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MODULE TEAMWORK.
INTRODUCTION
MOST USEFUL TYPES OF TEAMS
TEAM ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
KEY FACTORS OF TEAM ACTIVITY
DYNAMICS AND BENEFITS OF WORKING AS A TEAM.
IMPROVE THE PERFORMANCE OF TEAMS
PREPARE FOR AND CONDUCT EFFECTIVE DISCUSSIONS
ENCOURAGE PEOPLE TO CONTINUALLY ACHIEVE SUCCESS.
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Introduction
Art management professionals often have to perform a multitude of tasks: they often
work with small nonprofit organizations. The average day of a museum manager or artsorganization director is long, starting early with meetings new exhibits and building
maintenance concerns. Art managers also have to deal with visiting school groups and
large groups of visitors who need tours and information on exhibits. These arts
management professionals often have to become experts in accounting, nonprofit
management, and grant writing. For this reason the importance of working in team has
been raising in these years.
Effective teams are organizational qualities; they perform well and help the organization
to achieve its aims and objectives based on a shared vision. Improving team
performance should be an ongoing process and managers need to be skilful in specific
areas.Many teams never fill their full potential. This module aims at showing the building of a
team and the importance of establishing roles and responsibilities to improve teams
productivity. It will help delegates recognize the characteristics of a high performing
team and use effective team leadership skills to improve team morale and performance
In brief, a team is capable of achieving outcomes that cannot achieved individually by
the single members of the team. Yet, the simple formation of a team comprising many
discipline does not guarantee that the team will function well or that the results will be
satisfactory.
How can a person work as part of a TEAM? Its actually so easy: its enough to
remember the word TEAMWORK as a guideline. Also its necessary to remember that
all these should work together. No one of these can be enough and can work in
isolation to be able to come up with a successful team.
T is for Talent
By talent, we mean a persons knowledge or potentials. It is of course quite necessary
for a member of a team to be knowledgeable about the work that his team is going to
do. Where can these knowledge be gained? Knowledge can explicitly be learned from
some useful handbooks on whatever you are working on. However, implicit knowledge
that which is acquired through experience and practice, is found to be much moreuseful.
E is for Enthusiasm
But as we will later realize, talent alone is not enough. An effective team member must
also be enthusiastic. He must seek responsibility, he must find ways to make the talents
he has useful. He must always have the energy and the drive to work. Eventually, this
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enthusiasm will naturally come out of him and he will realize that his pattern becomes
so inspiring and motivating enough for his other colleagues to work without him asking
them any demands.
A is for Accountability
Every member is accountable not only to his team but to all his other work mates. Weare not responsible only of ourselves. It is everyones responsibility to keep others
informed. Whenever someone keeps on forgetting what he needs to do, it is our
responsibility to keep him reminded. What he failed to do is an evidence of what we
were also not able to do ourselves.
M is for Management
Every member must know his specialization concerning what his other teammates can
do best. A good organization is really needed in proper distribution of work. The best
member of any group is he who demands tasks based on what he can do. When we are
assigned to do or work on something, we must also know where to go for help (just in
case we couldnt work out on something), and when those help must be asked.
Ultimately, it is every group members responsibility to ensure that everyone has a work
to do and that everyone is always the best man for his job.
W is for Work-able
Availability of every member is very much needed to work as a team. If no ones there,
who do you expect to pursue the teams goals? This work-ability is not all about free-time, however, it also needs a large amount of adaptability. Every member must be able
to expect different possibilities and must know how to react on them in the course of
events.
O is for Openness
Understanding among team members is a necessity in every team for every member to
be able to work in the best of his abilities. Everyone must be open to new ideas and
suggestions. Everyone must have the ability to understand people.
R is for Respect
Every team member must give respect so that he can expect to be respected in return.
A team could discuss things and every member could express his own opinion in
whatever matter they are discussing without degrading his teammate or his teammates
suggestions. It is one thing to listen and be able to respectfully object and it is another
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thing to just avoid to listen. Whenever a team is brainstorming, everyone must be able
to raise his opinions without having any hard feelings.
K is for Keenness
Keenness is the final input in working as a part of a team. It is more than enthusiasm.
Enthusiasm comes before doing the work. Keenness intensity, is manifested while
going through the work itself. It is what pushes us to move on and keep on working until
we are finally done.
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TYPES OF TEAMS
The different types of teams
Teams can be unidisciplinary, interactive unidisciplinary, multidisciplinary, or
interdisciplinary.
