten by zoo plank tons which is ~ a tenby fishes and fishes are eaten by pelicans.ii. Detritus food chain- . . -

The food chain starts from dead organic matteri decaying animals and plant bodies to the ml r rg and U n to detritus feeding organism e dr an to ot er p r P h - I t o r

, ot r f nf Tl( f yihl f od chaiii

matt i or d tritu .

- - - - - - - ~ U .TIONS OF ANEosys M - two food ch ins are linked - . . ....:_ :: : : : _:O u r ~ for d tritu food .h . . .-The lnltial n rgy , C


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1 glc Ir f n s th b of themiv r f nn th tip. Oth r1 in b tw n.nsi ts of a number of horizontalHie tr phic levels which are_

uenti Ily from primary producer levelrbi 9 [ I runivoreon'\ 'cltds; -:fhe lt:llglh ofret>re:;ents the t tal number of individualsvel in an osystem.nun;ber, b i o n ~ a s s and energy of organismsduall decrease with each step from ~ producer1 1 to the c nsumer level a n ~ t h e d i a g ~ a m m a t i crepresentation assumes a pyramid:shape .

T e LO] g i c ; ~ l pyr n i s are of three categories.1. P)-ram d of numbers,

Pyramid f biomass and)> 3. Pyramid of energy or productivity.

)Tami of .. urn ers.11tis deals with the relationship b ~ t w e e n the

.1' ..:. _ ; t- rim In this pyramid, the number of individuals isdecreased hom lower level to higher trophiclevel.

~ This type of pyramid can pe seen in grasslandecosystem.

-

xt high r tr phic l _vn m r- h ~ b i v o r ( ampl grasshopper).> Til individ.u 1 numb r f grn :shoppcr i ~ less

than thnt of grass. The n x ncrgy 1 v 1 isprimary carnivore (example - rat) .. > The number of rats are less than grasshopperbecause, they feed on g r a s ~ h o p p e r . The nex;higher trophic level is secondary carnivore(example -snakes). They feed on rats.

. > The next higher trophic level is the top c .. With ea.ch higher trophic level, the number ofindiviaual decreases.(b) Pyramid of numbers - inverted)> In this pyramid, the number of individuals isincreased from lower level to higher trophlclevel.

.. .. \H y p e r p ; o r ~ e' ::: . . \ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

> A count in a forest would have a small numberof --large producers, for e.g. few number ofbig trees.

> This is because the tree (Primary producer) beingfew in number and would r e p r ~ s e n t the baseof the pyramid and the dependent herbivores(Example- Birds) in the next higher trophic leveland j t is followed by parasites n thenexttmphlcleveL Hyper parasites being at hlgher trophiclevel r e p r e s e n ~ higher fu number.

)> And the resulting pyramid is in inverted f>hape.A pyramid of n u ~ b e r s does not take into.~ c c o u n t the fact that the si:t.t:: of rgani ms being( tf>d in c>ach trophic lP C > ' n'

- . . . .. --

.

t



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-r t rcome the shortcomings of

f nwnber , the pyramid of biomass is used.rr ch individuals in each trophic level arei instead of b ing counted. 1bis give$ us an U ' ~ n ' l d f biomass, i.e., the total ry weight of ananisms at each trophic level at a articular i m e ~ Pyramid of biomass is usually .determined bycol1ecting all organisms occupying each trophic levelseparately and measuring their ,dry weight. This.overcomes the size difference problem because all '.kin s of org anisn1s ~ t a trophic level are weighed.Biomass is e a s u r e ~ in glm2.(a) Upward pyramid

For most ecosystems. on land, L' le pyramid of1 ma. , has a ;:n e ba. e o prjmary producer witha ~ m a l l e r trophic level perched bn top.

Pmnory cmtvorf

roducers

Upright Pyramid of BiomassThe biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the

maximum . The biomass of next trophic level i.eprimary .consumers is less than. the producers. h ~biomass of next high_er trophic level i.e secondaryconsumers i ~ less than the primary consumers. Thetop, high uuphjc le. el has vtry less amount ofbiomass.

