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Chapter Two
Spaniards in a Far Northern Frontera
The “5 Gs”Gold, God, Glory, Greed, and GoldThis is essentially what the Spanish (and
everyone else) was after in North AmericaRewards were for those who were brave
enough to seek itWarriors, sailors, and other ambitious men
sought glory while serving the Catholic ChurchExpanding Imperial controlBuffer against French and British
Spain’s Motivation for Settlement
OpportunitiesAcquire landImprove their economic statusCattle and mining industries were promising
Escape from oppressionExcessive unemploymentNatural disastersExcessive taxation (in old Spain)Ethnic prejudiceCriminals saw the frontier as a lawless
opportunity to engage in smuggling and banditry
Spanish Settlers’ Motivations
Few people felt crowded enough to venture to an unknown wilderness
Diseases severely reduced New Spain’s population Labor shortages
Settled parts of New Spain were hit the most Attempted to retain workers
Spanish Crown did not perceive Texas as a top priority No longer served as a defensive outpost Louisiana became more important
Lack of regional infrastructure and isolation Hostile Indian tribes threatened settlers Failed expeditions convinced settlers that Texas offered nothing of
substantial gain
Texas remained one of the least-inhabited territories of New Spain
Spanish Settlers’ Problems
Missions in Spanish TexasEverything in the mission was state controlledResponsibility
Catholicism was the sole religionGuard the FrontierChristianize the Native IndiansMinister to families, soldiers, and government
officialsMissionization limited
Church of San Fernando in San Antonio (1738)Only mission in Texas during the mid-18th century
Frontier Institutions
Church of San Fernando, San Antonio
Presidios in Spanish TexasResponsibility
Function primarily as a defensive agentServe as trade centersAttract pioneers seeking security from the
wildernessAssist in the missionization process
Discipline IndiansHelp maintain mission Indian labor force
Social and economic developmentProvide workServed as a venue to exchange goods and services
Frontier Institutions
Ranching and Cattle TradeMid-18th century cattle trade began to expand
Missionaries were the first enter the ranching industryIt quickly grew out of control and frontier settlers quickly
began seizing the mestenos (unclaimed cattle)to establish their own ranches
Plains west of San Antonio to the Guadalupe River became known as the “cradle of Texas ranching”
Pobladores (ranchers) made a modest living Women in families grew crops for their households
Livestock markets connect Texas to neighboring provinces and LouisianaMarkets in the United States, Coahuila, and Nuevo LeonEmergence of the capitalist orientation of the Texas
economy
Frontier Institutions
The emergence of semi-subsistence farmingFarming did not take hold of Spanish Texas due
to numerous setbacksTejano’s reliance on ranching and commerceLack of workers to clear land, dig irrigation
ditches, and tend cropsScarcity and difficulties in transporting farm
equipment to the frontierThreat of Indian raids on standing cropsAbsence of accessible markets that might have
fostered commercialization
Frontier Institutions
Towns Civilian settlements were scarce in the 18th century
Nacogdoches – 350 settlers in 1783 La Bahia – 450 pobladores in 1783 San Antonio – 1,248 settlers in 1783 Laredo – 700 settlers in 1789
Occupations in towns Artisans, vaqueros, pobladores, day laborers, merchants, bakers, tailors,
shoemakers, blacksmiths, and barbers Dwellings were often comprised of materials readily available in
the wilderness Urban problems
Disease (small pox and cholera) due to lack of sewage facilities and the concentration of rotting animal waste and carcasses Muddy streets brought mosquitos
Crime – vagrants, smugglers and prostitutes Lack of access to doctors Possibility of attacks by Comanches or other Plains Tribes Infant mortality rates were very high
Frontier Institutions
CultureCorridos (story-telling ballads) Religious holidays observedFandango (festive dances) and musicHorse racing and the carrera del gallo
Intellectual lifeFew books made their way to the frontierWriting was for the literate
Government officials, missionaries, and limited amounts of settlers
Diaries and journals from the conquistadors and missionaries helped piece together the histories of early Native American tribes
Frontier Society
EducationMixed success in bringing teachers in to instruct the
young in the 18th centuryUncertainty of frontier lifeBelief in the uselessness of an education on the frontierLack of books
By the early 19th century, some type of rudimentary educational facility was established in all the settlements
CommunicationsTexas was connected with Mexico via the Camino Real
(King’s Highway); also known as the San Antonio RoadMounted couriers carried mail from New Spain to the Texas