Unidisciplinary:
A group of different people from the same discipline who work together. An example of
a unidisciplinary team is a medical teaching team involving a Doctor, a medical resident,
and a medical student.
Interactive Unidisciplinary:
A group of people from one discipline representing different specialty areas.
Multidisciplinary:A group of people from different disciplines who develop treatment plans independently.
Interdisciplinary:
A group of people from different disciplines who assess and plan arts in a collaborative
manner. A common goal is established and each discipline works to achieve that goal.
ARTS MANAGEMENT is interdependent, complimentary, and coordinated. Joint
decision making is the norm. Members feel empowered and assume leadership on the
appropriate issue depending upon the results to be achieved and the expertise to be
managed .
Phases of Team FormationGroups do not become well-functioning interdisciplinary teams by deciding to become a
team. All teams develop through a series of phases that can last several months or
longer. Sometimes a developed team will even return to a previous phase for a period
of time and then work out of it. Many experts who work with groups use the following
labels:
Forming: creation stage for the group.
Storming: tasks and roles are worked out through conflict.
Norming: norms and patterns are worked out.
Confronting: conflictual stage (some professionals use this label or the storming labelbut not both).
Performing: team working together for the preparation of the art event.
Forming phase:
In the Forming phase, team members are getting to know one another and getting
comfortable with one another. Members will naturally try to understand their own roles,
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the roles of the other team members and their purpose in the group. This is entirely
natural and to be expected. People are unsure, suspicious and nervous.
Characteristics of Forming
You can see the following behaviours in the forming stage:
The group is created.
Preliminary presentation of names and background information.
Members assess and test each other classifying with standard roles and status.
Members are cautious, behave impersonally rather than personally, only a few are
active, most of them are passive.
There is insecurity over the goals.
Conflict is not discussed.
Storming phase:Once the team works together for a while, they will leave the Forming stage and enter
Storming. Politeness begins to wear off and dissension occurs over basic mission and
operating procedures. Control often becomes the primary issue. Who is going to decide
what? Disagreements can be either very obvious or subtle.
Storming is the most difficult stage for a team to weather, but it is necessary for healthy
team development. When team members begin to trust one another enough to air
differences, this signals readiness to work things out.
Characteristics of Storming
You can see the following behaviours in the storming stage:Members begin to show their true styles.
A growing impatience will surface over lack of progress.
Members will get into one another's territory, causing irritation.
General disagreement over process, task and overall purpose of the team.
Norming phase:
When teams recognize their differences and have dealt with them, they move to the
Norming stage, the stage when they ask, "How are we going to accomplish our work?"
Beyond the politeness and nervousness of Forming and past the issues and concerns
of Storming, teams will want to review how they are functioning. As team members
learn to work out their differences and emotional conflicts are reduced, they will have
more time and energy to focus on their purpose.
Characteristics of Norming
You can see the following behaviours in the norming stage:
Ground rules and formal procedures that may have been overlooked in the beginning
are now taken more seriously.
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The team will want to discuss items more; less time will be spent on idea generation,
and more on decision making.
Members will want to limit agenda items to focus on specific topics.
Subgroups may be formed to move along faster.
Conflicts are addressed and resolved.
It is difficult to understand goals and purposes of the team.
First attempts to establish common goals.
General mistrust of each other is displayed by prudence and conformity.
Overlapping of roles becomes manifest.
Conflicts are present but are openly covered up or glossed over.
A few members attempt to establish bonds with others having similar views.
Team establishes ground rules and begins to clarify common roles.
Confronting:The confronting phase is the next developmental level. The main point of conflict erupts
during this phase as there is a struggle for leadership and the continued retention of
power. Members tend to act coercive toward one another, or other members withdraw.
Characteristics of Confronting
Conflicts can no longer be avoided and some members verbally attack other members.
Increased conflicts over leadership, equality, and commitment
Anxiety over expression of affect.
Some conflicts are addressed in a direct manner.
Some members withdraw from the team.Search for leader who will resolve conflicts.
Functional leaders emerge.
Realization that power is not equal.
Realization that everyone has power for leadership and decision making.
Constructive confrontation when conflict occurs
Goals and roles are re-clarified.
Coalitions form but change according to needs of the team.
