Bridge code aashto aws d1.5

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AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5:2002Bridge Welding CodeHamilton Nastaran, P. Eng.

FounderWeldCanada.com WPSAmerica.comSeptember 2003

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Why we are here todayLiability issuesLiability issuesCode of Ethics (77.2.i) from PE Act, Code of Ethics (77.2.i) from PE Act, “regard the practitioner’s duty to “regard the practitioner’s duty to public welfare as paramount” public welfare as paramount”

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Bridge walk 1987 "Pedestrian Day 1987". It is estimated that nearly 300,000 people surged onto the roadway.

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FOREWORD AASHTO – American Association of State Highway and AASHTO – American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials, results in the recognition of the Transportation Officials, results in the recognition of the need for a single document that could produce greater need for a single document that could produce greater economies in bridge fabrication, while at the same time economies in bridge fabrication, while at the same time addresses the issues of structural integrity and public addresses the issues of structural integrity and public safety.safety.

The first AWS code for Fusion Welding and Gas Cutting The first AWS code for Fusion Welding and Gas Cutting in Building Construction was published in 1928.in Building Construction was published in 1928.

In 1934, a committee was appointed to prepare In 1934, a committee was appointed to prepare specifications for the design, construction, alteration and specifications for the design, construction, alteration and repair of highway and railway bridges.repair of highway and railway bridges.

The first bridge specification was published in 1936.The first bridge specification was published in 1936.

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FOREWORD In 1974, AASHTO published the first edition of the In 1974, AASHTO published the first edition of the

Standard Specifications for Welding of Structural Steel Standard Specifications for Welding of Structural Steel Highway Bridges.Highway Bridges.

In 1982, a subcommittee was formed by AASHTO and In 1982, a subcommittee was formed by AASHTO and AWS, with equal representation from both, to seek AWS, with equal representation from both, to seek accommodation between the separate and distinct accommodation between the separate and distinct requirements of bridge owner and existing provisions of requirements of bridge owner and existing provisions of AWS D1.1.AWS D1.1.

The Bridge Welding Code is the result of an agreement The Bridge Welding Code is the result of an agreement between AASHTO and AWS to produce a joint between AASHTO and AWS to produce a joint AASHTO/AWS Structural Welding Code for steel highway AASHTO/AWS Structural Welding Code for steel highway bridges that addresses essential AASHTO needs and makes bridges that addresses essential AASHTO needs and makes AASHTO revisions mandatory.AASHTO revisions mandatory.

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FOREWORD

While D1.5 has a superficial resemblance to D1.1, there While D1.5 has a superficial resemblance to D1.1, there are significant differences, such as the lack of provisions are significant differences, such as the lack of provisions relating to statically loaded structures, tubular construction relating to statically loaded structures, tubular construction or the modification of existing structures. Users are or the modification of existing structures. Users are encouraged to develop their own requirements for these encouraged to develop their own requirements for these applications or use existing documents like, D1.1 with the applications or use existing documents like, D1.1 with the appropriate modifications.appropriate modifications.

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FOREWORD Selection of materials and in qualification and control of WPS to Selection of materials and in qualification and control of WPS to

ensure that all steel bridge members and welds have sufficient ensure that all steel bridge members and welds have sufficient toughness to resist brittle fracture. Additional steps are taken in design toughness to resist brittle fracture. Additional steps are taken in design and construction of bridges to avoid conditions that may lead to and construction of bridges to avoid conditions that may lead to hydrogen-induced or fatigue cracking. The methods used to achieve hydrogen-induced or fatigue cracking. The methods used to achieve these goals are based upon the control of welding heat inputs and these goals are based upon the control of welding heat inputs and attendant cooling rates, and the minimizing or avoidance of stress attendant cooling rates, and the minimizing or avoidance of stress concentrations from weld or base metal discontinuities. Control of concentrations from weld or base metal discontinuities. Control of transformation cooling rates, in addition to control of weld and base transformation cooling rates, in addition to control of weld and base metal chemistry, ensures that required mechanical properties are metal chemistry, ensures that required mechanical properties are obtained in welds and adjacent HAZs. Heat input control, in addition obtained in welds and adjacent HAZs. Heat input control, in addition to control of preheat and interpass temperatures, ensures that the base to control of preheat and interpass temperatures, ensures that the base metal is not degraded as a result of permanent or temporary welds. metal is not degraded as a result of permanent or temporary welds. These same controls provide safeguards against hydrogen-induced These same controls provide safeguards against hydrogen-induced cracking.cracking.

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FOREWORD Bridges are cyclically loaded structures, are stressed with full design Bridges are cyclically loaded structures, are stressed with full design

forces more frequently, with enough applications of design loading to forces more frequently, with enough applications of design loading to induce fatigue in the member or component.induce fatigue in the member or component.

Fracture safety is important for all metal structures. In this code, Fracture safety is important for all metal structures. In this code, emphasis is placed upon qualification and control of WPSs and emphasis is placed upon qualification and control of WPSs and avoidance of hydrogen and fatigue cracks.avoidance of hydrogen and fatigue cracks.

Nonredundant fracture critical steel bridge members require a higher Nonredundant fracture critical steel bridge members require a higher level of quality in materials and workmanship to ensure safety level of quality in materials and workmanship to ensure safety equivalent to that of redundant bridge members.equivalent to that of redundant bridge members.

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FOREWORD Fracture avoidance, particularly avoidance of brittle fracture, is a Fracture avoidance, particularly avoidance of brittle fracture, is a

primary goal of this code.primary goal of this code.

Brittle fracture is the abrupt rupture of a member or component loaded Brittle fracture is the abrupt rupture of a member or component loaded in tension.in tension.

Bridge member, the loading is generally transferred to adjacent Bridge member, the loading is generally transferred to adjacent members and general collapse does not occur. By definition, in non-members and general collapse does not occur. By definition, in non-redundant members, brittle fracture may cause collapse of the structure. redundant members, brittle fracture may cause collapse of the structure. Brittle fracture of a tension member is analogous to buckling of a Brittle fracture of a tension member is analogous to buckling of a compression member: rarely will either stop before failure is complete if compression member: rarely will either stop before failure is complete if the loading is maintained. However, this code does not address the loading is maintained. However, this code does not address buckling of steel bridge members, as buckling is primarily a design or buckling of steel bridge members, as buckling is primarily a design or maintenance consideration. maintenance consideration.

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FOREWORD Brittle fractures may result from what may have initially appeared to Brittle fractures may result from what may have initially appeared to

be small, prior to fatigue crack initiation and propagation to critical be small, prior to fatigue crack initiation and propagation to critical size.size.

The workmanship provisions of the code dictate that notches are to be The workmanship provisions of the code dictate that notches are to be avoided. The quality of welds specified in Section 3 of the code take avoided. The quality of welds specified in Section 3 of the code take this into account, and also provide standards for workmanship and this into account, and also provide standards for workmanship and weld sound-ness that help ensure fracture safety in bridge fatigue weld sound-ness that help ensure fracture safety in bridge fatigue environment.environment.

Fatigue crack prevention is dependent upon high fracture toughness, Fatigue crack prevention is dependent upon high fracture toughness, good design and good workmanship that minimizes stress good design and good workmanship that minimizes stress concentrations.concentrations.

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FOREWORD AASHTO specifies the minimum fracture toughness of AASHTO specifies the minimum fracture toughness of

steel plates and shapes used to construct bridge members.steel plates and shapes used to construct bridge members.