settlements
Frontier Society
Non-indigenous population of Texas500 people in 17313,000 people in the 1770s-1780s4,000 people in 1800
Wide range of ethnic identities during the 18th centuryMestizaje
The process of racial and cultural union involving Europeans, Indians, and Africans
Sexual imbalance due to men outnumbering womenSoldiers and mestizos (mixed bloods from European/Indian
parents) continued to mix with assimilated IndiansEspecially around the San Antonio area
Continued into the 19th century
Frontier Society
Wealth as Ethnic Classification1780 census showed that espanoles (Spaniards) made up
½ of the Texas populationMisleading because it does not designate undiluted
“Spanishness”Served as a all-embracing label that described relative wealth,
social and occupational standing, degree of cultural assimilation, and attitudes of the census takers
In reality, few true European Spaniards lived in TexasMost belonged to the mestizo category
Classification on the frontierSpaniards on the frontier believed that people of darker skin
hue and mixed blood could “pass” as Spaniards If they achieved social standing
Essentially, economic success could override racial makeup in classification
Frontier Society
Social ClassesClasses on the Texas frontier did not mirror those of New
Spain’s interiorCrillos (American-born Spaniards who inherited their European-
born parents’ possession)MestizosIndiansAfricans
Economic distinctionsGovernment officials and military officials had more secure
incomes, but were far from richEntrepreneurs such as rancheros and farmers comprised the
growing capitalist sector Owned better homes and more land
These two groups represented the “upper class” of New Spain’s society
The “lower class” consisted of common laborers, semi-skilled workers, and Hispanicized Indians
Frontier Society
SlaveryRoughly 50 blacks in Texas in the latter part of
the 18th centuryMost were not slaves
Either free or fugitive blacksThey integrated into Spanish society
Took on Spanish namesWorked as day laborers
Some farmers held slaves, but not manySpain’s official policy forbid Africans from
congregating in public and owning firearmsHowever, these regulations were not strictly
enforced
Frontier Society
Tejanas (Women in New Spain)Rigors of frontier life blurred gender discrimination
Women fought Indians, helped with ranch and farm chores, performed business functions
Women could use the judicial system as either plaintiff or defendant
Women were allowed to hold material assets and investments separate from their spouse
Problems for womenLack of social mobilityLittle opportunity for women to establish their own vocationsWomen could not vote or hold elected officeMen could legally prevent their wives from divorcing them
Overall, women had more rights in New Spain than women in French or British North American colonies
Frontier Society
Hispanicized Native Americans A great majority of the Texas tribes resisted missionization by
Catholic priests Some sought missionization for protection from neighboring
tribes The Coahuiltecans ceased to exist after the 18th century due to
Spanish displacement and missionization Warfare, disease, and territorial violations decimated many
Texas tribes during Spanish occupation Jumanos used missionization as a means to gain military protection
from competing tribes Later absorbed by the Apache Nation
Karankawas remained defiant until the late 18th century as they attempted to seek refuge from the Comanches and needed a stable food supply during the winter months
Caddos retained their homelands until the mid-1850s Successfully traded with the French
Indian Accommodation and Resistance
Resistance Among the Plains TribesApaches and the Wichitas openly rejected the
presence of the Spanish and FrenchResponded with vicious attacks on their settlementsStole livestock, horses, tools, weapons, and supplies
Plains Indians had better war strategies for fending off the EuropeansPlayed the Spanish against enemy tribesThey did not have villages or a formal military to
surrenderTreaties meant nothing due to the sheer number of
nomadic bands of Plains Indians
Indian Accommodation and Resistance
France ceded Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to Spain after losses in the French-Indian Wars with Britain
Spain’s new Bourbon king, Carlos III established sweeping reform to streamline colonial administration Jose de Galvez was sent to New Spain to research reforms Marques de Rubi was sent to inspect the military and defenses
Reforms Replaced native Mexican lower-level administrators with
trusted officers from Spain Lessening military and missionary presence in East Texas Relocation of settlers in East Texas to San Antonio Decisive policies towards Texan Indians
Iron-fist policy towards the Apaches Appeasement policy toward the Comanches
The Bourbon Reforms