. .

In c o n t ~ a s t in many aqua'tk -:-eco.,._f b ~ s t e r n ~ theo 10mass may assume an m t d .f. ver e orm.

.. .

This is because the producers are t inyphytoplanktons that grow z : e p r o d u c ~ rapidly. ere, he p ram id of bomass has a srna ase,with t h ~ consumer biomass at _ny instant actuallyex ~ c e d i n g ti1e p roducet biv.:J:ass anct--the-pyrarni


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Pyramid of energy'\.V suppose an animal, say a deer, eats the plantcontaining100 cal offood energy. The deer usessome ofu rits rn etabo and stQr s only 10 c l as food

on at eats the deer gets an even smalleramount of energy. Thus--usable energy decreases

1 sunJight t produ er t -n eroi ore to cam.i ore .Therefore, the energy pyramid will always be upright.

Energy pyramid concept helps tc) explain thephen menon of bio og)cal magnification-the tenancyor OY. c ~ t a n c e s o crease i co e ation

progressively at higher levels of the food chain.2 5 POLLUTA TS Al D TR PH CLEVEL

Po1lutants espedaJ y n eg a Je o es mo ethro gh t e Yarious trophic evels in an ecosys tem.

Nondegradabale pollutants mean materials,hich cannot be metzbolized by the living organi ms.

Example: chlorinated h y d r o ~ a r b o n sWe ~ r e concerned about these phenomena

because, ogether hey en ble even smallconcentrations of chemicals in the environmentto find their way into org_arusins in high enoughdosages to -cause problems. 1ovement of these pollutants involves two mainprocesses:

BioaccumulationB ornagnification.

2 .1. Bioaccn.mulationl t el rs to how pollutants cntet a food chain.n ioaccumulation there is an increase in

tt oiapoJJutant fr m th nvirorun ntr ani min ' f od f'hain .

BiomagnificBiomagnification r f rs to t t d. rnJlutantstocon (>nfrilt a tJpym n frn(y Of. ov rn ntrophic 1 vel to th n x .

;: Thus in biomagnification ther 1s . . . an mer as lnco d e n t r ~ t i o n of a pollutant from one link in aoo cham to anoth r.

BiomagnificationIn rder for biomngn ifica o o o ui, he

pollutant t:JlUSt be: long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats,biological ly active.If a pollutant is short-lived, ]t will be broken

down ~ c l o r e it can become dangerous. I f it is notmoJ:>ile it will s t ~ y in one p lace and is unlikely to betaken up by r g a J i i s m ~ f the pollutant is soluble inwater, it will be excreted by the organi m . Pollutantsthat dissolve mats, however, may be retained fora long time.It is traditional to measure the amount o

. pollutants. n fatty tissues of organisms such asfish. In mammals, we ofte test the n r tly fern es ince t e n1i s o of fa t i i nreoften more .susc ptible to damage fr rri t ins(poisons). f ~ p Uutant is not activ bi 1 ally, imay biomagnify, but we really don't vorry ut iinu , since it probabl w n't cnn , y r bl m

~ x a r n 1 ; DT.



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-Biotic Interactions..No.. . Species 2Type Spices 1

J..._ Mutualism .. (+) (+). Commensalism .(+) . . (0) ..3. Competition -) -). Predation. (+) (-}

5 P a r a s . l ~ i s m (+) -)6. A.mensalisni (-) (0)7. Neutralism (0) (0)

(+) Benefited . . (-) Hanned(0). T;: er B- 1ef.t d c .c. n e .