Good toughness ensures that cracks, created by any Good toughness ensures that cracks, created by any condition and possibly extended by fatigue, may grow to condition and possibly extended by fatigue, may grow to discoverable and therefore repairable size without causing discoverable and therefore repairable size without causing a brittle fracture.a brittle fracture.

The code has been written to protect the hardness and The code has been written to protect the hardness and toughness of both welds and HAZs.toughness of both welds and HAZs.

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FOREWORD Quenched and tempered have their strength and toughness affected by Quenched and tempered have their strength and toughness affected by

excessive welding heat input. Slow cooling rates form excessive excessive welding heat input. Slow cooling rates form excessive preheat and interpass temperatures, combined with high welding heat preheat and interpass temperatures, combined with high welding heat inputs, may also degrade the mechanical properties of welded joints in inputs, may also degrade the mechanical properties of welded joints in these heat treated steels. Fast cooling rates produced by welding with these heat treated steels. Fast cooling rates produced by welding with low welding heat input, combined with low preheat and interpass low welding heat input, combined with low preheat and interpass temperatures may produce excessive hardness and hydrogen-induced temperatures may produce excessive hardness and hydrogen-induced cracking in these same high strength steels. Proper procedures for cracking in these same high strength steels. Proper procedures for welding quenched and tempered steels are explained in the welding quenched and tempered steels are explained in the Commentary.Commentary.

Users of the code are encouraged to read all of the code and the Users of the code are encouraged to read all of the code and the Commentary.Commentary.

The Commentary is a nonmandatory addition of this Code.The Commentary is a nonmandatory addition of this Code.

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Scope of the Bridge Welding Code 1.1 Application1.1 Application

- 1.1.1 The code is not intended to be used for the - 1.1.1 The code is not intended to be used for the following:following:1.1. Steels with a minimum specified yield strength Steels with a minimum specified yield strength greater greater than 690 Mpa (100 Ksi)than 690 Mpa (100 Ksi)2.2. Pressure vessels or pressure pipingPressure vessels or pressure piping3.3. Base metals other than carbon or low alloy steelsBase metals other than carbon or low alloy steels4.4. Structures composed of structural tubingStructures composed of structural tubing5.5. Repairing Existing StructuresRepairing Existing Structures6.6. Statically Loaded StructureStatically Loaded Structure

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Scope of the Bridge Welding Code 1.2 Base Metals1.2 Base Metals

- M270M (M270) steels of a designated grade are - M270M (M270) steels of a designated grade are essentially the same as ASTM A 709M (A 709) steels of essentially the same as ASTM A 709M (A 709) steels of the same grade. A 709M (A709) may be used as a the same grade. A 709M (A709) may be used as a reference and a guide to other ASTM “referenced reference and a guide to other ASTM “referenced documents;” however, when there is a difference, the documents;” however, when there is a difference, the provisions of M270M (M270), including the documents provisions of M270M (M270), including the documents referenced in M270M (M270) shall govern.referenced in M270M (M270) shall govern.- 1.2.3 Thickness Limitations- 1.2.3 Thickness Limitations-The provisions of this code do not apply to welding base -The provisions of this code do not apply to welding base metals less than 3 mm (1/8 in.) thick. metals less than 3 mm (1/8 in.) thick.

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Scope of the Bridge Welding Code 1.3 Welding Processes1.3 Welding Processes

- 1.3.1 SMAW WPSs which conform to the provisions of - 1.3.1 SMAW WPSs which conform to the provisions of Sections 2,3 and 4, are operated within the limitation of Sections 2,3 and 4, are operated within the limitation of variables recommended by the manufacturer, and which variables recommended by the manufacturer, and which produce weld metal with a minimum specified yield produce weld metal with a minimum specified yield strength less than 620 MPa (90 ksi), shall be deemed strength less than 620 MPa (90 ksi), shall be deemed prequalified and exempt from the tests described in Section prequalified and exempt from the tests described in Section 5. WPSs for SAW, FCAW, GMAW, ESW, and EGW shall 5. WPSs for SAW, FCAW, GMAW, ESW, and EGW shall be qualified as described in 5.12 or 5.13, as applicable.be qualified as described in 5.12 or 5.13, as applicable.- 1.3.3 Stud welding may be used, provided the WPSs - 1.3.3 Stud welding may be used, provided the WPSs conform to the applicable provisions of Section 7.conform to the applicable provisions of Section 7.

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Scope of the Bridge Welding Code

- 1.3.4 GMAW-S (shot circuit arc) is not recommended for - 1.3.4 GMAW-S (shot circuit arc) is not recommended for the construction of bridge members and shall not be used the construction of bridge members and shall not be used without written approval of the Engineer.without written approval of the Engineer.

- 1.3.5 Other welding processes not described in this code - 1.3.5 Other welding processes not described in this code may be used if approved by the Engineer.may be used if approved by the Engineer.

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- 1.3.6 Welding of Ancillary Products. Unless otherwise - 1.3.6 Welding of Ancillary Products. Unless otherwise provided in the contract documents, ancillary products, provided in the contract documents, ancillary products, such as drainage components, expansion dams, curb plates, such as drainage components, expansion dams, curb plates, bearings, hand rails, cofferdams, sheet piling, and other bearings, hand rails, cofferdams, sheet piling, and other products not subject to calculated tensile stress from live products not subject to calculated tensile stress from live load and not welded to main members in tension areas as load and not welded to main members in tension areas as determined by the Engineer, may be fabricated without determined by the Engineer, may be fabricated without performing the WPS qualification tests described in performing the WPS qualification tests described in Section 5, subject to Engineer approval.Section 5, subject to Engineer approval.

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1.4 Fabricator Requirements1.4 Fabricator Requirements

Fabricators shall be certified under the AISC Quality Fabricators shall be certified under the AISC Quality Certification Program, Simple Steel Bridges or Major Steel Certification Program, Simple Steel Bridges or Major Steel Bridges, as required by the Engineer, or an equivalent Bridges, as required by the Engineer, or an equivalent program acceptable to the Engineer.program acceptable to the Engineer.

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C 1.1.1 The design of bridges is not described in the code. C 1.1.1 The design of bridges is not described in the code. This information is specified in the AASHTO Standard This information is specified in the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges or the AASHTO Specifications for Highway Bridges or the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.

C 1.1.2 The code is a “workmanship” specification, meaning C 1.1.2 The code is a “workmanship” specification, meaning the quality required is based upon what is readily the quality required is based upon what is readily available. “Suitability for service” is the minimum quality available. “Suitability for service” is the minimum quality required for the member or weld to perform its intended required for the member or weld to perform its intended function.function.

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Scope of the Bridge Welding CodeColorado Department of Transportation Colorado Department of Transportation Staff Bridge BranchStaff Bridge BranchBridge Design Manual, November 5, 1991Bridge Design Manual, November 5, 1991

- In addition to AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, with - In addition to AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, with current interims, the following references are to be used when applicable for current interims, the following references are to be used when applicable for the design of steel highway bridges:the design of steel highway bridges:- AASHTO Guide Specifications for Fracture Critical Non-redundant Steel - AASHTO Guide Specifications for Fracture Critical Non-redundant Steel Bridge Members (now replaced with section 12 of D1.5).Bridge Members (now replaced with section 12 of D1.5).- AASHOT Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges.- AASHOT Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges.- ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code.- ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code.- AASHTO Standard Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges.- AASHTO Standard Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges.