Spanish King Carlos III
Effects of the ReformsRefugees from East Texans requested to return to their
homes in East TexasTexas Governor finally gives in and lets them resettle along
the Trinity River, near present-day NacogdochesTeodoro de Croix was charged with the task of Indian
pacificationAgreed with Rubi that the Apaches were the primary enemies Collusion with the Comanches and Norteno bands would best
serve Spain’s purpose to undermine the ApachesRenewed warfare in Spain (Europe at large) left the Spanish
frontier with little military resources to pacify the ApachesDe Croix was left with the task of using small commissions and
cheap gifts to pacify the ApachesIt didn’t work
The Bourbon Reforms
Secularization of MissionsMake the missions less dependant on the government and
more dependant on the parishionersAll under the assumption that a large majority of Native
Americans in Texas were missionizedIn reality, missionization did little and only a small fraction of
Native Americans were true convertsMissions were slowly deserted due to several reasons
Anti-church sentiment ushered in by the Enlightenment made the intellectual support of missions unfeasible Seemed hypocritical for Spain to continue the fusion of Church and
StateEconomic stability of the province depended on a good market
Live stock was the answer Spain saw the taxation potential of treating missionary cattle as
private propertyNative Americans did not convert in the large numbers expected
End of the Spanish Era
Military issuesSoldiers were not well equipped to deal with
increasing Indian raidsHighly mobile Comanches and Witchitas attacked
farmers, civilian settlements, raided ranches, and began to trade with the United States
Presidios were ill-prepared to deal with this growing issuePresido installations were in constant need of repairUnder staffed, under equippedFood shortagesLack of uniformsMorale was at an all time low for the Spanish military
stationed in New Spain
End of the Spanish Era
Imperial intrusion was greatly resentedMost of the settlers in New Spain had come to appreciate
their semiautonomous relationship with the wildernessThey did not appreciate Europe’s interference that did
not benefit or acknowledge the struggles they enduredKing had prohibited international trade and came down
especially hard on ranchersNacogdoches had to continue trading illegally to ensure its
survivalRancheros around San Antonio illegally traded with the United
States for tobacco and other finished goods In short, legal restrictions on ranchers (the sole means of
profit for those in Texas) greatly irritated the settlersNotions of Mexican autonomy began to develop
End of the Spanish Era
Mexican Revolutionaries
Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
Juan Bautista de las Casas
Spain’s European wars go sour Spain increases taxation in New Spain due to its financial
distressTo make matters worse, France’s Napoleon conquers Spain in
1808The Spanish government goes into hiding New Spain establishes juntas (committees) to protect the New
World empire until Spanish monarchs could reclaim the throne
Revolt against the Spanish EmpireFather Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a priest from Dolores was
exposed as a plotter against the Spanish governmentOpted to begin a war against Spain’s failed government
The revolt echoed throughout New Spain and Texas Juan Bautista de las Casas took up Hidalgo’s message and
rallied up revolutionary support in the San Antonio area
Mexican Revolution
SetbacksWhile las Casas and Hidalgo did displace some Spanish
officials, they were ultimately arrested and sentenced to death for treason
Tejanos expressed great sympathy for the independence movement and civil war ultimately followedThe United States showed interest in helping the fledgling
revolutionaries Gutierrez de Lara worked to successfully claim Texas
independence from SpainSeries of battles lasting until 1821Battle of Medina River (20 mi. south of San Antonio) – the
bloodiest battle ever fought on Texas soil; 1,300 rebel soldiers killed
Mexican Revolution
300 Years of Spanish Rule EndsFew Tejanos mourn its passingA new Mexico looked forward to confronting
problems of Indian hostility and economic underdevelopment by:Enticing new settlersSpreading urban settlementsthe growth of the pastoral industries
Hispanic law remained after the RevolutionDebtor protection (animals nor agricultural devices
could be confiscated)Community property laws (including women's’
laws) remained
The Spanish Legacy
Spanish Cultural HeritageSpanish-Mexican terminologyThe rodeoOutsiders could still become part of the family
unitA new Tejano Culture
Obedezco pero no cumplo (I obey but do not comply)
Informal community buildingTraits of ruggedness
Norteno cultureThe will to work, applied to strength and prowessDetermination and courage in the face of danger
The Spanish Legacy