2.6.1. Types of ~ o ~ c i n t e r ~ o nr .l.a a 'sm: o s p e c i be efi .

T: Y3 . Je: in -po ll a ti o m u tua s epollinator gets -food (pollen, nectar), and theplant has its poJ}en transferred to other flowersor cre ss-fertilization e p o d u c t i o n .

r Commensalism: one species benefits, the othe r1s unaffected .Example: cow d ung provides food and shelter.to dung beetles. The beetles have no effect onthe-cows.. .> Competition: both species are harmed by theinteraction.Exarr.ple: i h\ O .pedes eat the same food, andthere isn't enough for both, both may have accessto Jess food than theywould if alone. They bothsuffer a shortage of food> Predation and parasitism: one species benefits,the other is harmed. . .Example : predation - one fish kills and eatsarasitism: tick gains benefit py suck]n . blood ;

t is harmed by losing blood.AIIRCJIIAI m :One species is harmed, the otheraHected.

shades a small plant,of the smalJ plant. The1 rg : t1 (.fit or ha rmr1 t rsp

NCTIONS Y T M t ra tions, the CQsts and ben fi ts . db cl expen ncy efl 1 ~ are. ex_ctly th e same s th a tthey s u ~ to zero. It is not.deai how often th ishappensmnature. Neutralism is alsosom t id . .b d h e m sesc:1 : a s ~ ~ e relatinship between two .speoes n h a b l ~ g the same space and using thesame resources, but that have no effet.--t on eachothe;- _ n his _case, one cou ld argue that theyaren t mteracting at alL

2.7. BIOGEo cHEMICAL cYCLE. . . . .The living world depends upon the energy .

f.low and the hutdents circulation that occursthrough e c o s y s t ~ m . Both influence the abundanceof organisms, the metabolic r a at which they live,and t h ~ emplexity of the ecosystem .

Energy flows through ecosystems enabling theorganisms to perform various kinds of w ork andthis energy is t i m e l y lost as heat fore er in tennsof the usefulness-of the system . On the other h an d,nutrients of food matter never get used up. They can ... e re -yc e rtgai, arid -g2in indefinitely.

For e.g. when we breath e we y be i n h a l i n . g sever al .million atoms of elem ents that may h ave

been inhaled by our ancestors or other organisms .C a rbon , hydrogen , ox ygen , nit rogen an d

ph osphorus as elements and compounds make u p97%_ f the mass of our bo d ies an d ar.e more th an9 of the m ~ s of all li ing organisms . ln additionto these about 15 to 25 other elements are n eeded insome form for the survival an d go_Qg_heaJth .of plantsand animals . .

These elements or ririneral nutrients are alwaysin circulation moving from non-living t ? Hvingand then back to the non-living con1ponenfs of theecosystem in a more or less circular fashion. TIUscircular fashion is known as biogeochemiCal cycling(bioj o; living; geo for atmosphere).2.7.1. Nutrient Cycling

The .nutrient cycle is a concept that describeshow nutrient;S move from the physical environm entto th e l i in g rganisffi:S ,. and subs u 1 tly recy 1back to the phY.,sical environment.

This movement of nutr i n ts fr o m thenviro:unent into plants and anima ls and againback to th environment is ess ntial for life and it isth vi t ' l fun ti n of thf> ec l ~ v of anv reo ion. Inp rtiru .r nvironment, t n1ain t lJl .it ~ ~ ua su . ta ed mann r, theIm tri nt I n u ;tala d a d st bl .

l...



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O E O M t ~f ungl nnd _be; tt lll

Nutrient cycling_

son.1\umu. and miMrols. :. . .

T _rpes of utr n t Cycfe}> Based on the replacement period a nutrient cycle

is rt ferred to as Perfect or Imperfect cy cle.A perfect nutrient cycle isone in which nutrientsare replaced as fast as they are utilised. Mostgasec s cy cles ar e generally consi dere d asperfect cycles.In contrast sedilnentary cycles are consideredrelatively imperfect, as some nutrients are lostfrom the cycle and get locked into sediments andso become unavaila.ble for immedi_ate cycling.Based on the nature of the reservoir, thereare two types of cycles namely Gaseous andsedimentary cycle . . --

eou Cvc1e - where the reservoir is thephere or the hydrosphere, and .

._.. entary Cycle- where the reservoir is the.ru .