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AASHTO M270/ASTM A709

Bridge Code Requirements for Base MetalBridge Code Requirements for Base Metal- C1.2.2 All approved base metals shall conform to the - C1.2.2 All approved base metals shall conform to the minimum CVN test values specified by AASHTO for the minimum CVN test values specified by AASHTO for the temperature zone in which the bridge will be located. temperature zone in which the bridge will be located. Weld metal CVN test value requirements are described in Weld metal CVN test value requirements are described in Table 4.1/ 4.2, based upon AASHTO Temperature Zones Table 4.1/ 4.2, based upon AASHTO Temperature Zones I, II, or III.I, II, or III.- C1.2.3 Minimum thickness of 3 mm and maximum - C1.2.3 Minimum thickness of 3 mm and maximum thickness of 100 mmthickness of 100 mm- 12.4.2 Mill orders shall specify killed fine-grain practice - 12.4.2 Mill orders shall specify killed fine-grain practice for steel used in FCMs.for steel used in FCMs.

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AASHTO M270/ASTM A709

History of MaterialHistory of Material

Equivalent materials, Supplementary Equivalent materials, Supplementary requirements, Zone temperature, Fracture/ requirements, Zone temperature, Fracture/ Non- Fracture Critical & Uncoated Non- Fracture Critical & Uncoated (unpainted) material(unpainted) material

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Fracture Critical Non-redundant Members

Historically, the following fabrication related factors have Historically, the following fabrication related factors have contributed to bridge member failures; contributed to bridge member failures; - Design details resulting in notches or stress - Design details resulting in notches or stress

concentrationsconcentrations- Design details requiring joints difficult to weld and - Design details requiring joints difficult to weld and

inspectinspect- Lack of base metal and weld metal toughness- Lack of base metal and weld metal toughness- Hydrogen-induced cracks- Hydrogen-induced cracks- Improper fabrication, welding and weld repair- Improper fabrication, welding and weld repair- Unqualified personnel in inspection and NDT- Unqualified personnel in inspection and NDT

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Fracture Critical Non-redundant Members The Fracture Control Plan, addition of section 12 of D1.5 in 1995, has The Fracture Control Plan, addition of section 12 of D1.5 in 1995, has

replaced the “Guide Specifications for Fracture Critical Non-replaced the “Guide Specifications for Fracture Critical Non-Redundant Steel Bridge Members-1978” developed by AASHTO.Redundant Steel Bridge Members-1978” developed by AASHTO.

12.2.2 Fracture Critical Member (FCM) or member components are 12.2.2 Fracture Critical Member (FCM) or member components are tension members or tension components of bending members tension members or tension components of bending members (including those subject to reversal of stress), the failure of which (including those subject to reversal of stress), the failure of which would be expected to result in collapse of the bridge. All attachments would be expected to result in collapse of the bridge. All attachments and weld to FCMs shall be considered an FCM. Tension members and weld to FCMs shall be considered an FCM. Tension members whose failure would not cause collapse of the bridge are not fracture whose failure would not cause collapse of the bridge are not fracture critical. Compression members do not come under the provisions of critical. Compression members do not come under the provisions of this plan as they do not fail by fatigue crack initiation and extension, this plan as they do not fail by fatigue crack initiation and extension, but rather by yielding or buckling.but rather by yielding or buckling.

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Fracture Critical Non-redundant Members Example of complete fracture critical bridge members are tension ties Example of complete fracture critical bridge members are tension ties

in arch bridges and tension chords in truss bridges, provided a failure in arch bridges and tension chords in truss bridges, provided a failure of the tie or chord could cause the bridge to collapse. Some complex of the tie or chord could cause the bridge to collapse. Some complex trusses and arch bridges without ties do not depend upon any single trusses and arch bridges without ties do not depend upon any single tension member for structural integrity; therefore the tension member tension member for structural integrity; therefore the tension member would not be considered a FCM.would not be considered a FCM.

Design evaluationDesign evaluation- A critical part of any complete Fracture Control Plan deals with - A critical part of any complete Fracture Control Plan deals with design and detailing.design and detailing.- Fatigue requirements are extensively covered by AASHTO - Fatigue requirements are extensively covered by AASHTO Specifications and, where necessary, are made more conservative for Specifications and, where necessary, are made more conservative for fracture critical members.fracture critical members.

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- The designer shall examine each detail for compliance with the - The designer shall examine each detail for compliance with the fatigue requirements and ensure that the detailing will allow effective fatigue requirements and ensure that the detailing will allow effective joining techniques and NDT of all welded joints.joining techniques and NDT of all welded joints.

Fine-Grain PracticeFine-Grain Practice- Steels manufactured using killed fine-grain practice have better - Steels manufactured using killed fine-grain practice have better resistance to crack initiation and crack propagation than steels not resistance to crack initiation and crack propagation than steels not manufactured to this practice.manufactured to this practice.- Fatigue crack initiation and growth is dependent upon stress range, - Fatigue crack initiation and growth is dependent upon stress range, stress concentrations and the number of cycles.stress concentrations and the number of cycles.

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Optional Through-Thickness and Low Sulfur requirementsOptional Through-Thickness and Low Sulfur requirements- Lamellar tearing occurs in the Through-Thickness direction because - Lamellar tearing occurs in the Through-Thickness direction because the base metal has limited ductility in that direction. Normally, the base metal has limited ductility in that direction. Normally, sulfides are the most detrimental type of inclusions that contribute to sulfides are the most detrimental type of inclusions that contribute to lamellar tearing, however, silicates and alumina may also influence lamellar tearing, however, silicates and alumina may also influence susceptibility to lamellar tearing. Base metal with low sulfur (less than susceptibility to lamellar tearing. Base metal with low sulfur (less than 0.010%) and improved through-thickness properties can be specified, 0.010%) and improved through-thickness properties can be specified, typically at an increased cost.typically at an increased cost.

Optional Heat TreatmentOptional Heat Treatment

ToughnessToughness- Adopted after considerable research and deliberation between - Adopted after considerable research and deliberation between representatives of AASHTO/ AISI/ AISCrepresentatives of AASHTO/ AISI/ AISC

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Mill OrdersMill Orders- All approved base metals shall conform to the minimum CVN test - All approved base metals shall conform to the minimum CVN test values specified by AASHTO M270M for the temperature zone in values specified by AASHTO M270M for the temperature zone in which the bridge will be constructed. The Mill order shall specify the which the bridge will be constructed. The Mill order shall specify the CVN that values required.CVN that values required.

- Plate frequency testing requires that each plate shall be heat number - Plate frequency testing requires that each plate shall be heat number identified by the mill, with the corresponding number and the CVN identified by the mill, with the corresponding number and the CVN test values shown on the mill test report.test values shown on the mill test report.

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Fracture Critical Non-redundant Members Prohibited ProcessProhibited Process

- 12.5.2 For FCM, The Engineer’s approval shall be required for all - 12.5.2 For FCM, The Engineer’s approval shall be required for all GMAW WPSs, regardless of mode of transfer (note that MCAW is GMAW WPSs, regardless of mode of transfer (note that MCAW is also considered GMAW since 1980 by AWS). also considered GMAW since 1980 by AWS).

-12.5.2 ESW/ EGW shall be prohibited for welding FCMs.-12.5.2 ESW/ EGW shall be prohibited for welding FCMs.

Diffusible Hydrogen of Weld MetalDiffusible Hydrogen of Weld Metal- The resistance to brittle fracture of a welded connection is dependent - The resistance to brittle fracture of a welded connection is dependent upon eliminating conditions that might reasonably be anticipated to upon eliminating conditions that might reasonably be anticipated to lead to the initiation of cracks. The FCP limits the addition of lead to the initiation of cracks. The FCP limits the addition of unacceptable levels of diffusible hydrogen during the fabrication of unacceptable levels of diffusible hydrogen during the fabrication of FCM members.FCM members.