Performing:
Norming, Storming, Norming, Confronting then Performing, the final stage of team
development. Performing teams are just that, a highly effective, problem-solving unit
that can reach solutions quickly and can even head off issues before they become
problems.
Characteristics of Performing
Differences of members are appreciated.
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Members encourage and help each other.
Reality testing increases and grows stronger.
Self-initiated active participation is the norm.
Relationships are strengthened and members must trust each other.
Attendance at meetings is regular.
Conflicts seen as normal and are used as impetus for program improvement.
Emphasis on productivity and problem solving.
Increased responsibility for leadership in teaching, wherever skills warrant it.
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TEAM MEMBER ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Specific Roles/Skills of Team Members
Even though one might be familiar with the art management process, manyprofessionals are not familiar with the education base, the roles, or the functions of
members of other disciplines. This lack of familiarity is partly due to the manner in which
each group is trained an exclusive professional environment with its own language,
terminology, problem-solving methods, and professional behaviours. This approach to
training together with a general lack of knowledge leads to underutilize skills and
capabilities. Each member of a team needs to understand the unique expertise
contributed by each profession represented and the areas where skills overlap among
different professions.
Team members from different disciplines bring a unique set of skills (see below). It is
also important to recognize that skills overlap. Understanding the skills and education ofvarious team members contributes to respect. By knowing the skills of other
professionals, team members can also refer clients appropriately to other professionals.
It is important to recognize that each profession trains its members in a culture that
reflects a common language, professional behaviours, values, and beliefs. Sometimes
there is disagreement because the expectations and language create confusion. Most
professionals do not recognize the training of others and learn what other professionals
do only after they are practicing as professionals.
Though there is a range of individuals who can be found as members of an
interdisciplinary team in arts management , The different professionals who commonly
participate as members in the context of performing arts production for example can
be:
Arts administrator
It is particularly hard to define what arts administration is and what arts administrators
do - the territory of management is so huge.
An arts administrator is truly the jack-of-all-trades in the business of running an arts
organization. Some of the tasks might include:
Marketing a performance or event through direct mail to a targeted audience,planning and designing advertising, producing posters or publicity leaflets, generating
interest from the media via press releases, press kits or press conferences, ticket
discounts or contests, or attracting reviewers;
Planning and managing budgets;
Helping to secure funding for fixed-term projects such as the enlargement of new
buildings, renovations, exhibitions or specific recital events, exhibitions or workshops,
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or long-term fundraising and development with membership and annual campaigns,
endowment campaigns and scholarship drives;
Programming and booking performances and events including arrangements for
tours at home and abroad;
Managing front-of-house and audience service functions including box office, ushers,
bars, restaurants and refreshment sales, patron comfort, and safety;
Taking responsibility for property and facility functions like access, fire, safety, and
general maintenance;
Choosing and training staff and negotiating legal contracts; and
Ensuring corporate and legal requirements are fulfilled with and reporting to the
board of directors.
At a more senior level, there may be involvement in strategic planning and structural
management decisions.
Stage manager
The stage manager is at the core of every successful theatre production. He/she
organizes, manages and runs the rehearsals and the performances; researches and
procures the supports and furniture; and provides a creative information stream
between everyone involved in the production. His skills include superb organizational
skills, initiative, resourcefulness, flexibility and an endless supply of patience
Stage Managers coordinate the creation of artistic expression amongst directors, actors,
designers, and technicians. They are also the productions collective memory, insuring
the work of all participants remains faithful long after early participants have moved on.
Stage Managers are comfortable working with all kinds of people and are uniquely able
to make quick, clear decisions under typically high time pressure to protect the
audiences experience, the integrity of the work, and the well being of their company.
Production manager.
Production Managers enable the performance of artistic vision within the resources
available to producing organizations. The Production Manager adopts an overall
perspective of each production, enabling them to allocate resources appropriately,
manage the utilization of those resources effectively, and adapt their initial allotments toaddress unforeseen challenges that emerge. The Production Manager also plays a key
role in initiating and maintaining communication between upper management,
artistic staff, and each of the production departments.
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Front House Manager
A front of house manager works for the theatre administration and coordinates the "front
of house" (entrance, lobby and seating area of the theatre). He or she manages and
directs the ushers, coordinates the beginning of the show with the stage manager, and
records the start and end times of the performance, as well as the size of the house
(number of people attending the show). In the event of a fire or emergency, he or she
takes charge
Marketing manager
Arts marketing is directed to a variety of audiences: the media, the government, the
business sector, the general public, alumni, outside scholars and researchers, as well
as prospective graduate and undergraduate students. The central function of the Arts
Marketing Manager is to explain the message and meaning of Arts to both internal andexternal audiences.