2 7 2L t u f ir t study som f th rn . t iU\port ng s us cyd s; a ~ e l y w a t orb nan nitr g ~ n

(a) Water Cycle (Hydrologi )Water as ~ important ecologicalfactor detennmes the struchue a d

fu . nnchon of the ecosystem. Cycling ofall other nutrients is also dependentupon water as it provides theirtransportation during the v a d ~ u ssteps. t acts as a solvent medium fortheir t a k e of nutrients b_y or_g_anisms.

The hydr


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bn ~ o v s l op of photosynthesis,and thenl l f t re ; : s of respirationan d_decomposition

. n r . ~ - v - matter it returns back to atmosphere. Itart term cycl .

Carbon CycleSome carbon also enters a long term cycle. It

accumu ates as u.. l- ecomposed orga.J c matter i epeaty layers of marshy soil or as insoluble carbonatesin bottom sediments of aquatic systems which takea long time to be released. ..-.

In deep oceans such carbon can remained buriedfor millions of years till geological movement mayift these tocks abo e ~ e a ]e';el. These rocks m } be

exposed to erosion, releasing their carbon dioxide,carbonatesandbicarbonatesintostreams.and r i v e r s . ~

_ Fossil s u h as coals, oil and natural gas etc. are _organiccompounds that were buried before they couldbedeoomposed and were subsequently transformed bytiJ.ne and geofogical processes into fossil fUels. Whe-nthey are burned the catbon stored in them is released

ack into tr.. a ospl r ~ as carbon:dioxide.e ilrogen Cycleitrogen is an essential constituent of protein

a basic building block of all living t i s ~ u e . I tCGDIIIIII. uft & y 16% by weight of all the proteins.

s t ~ l t . : l-'1} uf l i l H J ~ t . J1 m nt 1 fonn c ~ 1 nott of the Jiving organisrns .

Nitrogen fixation on earth is accomplished inthree different ways: (i) By microorganisms (bacteria and blue-greenalgae)(ii) B rr.a. - c-in g L. d uE- t1iz.l T :c-E.sses f e : ~ : I i z e r

factories) and( ~ i i } To a limited extent by atmospheric phenomen nsuch as thunder and lighting

The amount of Nitrogen fixed by manthro gl- in t:st:rial rocess as far e. ceed edthe amount fixed by the Natural Cycle. Asa result Nitrogen has become a po11utantwhich can disrupt the balance of nitrogen .ltmay lead to Acid rain, Eutrophication andHarmful Algal Blooms.

Certain microorganisms are capable of fixingatmospheric nitrogen into ammonium ions. Theseinclude free living nitrifying bacteria (e.g. aerobicAzotobacter and a n a ~ r e b - i c C l o . s t t i d i u m and

- ~ y m b i o t i c rutrifying bacteria living in associationwith legumi nous plants and symbiotic bacterialiving in non leguminous root nodu le p1a ts( .g. .izobiui s ">'e I s e gr e algaeAnabaena, Spirulina):

Ammonium ions can be directly tak n upas a source of nitrogen by orne plan ts, or areoxidized to nitrites .or nitratPs by two groups ofspecialised bacteria: Nitro om na ba t ria pr m tetraJ fom iuH Jt i l l l ~ H J....th nfurther trnn form dintNit rob t r. -

. - .



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l i ~ of soil nitrates, being highlyr, lost to the ystem by beingby s t i f f ~ e run-off or ground

s n swell as oceans there are special~ cteria ( .g. ;pseudomonas), which

. . nitrates/nitrites to elemental nitrogen. l lu n1tr g n escapes into the atmosphere, thusm 1 t ing th cycle.

. The e r i o d i c thunderstorms convert the gaseousrutr gen m the atmosphere to ammonia and nitrateshi . 1 _ntu lly reach the earth s surface throughrr l f 1 a n a d then into the soil to be utilized byIants.

The main storage for phosphorus is in the earth s crust. On land phosphorus is usual1y found in theform of h o s p h a t e s . By ~ e p r o e ~ s s - o f ~ e a t h e r i n gand eros10n p h ~ p h e en ter rivers and str e 2 msthat transport them to the ocean.