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Consumable requirementsConsumable requirements

- 12.6.3 Weld Metal Strength and Ductility Requirements - 12.6.3 Weld Metal Strength and Ductility Requirements shall conform to the requirements of Table 4.1 and 4.2shall conform to the requirements of Table 4.1 and 4.2

- 12.6.4 Weld Metal Toughness Requirements - 12.6.4 Weld Metal Toughness Requirements - Matching Strength Groove Welds. When matching - Matching Strength Groove Welds. When matching strength filler metals are required, the code requires that strength filler metals are required, the code requires that the minimum notch toughness of the filler metal be as the minimum notch toughness of the filler metal be as described in Table 12.1.described in Table 12.1.

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- Undermatching Strength Welds. When matching strength - Undermatching Strength Welds. When matching strength filler metal is not required, the Engineer is encouraged to filler metal is not required, the Engineer is encouraged to use, where appropriate, lower strength high ductility weld use, where appropriate, lower strength high ductility weld metal that will reduce residual stress, distortion, and the metal that will reduce residual stress, distortion, and the risk of cracking or lamellar tearing in adjacent base metal risk of cracking or lamellar tearing in adjacent base metal HAZs. The code required a minimum notch toughness of HAZs. The code required a minimum notch toughness of the undermatching strength filler metal of 34 J @ -30 C the undermatching strength filler metal of 34 J @ -30 C [25 ft-lb @-20 F]. Undermatching is most often associated [25 ft-lb @-20 F]. Undermatching is most often associated with fillet welds on steels with a minimum specified yield with fillet welds on steels with a minimum specified yield strength greater than 345 Mpa [50 Ksi].strength greater than 345 Mpa [50 Ksi].

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Design: See a Contract documentColorado Department of Transportation Colorado Department of Transportation Staff Bridge BranchStaff Bridge BranchBridge Design Manual, November 5, 1991Bridge Design Manual, November 5, 1991

In addition to AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, In addition to AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, with current interims, the following references are to be used when with current interims, the following references are to be used when applicable for the design of steel highway bridges:applicable for the design of steel highway bridges:

- AASHTO Guide Spec. for Fracture Critical Non-redundant Steel AASHTO Guide Spec. for Fracture Critical Non-redundant Steel Bridge Members (was replaced with section 12 of D1.5 in 1995).Bridge Members (was replaced with section 12 of D1.5 in 1995).

- AASHOT Guide Spec. for Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges.AASHOT Guide Spec. for Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges.- ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code.ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code.- AASHTO Standard Spec. for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges.AASHTO Standard Spec. for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges.

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Design: See a Contract documentColorado Department of Transportation Colorado Department of Transportation Staff Bridge BranchStaff Bridge BranchBridge Design Manual (Con’t)Bridge Design Manual (Con’t) Fatigue: Except for bridges on interstate and primary highways, Fatigue: Except for bridges on interstate and primary highways,

fatigue design shall be based on the 20 year projected ADTT as fatigue design shall be based on the 20 year projected ADTT as derived from the final Form 463 or as reported by Staff Traffic (C9).derived from the final Form 463 or as reported by Staff Traffic (C9).- Commentary (9) Above paragraph assumes use of the AASHTO - Commentary (9) Above paragraph assumes use of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for fatigue design.Standard Specifications for fatigue design.

Fatigue design for all bridges on interstate and primary highways shall Fatigue design for all bridges on interstate and primary highways shall be based on the Case I stress cycles in the AASHTO Standard be based on the Case I stress cycles in the AASHTO Standard Specifications (C10).Specifications (C10).- Commentary (10) Under normal loading conditions, fatigue failure in - Commentary (10) Under normal loading conditions, fatigue failure in steel girders is apparently more common than failure due to member steel girders is apparently more common than failure due to member load capacity.load capacity.

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Design: General, Spec., Fatigue C1.1 This AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code is C1.1 This AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code is

specifically written for the use of states, provinces and specifically written for the use of states, provinces and other governmental members associated with AASHTO. other governmental members associated with AASHTO. Other organizations that have a need to construct welded Other organizations that have a need to construct welded steel bridges to support dynamic loads should study the steel bridges to support dynamic loads should study the relationship between the fatigue loads imposed on their relationship between the fatigue loads imposed on their structure and the design truck loads and number of cycles structure and the design truck loads and number of cycles provided for in the AASHTO Standard specification for provided for in the AASHTO Standard specification for Highway Bridges.Highway Bridges.

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Design: General, Spec., Fatigue C1.1.1 The design of bridges is not described in the code. C1.1.1 The design of bridges is not described in the code.

This information is specified in the AASHTO Standard This information is specified in the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges or the AASHTO Specifications for Highway Bridges or the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.

C1.1.2 The code is a “workmanship” specification, C1.1.2 The code is a “workmanship” specification, meaning the quality required is based upon what is readily meaning the quality required is based upon what is readily achievable. “Suitability for service” is the minimum achievable. “Suitability for service” is the minimum quality required for the member or weld to perform its quality required for the member or weld to perform its intended function.intended function.

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Design of Welded Connections

C2.1 Engineer should make efforts to minimize the size of C2.1 Engineer should make efforts to minimize the size of groove weld where possible, adequate access for welding groove weld where possible, adequate access for welding and visual inspection to avoid distortion and residual and visual inspection to avoid distortion and residual stresses, and may cause lamellar tearing in corner and T-stresses, and may cause lamellar tearing in corner and T-joints.joints.- Residual stresses may be reduced by minimizing the - Residual stresses may be reduced by minimizing the volume of weld metal and by lowering the yield strength volume of weld metal and by lowering the yield strength of the weld metal to the minimum strength acceptable for of the weld metal to the minimum strength acceptable for the design. Undermatching of weld metal strength is the design. Undermatching of weld metal strength is encouraged for fillet welds that are designed to transmit encouraged for fillet welds that are designed to transmit only shear stress.only shear stress.

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- Some welded joint configurations for corner and T-joints - Some welded joint configurations for corner and T-joints contribute more than others to the risk of lamellar tearing, contribute more than others to the risk of lamellar tearing, cracks parallel to the plate surface caused by high cracks parallel to the plate surface caused by high localized through-thickness strains induced by thermal localized through-thickness strains induced by thermal shrinkage. The capacity to transmit through-thickness shrinkage. The capacity to transmit through-thickness stresses is essential to the proper functioning of some stresses is essential to the proper functioning of some corner and T-joints. Lamination (pre-existing planes of corner and T-joints. Lamination (pre-existing planes of weakness in the base metal) or lamellar tearing may impair weakness in the base metal) or lamellar tearing may impair this capacity.this capacity.

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- In connections where lamellar tearing might be a - In connections where lamellar tearing might be a problem, consideration should be given in design to problem, consideration should be given in design to maximum component flexibility and minimize weld maximum component flexibility and minimize weld shrinkage strain.shrinkage strain.- The details of welded joints provided in Figure 2.4/ 2.5 - The details of welded joints provided in Figure 2.4/ 2.5 shall be considered standard and therefore based upon a shall be considered standard and therefore based upon a long history of successful performance during welding and long history of successful performance during welding and in service.in service.

5.7.7 Contractor are encouraged to use Figure 2.4/ 2.5 5.7.7 Contractor are encouraged to use Figure 2.4/ 2.5 joints.joints.