The Arts Marketing Manager is expected to offer leadership and/or support to the
Faculty, the client, the local government, in all areas related to Arts marketing. Among
the general goals of Arts marketing might be the intent to educate individuals and
bodies on the value of an Arts education; inform the same audience in an engaging and
comprehensible way of the outcomes of Arts research; provide information on the core
activities in Arts or promote interest in Arts.
The target markets (prospective students, business, government, the general public,
etc.) are extremely varied, and it is one of the functions of the Arts Marketing Manager
to design and chase a variety of initiatives suited to distinct audiences. The presentmust create and deploy a full range of short- and long-term marketing strategies with a
high degree of sensitivity to changing social, economic, and demographic
considerations. For this reason, a good Arts marketing manager should:
1. Create a marketing plan and communicate its contents to Music and Theatre Studies
staff and students.
2. Create strategies to catch the fancy of new audience members. Undertake
researches to identify possible audience members.
3. Distribute marketing finances for each event.
4. Communicate recognition requirements to Director of Advancement for sponsors.
5. Supervise the professionals on marketing and events management practice.
6. . Coordinate events and needs with Ticket master
7. Coordinate the publicity and advertising for all performances and functions..
8. Coordinate and execute programming/marketing for school tours and matinee
performances for the purposes of recruitment and revenue.
9. Coordinate internal and external communications about events.
10. Responds to inquiries about events.
11. Plan and organize special events..
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12. Plan and organize special events with community partners.
13. Develop suggestions to public and private sector for funding.
14. Create and maintain web page.
15. Produce promotional materials such as posters, programs, newspaper ads.
Publicist
A publicist is a person whose job is to generate and manage publicity for a public figure,
especially a celebrity, or for a work such as a book or film. They usually work at large
companies handling multiple clients. In the world of celebrities, unlike agents or
managers, publicists typically take a flat monthly fee for dealing with a client .
The role of the Publicist is to:
Prepare press releases
Contact local TV stations and municipalities
Prepares flyers
Sends in photos periodically to Suburban news following a club event
Development manager
Among the tasks of a development manager there is the necessity to:
o Organise and manage a community arts programme particularly in the area of
media and music.
o Develop audiences for and participation in the arts.
o Develop and manage a programme of music and media projects/events.
o Explore and apply for external finances for running projects.
o Promote and market arts plans.
o Supervise and evaluate projects.
o Provide support for workshops and projects;
o Mediate with tutors, artists and community groups.
o Respond to requests from the public for information about arts development
projects.
o General organization duties such as filing, maillots, telephones.
o Research practitioners to run projects.
o Regular links and updating with arts team.
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KEY FACTORS OF TEAM ACTIVITY
Norms in groups
Norms are people's beliefs about the attitudes and behaviours that are normal,
acceptable, or even expected in a particular social context. In many situations, people's
perception of these norms will greatly influence their behaviour.
Social norms are generally the unwritten rules that govern the behaviour of a group.
They often change and are socially enforced through social sanction. They are
transmitted through time by a culture or society. The purpose of norms is to provide
stability to a group and only a few in a group will refuse to abide by the norms. Often
groups are not aware of the unwritten norms that exist. New people to the group have to
discover these norms on their own over a period of time and may face sanction just
because they did not know a norm existed.Every group has a set of norms, but they may apply to everyone in the group or to
certain members only. Some norms will be strictly adhered to while others permit a wide
range of behaviour. The group usually has sanctions (e.g., disapproval) which it may
apply in the case of "deviation". Common norms in groups include: taboo subjects, open
expression of feelings, interrupting or challenging the tutor, volunteering one's services,
avoiding conflict, length and frequency of contributions. All of these are usually hidden
or implicit and new members may find it difficult to adjust. Over the first few meetings of
a group there may be confusion about the norms are with consequent frustration,
discomfort, and lost momentum.
A set of norms are also procedures which are conventions for ensuring that what a
group wants to happen, does in fact happen. They are the means of handling
problematic events like making decisions, conflict, distribution of tasks, assessment,
and evaluation; and they may be invoked by, or applied to, any member or the whole
group. Procedures may also be seen as devices for ensuring the smooth running of the
group and the achievement of agreed aims. They may be formal and strictly codified, as
in many committees, or informal and loose as for teams and working groups. The main
virtue of a procedure is that it is usually set up before the event and this detaches
discussions of how the group should handle problems in general from the problem-
solving process itself.Typical rules and procedures for groups may be:
All decisions should be made by consensus.