In the ocean once-the . os ho s CI CC1Jm1 1 t ? - ~ 0con?nental shelves in the form of insoluble deposi ts.(\ ~ ~ . illi f- . .u r m ons o ye


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Sulphur y ~ J eh source, sulph 1 r i1 th e form ofe u by r a t and inco poratedtrOt: 3 ri of rCp OCESSeSin O S 1lphu rb aring ?mino acid which is incorp01;ated in the

roteins of autotroph tissues. It then-passes throughe-g z.j, . g ood am.. bo nd in r j g 0 sm jc:; carr ie

back to the soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakesand seas through excretion and decomposition of

ea organic ma terial.The Bio-geochemical cycles d isc uss ed h ere

are only a few of the many cycles present in theeco ys te m . Tnes e cycle usually do not per atemdefe:tdent]y bu t interact with E. ilCh other a somepoint or the other.

2 8 SUCCESSIONSuccession is a universal process of directionalar gc in \ g


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-

s i n is the sequentiAlf i t i ommunities after theJ p rti I d struction of the existingunity. Am tur or. ntermediate communityd troyed by natura ev*:?nts such as floods,h ~ fires, O ,. t o r m ~ r by human intervent _onsdefoxcstation, agriculture, overgrazing, etc

This abandoned farmland is first invaded byh a rdy species of grasses a t can survive in bare, sunbaked soil. These grasses may be soon joined_by tallgrasses and herbaceous plants. These dominate theecosystem for some years along with mice, rabbits, -insects and seed-eating birds. .

Eventually, some trees come up in this area,seeds of which may be brought by wind or animals.

0\'cr the years, a forest com munity de_velop s.Th g an abandoned farmland over.a period l ~ c o m e sn- u.at y trees an is transformed mto a fores t

e t ~ m prim ry and secondarfl l jlielldfm, th secondary success i n starts n a,.,.,[email protected] i alieady formed a t th ite.Thussecondary succession is relatively fo ster as comparedto primary succession which m ay ft ej1 requitehundreds of years.2.8.2. Autogenic and Allogenic Succession

When succession is brought about by livinginhabitants of that community itself, the oa Ssis c:alledu ~ c s u ~ c e s s i o n while chnnge brou ght aboutbyoutm'ae forces is known as allogenic Succession._____ _2.8.3. Autot rophic a ~ d Heterotrophic

~ c r ~ ~ o o Succession in which, initially the green plants

are much greater is ~ a n t i t y is known as a u t t r p p i ~Succession; and the ones inwhi the heterotrophsaregreater in quantity is known ashe terotrophicsuccession.

Succession would occur faster in area e ~ s t i n gin the middle of the large continen t. This is because,here all propagules or seeds of plants b elongjng tothe different seres would reach much faster, establishand ultimately result in climax com m un ity.

_: :. :: . ::. .



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_

.

CHAPTER-3

TERRESTRI L ECOSYSTEMS

The interrelations between organi_smsand environment on the land constitute~ T e r r e s t r i a l Ecology". Dl}e to variation inthe topographic features of valleys, mountains aridsl pes, ertain differences occur. These differences arereflected in both the material and biotic diversities.Altitudinal and Jati tudinal vaFiations cause shh'is and differ nces in the climatic patterns. Due to variedc1i 2 e, the plant and anmal life existing in differentt r cstri 1 xeas ary .vhich result in differentiationof ecosystem as segments within the large biosphere.The o ~ t m portan Hmtingfactors of the terrestriaJ

. ecosystems are moisture and temperature.