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C2.12.2 Corner Joints: Since lamellar tearing is potentially C2.12.2 Corner Joints: Since lamellar tearing is potentially a serious problem in corner and T-joints where shrinkage a serious problem in corner and T-joints where shrinkage stresses pull upon the base metal in the short transverse or stresses pull upon the base metal in the short transverse or “Z” direction, efforts should be made to minimize the “Z” direction, efforts should be made to minimize the potential for tearing. Shrinkage stresses have less adverse potential for tearing. Shrinkage stresses have less adverse effects on plates stressed in the longitudinal direction effects on plates stressed in the longitudinal direction (parallel to the rolling direction).(parallel to the rolling direction).

Controlling weld volume, limiting weld metal yield stress, Controlling weld volume, limiting weld metal yield stress, increasing preheats, using PWHT, and the use of increasing preheats, using PWHT, and the use of controlled sulfur inclusion stress reduces the risk of controlled sulfur inclusion stress reduces the risk of lamellar tearing. Not all methods are needed for every lamellar tearing. Not all methods are needed for every application.application.

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Design of Welded Connections The following precautions may reduce the risk of lamellar The following precautions may reduce the risk of lamellar

tearing during fabrication in highly restrained welding tearing during fabrication in highly restrained welding conditions;conditions;- On corner joints, where feasible, the bevel should be on - On corner joints, where feasible, the bevel should be on the through-thickness memberthe through-thickness member- The size of the weld groove should be kept to a minimum - The size of the weld groove should be kept to a minimum consistent with the design, and unnecessary welding consistent with the design, and unnecessary welding should be avoidedshould be avoided- Subassemblies involving corner and T-joints should be - Subassemblies involving corner and T-joints should be fabricated completely prior to final assembly. Final fabricated completely prior to final assembly. Final assembly should preferably be at butt jointsassembly should preferably be at butt joints

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Design of Welded Connections- A predetermined weld sequence should be selected to - A predetermined weld sequence should be selected to minimize cumulative shrinkage stresses on the most minimize cumulative shrinkage stresses on the most highly restrained elementshighly restrained elements- Undermatching using a lower strength weld metal, - Undermatching using a lower strength weld metal, consistent with design requirements, should be used to consistent with design requirements, should be used to allow higher strain in the weld metal, reducing stress in allow higher strain in the weld metal, reducing stress in the more sensitive through-thickness direction of the the more sensitive through-thickness direction of the base metalbase metal- “Buttering” with low strength weld metal, peening, or - “Buttering” with low strength weld metal, peening, or other special procedures should be considered to other special procedures should be considered to minimize through-thickness shrinkage strains in the minimize through-thickness shrinkage strains in the base metalbase metal

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Material with improved through-thickness ductility may be Material with improved through-thickness ductility may be specified for critical connections (where tensile loading is specified for critical connections (where tensile loading is in through-thickness direction and in this case material in through-thickness direction and in this case material should be UT inspected).should be UT inspected).

Engineer should selectively specify UT inspection, after Engineer should selectively specify UT inspection, after fabrication or erection or both.fabrication or erection or both.

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Design of Welded Connections C2.1.3 Partial joint penetration (PJP) groove welds are limited to C2.1.3 Partial joint penetration (PJP) groove welds are limited to

joints designed to transmit compression in butt joints with full-milled joints designed to transmit compression in butt joints with full-milled bearing surfaces, and to corner and T-joints. PJP groove welds also bearing surfaces, and to corner and T-joints. PJP groove welds also may be used in nonstructural appurtenances such as ancillary products. may be used in nonstructural appurtenances such as ancillary products. In butt joints, they may be used to transmit compressive stress, but In butt joints, they may be used to transmit compressive stress, but should never be used to carry tensile stress in bridge members because should never be used to carry tensile stress in bridge members because of short fatigue life.of short fatigue life.

Longitudinal web-to-flange welds designed for tensile stresses parallel Longitudinal web-to-flange welds designed for tensile stresses parallel to the weld throat have the same allowable fatigue stress range to the weld throat have the same allowable fatigue stress range whether designed as a fillet weld or a CJP groove weld with backing whether designed as a fillet weld or a CJP groove weld with backing removed. PJP groove welds and CJP groove welds with backing removed. PJP groove welds and CJP groove welds with backing remaining in place have a lower allowable fatigue stress range.remaining in place have a lower allowable fatigue stress range.

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There will be no increase in bridge safety as a result of There will be no increase in bridge safety as a result of specifying CJP groove welds where PJP groove welds or specifying CJP groove welds where PJP groove welds or fillet welds, at considerably less cost, will carry the design fillet welds, at considerably less cost, will carry the design stress. Smaller weld volumes, consistent with design stress stress. Smaller weld volumes, consistent with design stress requirements, create less residual stress and less chance requirements, create less residual stress and less chance that there will be unacceptable distortion or lamellar that there will be unacceptable distortion or lamellar tearing.tearing.

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Design of Welded Connections Connection DetailsConnection Details

2.17.6 Connections or splices in beams or girders when 2.17.6 Connections or splices in beams or girders when made by groove welds shall have CJP groove welds. Other made by groove welds shall have CJP groove welds. Other connections or splices with fillet welds shall be designed connections or splices with fillet welds shall be designed for the average of the calculated stress and the strength of for the average of the calculated stress and the strength of member, but no less than 75% of the strength of member. member, but no less than 75% of the strength of member. When there is repeated application of load, the maximum When there is repeated application of load, the maximum stress or stress range in such connections or splices shall stress or stress range in such connections or splices shall not exceed the fatigue stress allowed by the AASHTO not exceed the fatigue stress allowed by the AASHTO specifications.specifications.

2.17.5 Transition of Thicknesses or widths of butt joints2.17.5 Transition of Thicknesses or widths of butt joints- No more than 1 transverse to 2.5 longitudinal- No more than 1 transverse to 2.5 longitudinal

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C2.12.1 For thicker materials,the most economic CJP C2.12.1 For thicker materials,the most economic CJP groove weld joint preparations are often J and U groove groove weld joint preparations are often J and U groove preparations. These joints provide the best access for preparations. These joints provide the best access for welding at the root and use the least amount of weld metal. welding at the root and use the least amount of weld metal. However, J and U groove preparations are rarely used in However, J and U groove preparations are rarely used in shops prior to assembly because of assumed high costs shops prior to assembly because of assumed high costs since prior to assembly, they can only be produced by since prior to assembly, they can only be produced by machining.machining.

C2.13 PJP prohibited in any application where tensile C2.13 PJP prohibited in any application where tensile stress may be imposed by live or dead loads normal to the stress may be imposed by live or dead loads normal to the weld throat.weld throat.

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Prohibited Joints /WeldsProhibited Joints /Welds 2.3.1.4 Flare groove welds shall not be used to join structural steel in 2.3.1.4 Flare groove welds shall not be used to join structural steel in

bridgesbridges 2.14 Prohibited Joints /Welds2.14 Prohibited Joints /Welds

- All PJP groove welds in butt joints except those conforming to 2.17.3- All PJP groove welds in butt joints except those conforming to 2.17.3- CJP groove welds made from one side only without any backing, or - CJP groove welds made from one side only without any backing, or with backing other than steel, that has not been qualified in with backing other than steel, that has not been qualified in conformance with 5.13conformance with 5.13- Intermittent groove/ fillet weld- Intermittent groove/ fillet weld- Flat position bevel-groove and J-groove welds in butt joints where V-- Flat position bevel-groove and J-groove welds in butt joints where V-groove and U-groove welds are practicablegroove and U-groove welds are practicable- Plug and slot welds in members subject to tension and reversal of - Plug and slot welds in members subject to tension and reversal of stressstress-Tubular structure-Tubular structure

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Design of Welded Connections Prohibited Welding ProcessProhibited Welding Process

- C12.5.2 - C12.5.2 GMAW-SGMAW-S Short-circuiting transfer is suited for Short-circuiting transfer is suited for sheet metal applications of less than 1 mm thick and sheet metal applications of less than 1 mm thick and typically less than 6 mm. It may lead to a condition where typically less than 6 mm. It may lead to a condition where fusion to the base materials is not achieved (cold lap).fusion to the base materials is not achieved (cold lap).