Anyone may call time-out at any stage in order to review progress.
The group starts and finishes on time.
The first five minutes of every meeting are spent milling around the room and
chatting.
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The group follows an agenda Members take on functional roles like timekeeper,
summariser, and so on
Each member has a maximum time-limit for contributions.
A very sophisticated group might also agree a metarule which determines how
any of the above norms or procedures might be changed
Leading roles in teams
Although one or more individuals may have a formal designation as a group leader, the
effective use of resources means that all team members need to share responsibility for
informal and formal leadership. In true interdisciplinary teams, the functions of
leadership and membership are viewed as synonymous. Because all team members
have an investment in seeing the team achieve its goals and objectives, each member
has the responsibility to help the team progress.
The functions of leadership are: Helping the group decide on its purposes and goals.
Helping the group focus on its own process of work together so that it may
become more effective rather than becoming trapped by faulty ways of problem
solving and decision making.
Helping the group become aware of its own resources and how best to use them.
Helping the group evaluate its progress and development.
Helping the group to be open to new and different ideas without becoming
immobilized by conflict.
Helping the group learn from its failures and frustrations as well as from its
success.
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DYNAMICS AND BENEFITS OF WORKING AS A TEAM
Its fundamental to consider the three essential, overlapping tasks of the team--
coordination, communication, and shared responsibility (Fink, 1993). The first step in
coordination is to determine which team members will be responsible for a particular
situation.
Because team involves interactions separated by space and time, individual team
members efforts must be organized so that are completed in a coordinated and logical
way. Effective communication is needed to facilitate coordinated action. An ideal
communication system would include a well-designed record system, regularly
scheduled meetings to discuss issues, and a mechanism for communicating with
external systems (Grant et al., 1995). The task of sharing responsibility raises issues
related to leadership and decision-making. Typically, a team will complete the following
activities sequentially:
o define the problem and decide on goals,o gather information about the problem,
o seek opinions about the problem from appropriate team members,
o discuss and expand the problem, each contributing his or her own unique
professional perspective,
o develop potential solutions or management plans,
o offer opinions about each potential solution,
o evaluate potential solutions and choose the best one or integrate several into
one,
o
summarize the plan and agree on distribution of tasks across team members.
Effective Teams
The essential elements of teamwork are: coordination of services, shared responsibility,
and communication. Effective teams must work across settings and have well-organized
mechanism to share information.
Traditional perspectives that assume a homogeneous workforce and a traditional
organisation form are inadequate for understanding the attitudes and behaviours of
people from many diverse backgrounds who are working closely together on tasks that
require effective teamwork.
Regardless of whether a team is formed as a temporary task force, as a project team, oras a permanent and self-managing work unit, it is likely to bring together employees of
many different types thus creating diversity. By chance and by design, team members
often differ from each other on a variety of dimensions, including demographics and an
array of psychological and social attributes. Thus, as organisations restructure to take
advantage of the potential benefits of teams, they find they must understand and
effectively manage diversity in order to be successful. The amount and type of diversity
within teams are important structural characteristics that must be understood in order to
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use teams effectively in work organisations. Effectiveness refers to an organisations
ability to accomplish its core goals, purposes, or mission
Teams are more likely to be effective when:
Purpose, goals, and objectives are known and agreed upon.
Roles and responsibilities are clear.
Communication is open, sharing, and honest. There is disagreement without
tyranny and constructive criticism without personal attack.
Team members listen to each other.
Team members are competent, professional, personally effective, and make
appropriate contributions.
Teams cooperate and coordinate activities. Decisions are reached by consensus.
When decisions are made, assignments are made clearly, accepted, and carried
out.
Leadership shifts depending on the circumstances.
Team members support each other and act as different resources for the group. Team members trust each other, minimize struggles for power, and focus on how
best to get the job done.
The team evaluates its own operations.
IMPROVE THE PERFORMANCE OF TEAMS
Five principles can help to systematize the learning of interdisciplinary teamwork further:
1. Orient yourself to the team and negotiate expectations for teamwork.
2. Model collaborative professional practice. Effective role-modelling requires that youarticulate your own roles and responsibilities as team members, as well as your
reflections on those roles and responsibilities and on the experience of participating as
a team member with a diverse group of art management professionals.