The v;ord hmdra means a barren land" sinceU1ey are found where environmental conditions are. very severe. There are two types of hllldra- arctic< .fld ~ p m e> Di5tribution: Arctic tundra extends as a

continuous belt below the polar ice cap andabove the tree line in the northern hemisphere. Itoccupies the northern fringe of Canada, Alaska,European ~ u s s i a Siberia and island group ofArctic Ocean. On the south pole, tundra is verysmall since most of it is covered by ocean.Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains abovethe tree line : -Sincemountains are7ou_n_d af"all -

latitudes therefore-alpine tundra shows day andnight temperature variations. .) Flora and fauna: Typical vegetation o(arctic

tundra is cotton grass, sedges, dwarf heath,~ i l l o w s ~ birches and lid1ens. Animals of tundraare reindeer, musk ox, arctic h a r e ~ c a r i b o ~ slemmings and squirrel.Most of themhave1ong life e.g. Salix arctica (i.e)

arctic willow has a i f e ~ of 150 to 300 years. Theyare protectPd from h i 1 1 n e s ~ by the presence of thickqmde and epic:lermal hair. Mammals of the tundraregion have large body size and small tail and earto avoid the loss of heat from the surface. The body

- -

is covered wilh fur for insulation. Insects have shortlife cycles which are completed during _avourablep_ riod of the year.3 2 FOREST ECOSYSTEM. .The forest ecosystem includes a complexassemblage of different kinds of biotic communities.Optimum conditions such as temperature and grolll d .moisture are responsibl e for th esl List e offorest communities.The.natur.e.of soil, dimate and local topbgraphydetermine the distribution of trees an theirabundance in the forest vegetation. Forests ma v-be ..evergreen or deciduous. They are distinguished on the 9asis of leaf into broad -leafed or needle leafed . .coniferous forests in the case of temperate areas.

The forest ecosvstems have been Classified intorthree major categories: coniferous forest, ter.1pera eforest and tropical forest . All these f rest biomes aregenerally arranged on a gradient from north to southlatitude or from high to lower altitude.

3.2.1. Coniferous forest (boreal forest):~ Cold regions with high rainfall, strong seasonal

climates with long winters and short s-ummersaie characterised by boreal coniferous ~ r e s t> . This is characterised by -evergreen plant species_

such as Spruce, fir and pine trees, etc and byaJli.mal::; ucl1 Js t 1 Jyn: , ' c lf, 1 ' f ,

p o r c u p i n ~ squirrel, nnd am1 h.ibi;u\5 like Hyla ,Rana, et( 1fD

- --.



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) i ffiDo. IH?Q.nutri nts.d r min ral deficient.nt of large a m o u ~ t ofugh th il, without a significant

r-upward movement of ~ ' ' a r o : l t ~luble nutri nts lik calcmm, mtrogent a s ~ i u m which are leached sometimes

h < l > ~ the reach of roots. This process l e a v ~ sn alkaline oriented cations _o encounter ther anic acids of the accumulating litter.

The producti ity.and community stability of areal f rest are 1 'ver th an those of any other

forest ecosystem.. 2..2. Temperate deciduous forest:

Y The t ~ p e r l o r ~ s t s are characterised by ara t ll'1 -n ro d-le fe deciduo 1s

trees, which shed their leaves in fall; are bareover winter and grow new .foliage in the spring.

r t: p c'p1 a ivll s a riy unilom ll roughout.? ~ 0 1 c : T e ate . e ~ s il re p 0d ozo1ic a d

fairly deep. . .~ . 3 Tem r era e e rer g reen forest: ----- --

> Far ts of the :W.orld that have Med iterraneantype of climate are characterised by warm, dry

~ u m m e r and coo}. moi t winters.Tnese are commonly inhabitated by low broadJeafed evergreen trees.

)> Fire is an important hazar9ous factor in thisecosystem and the adaptation of the plants enablethem to regenerate quickly after being burnt.

. .3.2.4. Temperate rain forests:The temperate rain forests exhibit a m a ~ k e deasonality with regard to temperature_ r.::l

-.

. . ...

biotic div rsity of t mpcrat rain fore tsi ~ high as comparerl tooth r t ' rnperate fon:. s t.Howev r, the diversity of plants and animals ismuch low as compared to the tropiCal rainforest .