- 2.13.1.1 All PJP groove welds made by - 2.13.1.1 All PJP groove welds made by GMAW-SGMAW-S shall shall be qualified by the WPS qualification tests described in be qualified by the WPS qualification tests described in 5.135.13

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Design of Welded Connections Processes to be AvoidedProcesses to be Avoided

- 12.5.2 GMAW process of any modes of transfer shall not - 12.5.2 GMAW process of any modes of transfer shall not be used in the construction of bridge members without the be used in the construction of bridge members without the written approval of the Engineer.written approval of the Engineer.

- 1.3.4 Short circuiting - 1.3.4 Short circuiting GMAW-SGMAW-S is restricted because of is restricted because of its propensity to form fusion discontinuities called cold its propensity to form fusion discontinuities called cold laps. Properly qualified GMAW WPSs, operated in the laps. Properly qualified GMAW WPSs, operated in the spray of globular mode of metal transfer are allowed.spray of globular mode of metal transfer are allowed.

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Welds in combination with Rivets and BoltsWelds in combination with Rivets and Bolts- 2.16 In new work, rivets or bolts in combination with - 2.16 In new work, rivets or bolts in combination with welds shall not be considered as sharing the stress, and the welds shall not be considered as sharing the stress, and the welds shall be provided to carry the entire stress for which welds shall be provided to carry the entire stress for which the connection is designed. Bolts or rivets used in the connection is designed. Bolts or rivets used in assembly may be left in place if their removal is not assembly may be left in place if their removal is not specified.specified.

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There are approximately 600,000 rivets in each tower of Golden Gate Bridge.

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Design:Welded Connections

Compare Bridge Code with CSA W59Compare Bridge Code with CSA W59

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Golden Gate Bridge

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Golden Gate Bridge The dream of spanning the Golden Gate Strait had been around for The dream of spanning the Golden Gate Strait had been around for

well over a century before the Golden Gate Bridge opened to traffic on well over a century before the Golden Gate Bridge opened to traffic on May 28, 1937. On Sunday, May 24, 1987, this dream come true was May 28, 1937. On Sunday, May 24, 1987, this dream come true was celebrated as the Golden Gate Bridge turned fifty. With great fanfare, celebrated as the Golden Gate Bridge turned fifty. With great fanfare, people from all over the world came to pay homage to the Bridge, people from all over the world came to pay homage to the Bridge, become part of an historical celebration and create lifelong memories. become part of an historical celebration and create lifelong memories. The day began as "Bridge walk 87", a reenactment of "Pedestrian Day The day began as "Bridge walk 87", a reenactment of "Pedestrian Day 37". It is estimated that nearly 300,000 people surged onto the 37". It is estimated that nearly 300,000 people surged onto the roadway. roadway.

Just over four years. Construction commenced on January 5, 1933 Just over four years. Construction commenced on January 5, 1933 and the Bridge was open to vehicular traffic on May 28, 1937.and the Bridge was open to vehicular traffic on May 28, 1937.

The cost to construct a new Golden Gate Bridge would be The cost to construct a new Golden Gate Bridge would be approximately $1.2 billion in 2003 dollars. The total price depends on approximately $1.2 billion in 2003 dollars. The total price depends on a many factors including the extent of the environmental reviews and a many factors including the extent of the environmental reviews and the cost of labor and materials.the cost of labor and materials.

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Golden Gate Bridge Many misconceptions exist about how often the Bridge is painted. Many misconceptions exist about how often the Bridge is painted.

Some say once every seven years, others say from end-to-end each Some say once every seven years, others say from end-to-end each year. Actually, the Bridge was painted when it was originally built. year. Actually, the Bridge was painted when it was originally built. For the next 27 years, only touch up was required. By 1965, For the next 27 years, only touch up was required. By 1965, advancing corrosion sparked a program to remove the original paint advancing corrosion sparked a program to remove the original paint and replace it with an inorganic zinc silicate primer and acrylic and replace it with an inorganic zinc silicate primer and acrylic emulsion topcoat. The program was completed in 1995. The Bridge emulsion topcoat. The program was completed in 1995. The Bridge will continue to require routine touch up painting on an on-going will continue to require routine touch up painting on an on-going basis.basis.

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Golden Gate Bridge The fabricated steel used in the construction of the Golden Gate The fabricated steel used in the construction of the Golden Gate

Bridge was manufactured by Bethlehem Steel in plants in Trenton, Bridge was manufactured by Bethlehem Steel in plants in Trenton, New Jersey and Sparrows Point, Maryland and in plants in three New Jersey and Sparrows Point, Maryland and in plants in three Pennsylvania towns: Bethlehem, Pottstown, and Steelton. The steel Pennsylvania towns: Bethlehem, Pottstown, and Steelton. The steel was loaded, in sections, onto rail cars, taken to Philadelphia and was loaded, in sections, onto rail cars, taken to Philadelphia and shipped through the Panama Canal to San Francisco. The shipment of shipped through the Panama Canal to San Francisco. The shipment of the steel was timed to coincide with the construction of the bridge.the steel was timed to coincide with the construction of the bridge.

http://www.goldengatebridge.org/research/factsGGBDesign.htmlhttp://www.goldengatebridge.org/research/factsGGBDesign.html http://www.goldengatebridge.org/photos/bridgewalk.html#http://www.goldengatebridge.org/photos/bridgewalk.html# http://www.goldengatebridge.org/research/facts.htmlhttp://www.goldengatebridge.org/research/facts.html

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Electrode/ Wire AWS Definition about Metal Core WireAWS Definition about Metal Core Wire

GMAW may be performed with solid electrodes or metal-GMAW may be performed with solid electrodes or metal-cored electrodes.cored electrodes.

- When introduced in the mid 1970s, metal-cored - When introduced in the mid 1970s, metal-cored electrodes were originally classified as flux cored for electrodes were originally classified as flux cored for FCAW-G welding. FCAW-G welding. - In early 1990, the AWS A5 Filler Metal Committee - In early 1990, the AWS A5 Filler Metal Committee determined that it was more appropriate to classify the determined that it was more appropriate to classify the welding performed with MCAW as GMAW, because welding performed with MCAW as GMAW, because metal-cored electrodes did not leave behind the residual metal-cored electrodes did not leave behind the residual slag blanket consistent with the FCAW process.slag blanket consistent with the FCAW process.

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Electrode/ Wire Table 4.1 versus Table 4.2Table 4.1 versus Table 4.2

- C5.7.4 Table 4.1 Processes – all welding processes approved for use - C5.7.4 Table 4.1 Processes – all welding processes approved for use by the code have been used successfully for many years and have by the code have been used successfully for many years and have longer history of successful use than Table 4.2 processes, and are longer history of successful use than Table 4.2 processes, and are considered to be more tolerant of changes in process variables without considered to be more tolerant of changes in process variables without adversely affecting weld soundness or required mechanical properties.adversely affecting weld soundness or required mechanical properties.