3.2.5. Tropkal rain forests:)> Tropical rain forests occur near the equator.-}> Tropical rain forests are among the most diverse

and rich communi ties on the earth)> Both temperature an d humidity remain hlgh

and more or less uniform . .> The annual rain fall exceeds 200 em and isgenerally distributed th roug hout the year.)> The l ~ 1y ~ e .. ; _ : : ~ : : )> The extreme dense vegetation of the tropical

rain fores s remains ertically stratified \Vith talltrees often covered w ith vines, creepers, lianas,epiphytic orchids and bromeliads.)> The lo west layer is an u n ~ s t o r y of trees,shrubs, herbs, like ferns and palms.; sor-ot tropical rainforests are red latosols, and

they are very thick.>_ The high ra te of leaching m akes t h e ~ e soilsvirtuaily useless for agnrultural purposes, bu t'when left undisturbed, . the rapid cycling of

nutrients wi thin the litter layer, formed due todecomposition can compensate for the n aturalpoverty oi the soil.)> Undergrowth is restricted in many areas by-th-e -

lack of sunlight at ground level.3.2.6. Tropical seaso 'al forests:)> Tropical seasonal forests also_


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... __

I

-tro i a l . r ~ f o r ~ s t sf fairly high rainfall b ~ a tiff r nce5 belweenwinter

iph are common ~ r e .nimaJ life of subtropical forest is very similar

to that of tropical rainforests.3 .NDIAN FOREST TYPESIndja has a diverse range of forests from the

rainforestof Kerala in the south to the alpine pasturesf Ladakh in the north, ~ o m the deserts of Rajasthan

in the west to the ev.ergreen forests in the north-east.Climate soil type, topography, and l e ~ t i ? n ~ r e t h ~main factors that determine the type of forest. Forests

aried according to their nature and composition,le _-pe of climate in which they thrive, and itsrelationship with the surrounding environment.

Forest types in-India are classified by-Olampionand .eth into sixteen y p e ~ .

rr 1 u r t (XU>.f>Jl-ferests . . . + J : } p l c ~ ,'e - - -\ et evergreeniorests are folllld along the Western

Ghats the Nicobar and Andaman lshmds and allalong the north-eastern region.lt is characterized by

> TEJilRESTRIAL E OSYSTEM :.3.3.3. Tropicall\loist deciduous forest

lv1oist d.eciduous forests are f o u n r ~ th gh1 cl . t.h . 4 rou outr. ~ ~ ~ x c m w e s t e r n and the lJ.9rt.h-westernr e g x o n ~ . The trees are tall, have broad trunks;branching trunks and roots to hold them firmly tothe ground. Some of the taller trees shed their leavesin the dry season. There is a layer ofshorter trees andevergreenshrubs in the undergrowth. h ~ s e forestsare dominaLed by sal so te,ak, .along wH:h mango,baxpboo, and rosewood3.3:4. Littoral and w a : m p

Littc:>ral a n ~ swamp foreSts.are found a i o ~ g theAndaman and Nicobar Islands and the delta area ofthe Ganga and the Brahmaputra. They have roots. t ~ a t consist of soft tissue so that the plant can breathein the water. 3.3.5. Tropical Dry_deciduous forest

Dry deciduous forests are found throughout t1 enorthern part of the country except in the North-East.I t is also ound in Madhya Pradesh, Gu a ra t, An dnraPradesh Kamataka, and Tamil Nadu. The canopyof the trees does not- oorma11y excee-d 2 ~ m res.The common trees are t)le sal , a variety of acacia,.and bamboo.3.3.6. Tropical Thorn forests

tall,.straightevergreen trees. The more common trees . This type is found in ar-eas-:wi-thi:IJ.ack soil: North,hat are fou:1d here are the jackfruit, betel nut palm Wes , Central, ;md South lnd ja. The trees do not

jamun mango and hollock. The trees in this forest grow beyond 10 metres. Spurge, caper, and cactusform a tier pattern: shrubs cover the layer closer to are typical of this regjon.

-n\e ground followed by the short structured trees 3.3.7. Tropical Dry evergreen forestand then the tall variety. Beautiful fern of various Dry evergreens are found.a}ong Tamil Naducolours and different varieties of orchids grow on Andhra Pradesh and Kama taka -coast. It is mainlythe trunks of the trees. hard-leaved e v e r g r ~ e n trees with fragrant flowers,3.3.2. Tropical Semi-evergreen forests along with a few deciduous ~ r e e s .

Semi-evergreen forests are folind in the e s t e m ~ . 3 . 8 . sub hoplcitl-Broad: leaved forest-sGhats Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the B r o a d l e a v ~ d forests .are found in the EasternEastern Himalayas. Such forests have a mixture of Himalayas and the Western Ghats, along the Silentthe wet evergreen trees and the moist dedd uous Valley. There is a marked difference in t h ~ forin oftrees. The f o r ~ t is dense and is filled with a large . vegetation in the .two areas. In the Silent VaHey, the

ariety of trees of both types. poonspar cinnamon rhododendron, and fragrantgrass are predominant . _In the Eastern Himalayasthe flora has been badly affected by the shiftingcultivation and forest fires. These wet forestsconsist miliuy of v ~ ~ g r e e n trees with a sprinklingof deciduous here and there. There ur oak, er,chestnut birch, and cherry trees. There ~ r e a la.q;evariety of orchids, bamboo and creepers.



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chir- , amla,ons.

e v . ~ l " t ft.rtSts no yhave a prolongedcold winter. It generally.UII.- .-...n. s ith shining leaves that haveJoo .Th forests are round in the. . . . V 1 1 1 . ~ r Hills and foothillsof the Himalayas up to a. ...... ~ t of 1000 metres.-

ontane Wet temperate forestsIn _he North, Montane wet temperate forestsound in the region tQ the east of Nepal into

. 1 a a Pra , recei ing a minimum rainfallof 2000 mm. Jn the Nort.h, there are three ]ayers of

? st : t.I c: higher ayer as mainly conifero s lhemiddle layer has deciduous trees such as the oak. d h ~ le> e ~ t a ?er s c0ve ed bv r ododend onand c h ~ m p a

. : .e - d 1 i 1 . Q ir f 5 C e: wgiriHills, he higher reaches of Kerala. The forests inhe r _hern region are denser than in the South.Rho9odendrons and a variety of ground flora canbe found here. 3.3.1 . 1-Iimalayan 1oist ernperate ores1

This type spreads from the Western Himalayasto the Eastern Himalayas. The trees found in thewestern section are broad-leaved oak, brownoak, alnut, rhododendron, etc. In the Eastern

imalayas , the-rainfa.l is much heavier and thereforethe vegetation is also more lush and dense. Thereare a large _variery of broad-leaved trees, ferns, andbamboo. Coniferous trees are also found here, someo the varieties being differE;Ilt from the ones o u n dth.

im I Y n ry temp rate rest. typ j found in Lahul,I


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quirementsThe in l f e a s ~ g demand or fire\..,ood with evergrowing populatiqn inqeases greater pressureon the forests, which results in increasedintensity o deforestation.4 Raw Materials

}> Wood is used as a raw materialby variousindustries for making paper, plywood, fuiniture,tp@Lch stids, o x ~ s - crates, packi.I)g cases, e t ~ ~

Causes of Defores tation3.4.1: CausesJ iP g cu fiv- tion.:> In this p r a c t i c ~ a p ~ t c h of. land is cleared, _

S E I L J t i o ~ . i ~ ::nped an ' L ~ ash L nixed withthe soil thus-adding nutrients to the soil.

l n d ~ s t r i e s lso obtain :their raw IJ?.alerials.from plants such as drugs, scents a.nd perfumes,resin, gums; waxes, tuwentine, latex and rubber,t ~ s alkaloids,_ bees wax.

> This exerted tremendous pressure on forestecosys tem and theirunreshicted explo

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Environment & BioDiversity by Shankar IAS Academy Part 1 of 5