- C5.7.5 Table 4.2 Processes – welding consumables in this table are - C5.7.5 Table 4.2 Processes – welding consumables in this table are either those that produce very high strength weld metal or require a either those that produce very high strength weld metal or require a higher level of care to produce sound welds.higher level of care to produce sound welds.- The placement of a welding process in Table 4.2 does not indicate - The placement of a welding process in Table 4.2 does not indicate that the process is inherently less suitable than another. GMAW and that the process is inherently less suitable than another. GMAW and FCAW-S WPSs may require closer control of welding variables and FCAW-S WPSs may require closer control of welding variables and techniques to provide sound welds with the specified properties, techniques to provide sound welds with the specified properties, compare to SAW, SMAW, and FCAW-G processes.compare to SAW, SMAW, and FCAW-G processes.

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Electrode/ Wire

WPS Qualification for consumablesWPS Qualification for consumables 12.6.1 All welding consumables shall be heat or lot tested 12.6.1 All welding consumables shall be heat or lot tested

by the manufacturer to meet by the manufacturer to meet FCPFCP based on AWS A5.01 based on AWS A5.01- 12.6.1.1 For manufacturer audited by one or more of the - 12.6.1.1 For manufacturer audited by one or more of the ABS, ASME or Lloyd's Register of Shipping then Clause ABS, ASME or Lloyd's Register of Shipping then Clause 12.6.1 requirement can be exempted12.6.1 requirement can be exempted

What is recommended for matching & Exposed What is recommended for matching & Exposed Bare ApplicationBare Application

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Procedure Qualification Test

Pre-Qualified ProceduresPre-Qualified Procedures- C1.9 Each weld shall be made using an approved WPS. - C1.9 Each weld shall be made using an approved WPS. Two exceptions are:Two exceptions are:1) SMAW that has a minimum specified yield strength 1) SMAW that has a minimum specified yield strength

less than 620 Mpa (90 Ksi), provided the WPS less than 620 Mpa (90 Ksi), provided the WPS conforms to manufacturer’s recommendations for conforms to manufacturer’s recommendations for weld variables, and the welding shall be done in weld variables, and the welding shall be done in conformance with provisions of Section 4, Part B conformance with provisions of Section 4, Part B ((please note that only SMAW on Table 4.1 is pre-please note that only SMAW on Table 4.1 is pre-qualifiedqualified).).

2) 1.3.6 Ancillary product welding 2) 1.3.6 Ancillary product welding

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1.3.6 Welding of Ancillary Products exempt from 1.3.6 Welding of Ancillary Products exempt from WPS:WPS:- SMAW, SAW, FCAW and GMAW WPSs, provided - SMAW, SAW, FCAW and GMAW WPSs, provided that welding is performed in conformance with all other that welding is performed in conformance with all other provisions of the codeprovisions of the code- All welding shall be conducted within limitations of - All welding shall be conducted within limitations of welding variables recommended by the filler metal welding variables recommended by the filler metal manufacturermanufacturer- Weld attaching ancillary products to main members - Weld attaching ancillary products to main members shall meet all requirements of the Code, including WPS shall meet all requirements of the Code, including WPS qualification testingqualification testing- The Engineer is the final judge- The Engineer is the final judge

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Limited Prequalification for SMAW as explained beforeLimited Prequalification for SMAW as explained before

- For FCMs only E7016, E7018, E7018-1 and E8018-X - For FCMs only E7016, E7018, E7018-1 and E8018-X (including those with the “C” alloy and “M” military (including those with the “C” alloy and “M” military classifications and the optional supplemental designator classifications and the optional supplemental designator “R” designating moisture resistance, shall be prequalified.“R” designating moisture resistance, shall be prequalified.

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Test Plate ThicknessTest Plate Thickness- 5.6.1 WPSs for SMAW, FCAW, GMAW, and SAW - 5.6.1 WPSs for SMAW, FCAW, GMAW, and SAW shall be based on PQR test plates with thicknesses greater shall be based on PQR test plates with thicknesses greater than or equal to 25 mm, and shall qualify the WPS for use than or equal to 25 mm, and shall qualify the WPS for use on all steel thicknesses covered by this code.on all steel thicknesses covered by this code.- 5.6.2 EGW and ESW WPSs. Test plates shall conform to - 5.6.2 EGW and ESW WPSs. Test plates shall conform to Table 5.4 (17).Table 5.4 (17).- 5.6.3 Fillet weld soundness test plate thickness shall - 5.6.3 Fillet weld soundness test plate thickness shall conform to Figure 5.8.conform to Figure 5.8.

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Procedure Qualification Test- C5.6 Previous editions of the code have required WPS qualification on - C5.6 Previous editions of the code have required WPS qualification on

two thicknesses of steel. two thicknesses of steel. - Study/ research: The thicker plates were expecting to generate higher - Study/ research: The thicker plates were expecting to generate higher cooling rates, resulting in higher strength levels and lower ductility and cooling rates, resulting in higher strength levels and lower ductility and thin plates also expected to result in lower toughness values. From thin plates also expected to result in lower toughness values. From previous data on several tests, the average yield strength of thin plate previous data on several tests, the average yield strength of thin plate specimens was 94% and the average tensile strength was 99% of that specimens was 94% and the average tensile strength was 99% of that associated with the thicker plate. CVN test values were affected to a associated with the thicker plate. CVN test values were affected to a greater extent than the tensile strength and elongation values, but no greater extent than the tensile strength and elongation values, but no uniform trend was seen. This was deemed to be due to other variables uniform trend was seen. This was deemed to be due to other variables than the cooling rate. Frank and Abel evaluated several hundred PQRs than the cooling rate. Frank and Abel evaluated several hundred PQRs and found that plate thickness, as well as a variety of other essential and found that plate thickness, as well as a variety of other essential variables described in the code, did not serve as a good predictor of the variables described in the code, did not serve as a good predictor of the probable mechanical properties. After analyzing this data, committee probable mechanical properties. After analyzing this data, committee decided to standardize all WPS testing on one plate thickness.decided to standardize all WPS testing on one plate thickness.

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Procedure Qualification TestPosition of test weldsPosition of test welds- 5.8.1 Each WPS shall be tested in the position in which - 5.8.1 Each WPS shall be tested in the position in which

welding will be performed in the work, except that test welding will be performed in the work, except that test welds made in the flat positions qualify for flat and welds made in the flat positions qualify for flat and horizontal welding.horizontal welding.

Base Metal for WPSBase Metal for WPSBacking for WPSBacking for WPS

- 5.4.5 Steel backing used in weld tests shall be of the - 5.4.5 Steel backing used in weld tests shall be of the same specification and grade as the weld test plates, but same specification and grade as the weld test plates, but CVN tests shall not be required.CVN tests shall not be required.

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NDTNDT- C5.17 All WPS are required to be radiographed with the - C5.17 All WPS are required to be radiographed with the provisions of Section 6 to demonstrate soundness before provisions of Section 6 to demonstrate soundness before mechanical testing, regardless of the welding process used.mechanical testing, regardless of the welding process used.- 6.10 Backing need not be removed for RT- 6.10 Backing need not be removed for RT- 6.26.5.2 NDT for M270M [M270] Grades 690/690W - 6.26.5.2 NDT for M270M [M270] Grades 690/690W [100/100w] steel shall performed not less than 48 hours [100/100w] steel shall performed not less than 48 hours after completion of welds.after completion of welds.

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WPS Qualification Test, WPS Qualification Test, Pretest,Verification of Pretest PQRsPretest,Verification of Pretest PQRs

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Procedure Qualification TestType of tests and purpose as listed in Table 5.5Type of tests and purpose as listed in Table 5.5

- 5.15 Mechanical testing shall verify that the WPS produces the strength, - 5.15 Mechanical testing shall verify that the WPS produces the strength, ductility, and toughness required by Tables 4.1, 4.2, or as approved by the ductility, and toughness required by Tables 4.1, 4.2, or as approved by the Engineer for the filler metal tested. Please note that CVN test values of Engineer for the filler metal tested. Please note that CVN test values of FCMsFCMs shall be as specified in 12.6.4 ( shall be as specified in 12.6.4 (not Table 4.1/ 4.2not Table 4.1/ 4.2). The tests are as ). The tests are as follows:follows:- 5.15.1 Groove Welds- 5.15.1 Groove Welds1) All weld-metal tension tests to measure tensile strength, yield strength, 1) All weld-metal tension tests to measure tensile strength, yield strength, and ductility.and ductility.2) CVN test, to measure relative fracture toughness. 2) CVN test, to measure relative fracture toughness. 3) Macroetch tests, to evaluate soundness, and to measure effective throat 3) Macroetch tests, to evaluate soundness, and to measure effective throat of weld size:also, used to gage the size and distribution of weld layers and of weld size:also, used to gage the size and distribution of weld layers and passes.passes.

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Procedure Qualification Test4) RT test to evaluate weld soundness.4) RT test to evaluate weld soundness.- In addition, the following tests shall be required for matching weld - In addition, the following tests shall be required for matching weld strength groove welds (strength groove welds (so not required for undermatchingso not required for undermatching).).5) Reduced section tensile test, to measure tensile strength.5) Reduced section tensile test, to measure tensile strength.6) Side-bend test, to evaluate soundness and ductility.6) Side-bend test, to evaluate soundness and ductility.- 5.15.2 Fillet Welds- 5.15.2 Fillet Welds- 5.15.2.1 Mechanical properties shall be measured by testing groove - 5.15.2.1 Mechanical properties shall be measured by testing groove weld unless otherwise specified in the contract documents.weld unless otherwise specified in the contract documents.- 5.15.2.2 Macroetch to evaluate soundness and to gage the size, - 5.15.2.2 Macroetch to evaluate soundness and to gage the size, shape, and distribution of individual weld passes as per Figure 5.8.shape, and distribution of individual weld passes as per Figure 5.8.Please note that for single pass fillet weld or single pass PJP groove Please note that for single pass fillet weld or single pass PJP groove weld only macro etches suggested, see C 5.10.1/ C 5.10.2.weld only macro etches suggested, see C 5.10.1/ C 5.10.2.

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Options for WPS Qualification or Options for WPS Qualification or Prequalification Prequalification

Essential variableEssential variable

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Procedure Qualification Test What else about WPSWhat else about WPS

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Control of test & documentation

Test Results Required, RetestsTest Results Required, RetestsWhat should be included in WPDSWhat should be included in WPDSWhat types of information should be noticed to our What types of information should be noticed to our clients in our outgoing letterclients in our outgoing letter

Sample letters, communication with Sample letters, communication with engineer before and afterengineer before and afterSuggestion: New form (questionnaire) and addition Suggestion: New form (questionnaire) and addition notes to quality manualnotes to quality manual

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Arch bridge

Beam bridge

Suspension bridge

Cable-stayed bridge

Types of bridges

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Arch BridgeBixby Creek Bridge, Monterey, CA

Arch bridges are one of the oldest types of bridges and have great natural strength. Instead of pushing straight down, the weight of an arch bridge is carried outward along the curve of the arch to the supports at each end. These supports, called the abutments, carry the load and keep the ends of the bridge from spreading out.

Arch Bridge

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Suspension bridgeGolden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, CA

Aesthetic, light, and strong, suspension bridges can span distances from 2,000 to 7,000 feet -- far longer than any other kind of bridge. They also tend to be the most expensive to build. True to its name, a suspension bridge suspends the roadway from huge main cables, which extend from one end of the bridge to the other. These cables rest on top of high towers and are secured at each end by anchorages.

Suspension bridge anchorage

The towers enable the main cables to be draped over long distances. Most of the weight of the bridge is carried by the cables to the anchorages, which are imbedded in either solid rock or massive concrete blocks. Inside the anchorages, the cables are spread over a large area to evenly distribute the load and to prevent the cables from breaking free.

Suspension Bridge

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Beam bridge

A beam or "girder" bridge is the simplest and most inexpensive kind of bridge. According to Craig Finley of Finley/McNary Engineering, "they're basically the vanillas of the bridge world."

In its most basic form, a beam bridge consists of a horizontal beam that is supported at each end by piers. The weight of the beam pushes straight down on the piers.

The beam itself must be strong so that it doesn't bend under its own weight and the added weight of crossing traffic. When a load pushes down on the beam, the beam's top edge is pushed together (compression) while the bottom edge is stretched (tension).

Beam Bridge

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Cable-stayed bridgeClark Bridge, Alton, IL

Cable-stayed bridges may look similar to suspensions bridges -- both have roadways that hang from cables and both have towers. But the two bridges support the load of the roadway in very different ways. The difference lies in how the cables are connected to the towers. In suspension bridges, the cables ride freely across the towers, transmitting the load to the anchorages at either end. In cable-stayeded bridges, the cables are attached to the towers, which alone bear the load.

The cables can be attached to the roadway in a variety of ways. In a radial pattern, cables extend from several points on the road to a single point at the top of the tower. In a parallel pattern, cables are attached at different heights along the tower, running parallel to one other.

Cable-Stayed Bridge

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Parallel attachment pattern

Radial attachment pattern

Types of Cable Attachment

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Following are some link for different Suspension Bridges. The length of main span portion of suspended structure (distance between towers) are shown only that not include side spans:

Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge,Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan, Japan,6,532 feet main span, 6,532 feet main span, 19981998 Great Belt East Bridge, Great Belt East Bridge, Denmark, Denmark, 5,328 feet main span, 5,328 feet main span, 19971997 Humber Bridge, Humber Bridge, England, England, 4,626 feet main span, 4,626 feet main span, 19811981 Jiangyin Yangtze River Bridge,Jiangyin Yangtze River Bridge, China, China, 4,544 feet main span, 4,544 feet main span, 19991999 Tsing Ma Bridge, Tsing Ma Bridge, China, China, 4,518 feet main span, 4,518 feet main span, 19971997 Verrazano Narrows Bridge, Verrazano Narrows Bridge, New York, New York, 4,260 feet main span, 4,260 feet main span, 19641964 Golden Gate BridgeGolden Gate Bridge,, San Francisco, San Francisco, 4,200 feet main span, 4,200 feet main span, 19371937 High Coast Bridge,High Coast Bridge, Sweden, Sweden, 3,970 feet main span, 3,970 feet main span, 19971997 Mackinac Straits Bridge,Mackinac Straits Bridge, Michigan, Michigan, 3,800 feet main span, 3,800 feet main span, 19571957 Minami Bisan-Seto Bridge,Minami Bisan-Seto Bridge, Japan, Japan, 3,609 feet main span, 3,609 feet main span, 19881988 Second Bosphorous,Second Bosphorous, Turkey, Turkey, 3,576 feet main span, 3,576 feet main span, 19921992 First Bosphorous,First Bosphorous, Turkey, Turkey, 3,523 feet main span, 3,523 feet main span, 19731973 George Washington Bridge, George Washington Bridge, New York, New York, 3,500 feet main span, 3,500 feet main span, 19311931

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