3. Create and look for opportunities to participate on a team, and ask the team to assign
you responsibilities. These opportunities and responsibilities may include observation
and/or participation.
4. Observe your own performance as a team member and reflect often on this
performance. Discussing interdisciplinary teamwork issues.
5. Evaluate your performance on the team. At the end of the experience, summarize
what you have been learned about teamwork.
Evaluating teamwork
Measurement is essential at every stage of a teams development. Measuring
effectiveness can even motivate a team that needs a change of new energy. Measuring
team performance provides suggestions for defining the goals and determining the
measures that new teams need.
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There are several important issues that can be considered as very important for
measuring, which are:
track service quality
increase the effectiveness of team dynamics
improve motivation
focus on compensation and rewards.
To many professionals, the very notion of their work being evaluated induces a
defensive reaction. It is often seen as an all-or-nothing judgment, "good" or "bad", and
they are rightly sceptical that the intricate network of their experience in groups can be
gauged in any way which produces clear and unambiguous answers. Evaluation of any
activity, particularly in groups, is of greater value to all concerned when it can be
processed by those contributing to it such that they take joint responsibility for the
outcomes.
The most effective kind of evaluation for teamwork is, therefore, one which develops the
members' awareness of the way groups work, and increases their sense ofresponsibility for each other and for the quality of work they do together. In this way the
evaluation itself can become a vehicle for the participants to learn many of the valued
social aims of group work.
Evaluation Methods
There are some fairly simple methods of evaluating groups in this way.
Questionnaires. Participants complete a process questionnaire or checklist of the kind
shown in the following pages, share and discuss the results in the group, and decide onwhat needs to be done to effect improvements.
"Do-it-yourself" checklist (see below). Ask individual students to write down three
statements about the class, which, with successive pooling as the groups combine, are
written on a board and given a rating in turn by everyone.
Reporting back. At the beginning of each session, devote 5 minutes to a critique of the
previous meeting. Discussion evolves naturally from this.
Diaries. Members spend a short time towards the end of each session to record
impressions, feelings, and what they learned about the dynamics of the group. Diary
comments are shared at a later, designated meeting.
Fishbowl. Students from another group are invited to sit round and observe the group in
question as it conducts a discussion and to reveal their observations afterwards. A
questionnaire or checklist may be used. If subsequently the inner group and outer group
reverse positions, the evaluation can be made reciprocal.
Self-made evaluation. Two or more subgroups devise an evaluation technique to use on
the other subgroups, and then administer it.
Video or audio playback. The camera may be obtrusive, but the recorded playback does
give the opportunity to witness live action and for members to contemplate their own
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behaviour. For any of these techniques to be really productive there must be a shared
commitment to them, and to acting on the results, by all members of the group and they
must be employed at a time which is neither too early for the group to have "gelled" nor
too late for it to benefit from any resulting improvements.
Finally, another learning objective for students is to learn how to participate in the
ongoing evaluation of the teams functioning. Following are questions that team
members may ask themselves to assist them in reflecting on how well the team is
functioning:
What is the teams mission? How is it interdisciplinary? How does it relate to its larger
organization?
Who is the teams leader at any given time? Is leadership the same or does it change?
How is leadership determined? How is it shared?
What are the roles and qualifications of team members? How does each profession
contribute to the teams task?
What is the climate for the teams functioning? Is it constructive and open? How are specific objectives generated and agreed upon for each task?
What are the teams communication patterns?
How does the team make decisions?
How does the team review and evaluate its progress and decisions?
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PREPARE FOR AND CONDUCT EFFECTIVE DISCUSSIONS.
Effective Team Communication
Communication is the foundation for all team functioning. It requires that all team
members cooperate to establish ongoing communication with each other
To provide effective, coordinated effort, a team must have an efficient mechanism for
exchange of information. At the simplest level, this requires the time, space, and regular
opportunity for members to meet and discuss things to carry out. An ideal system for
interdisciplinary team communication includes:
A well-designed record system.
A regularly scheduled forum for members to discuss arts management issues.
A regularly scheduled forum to discuss and evaluate team function and
development, and to address related interpersonal issues.
A mechanism for communicating with the external system (e.g., hospitaladministration) within which the team operates.
Effective communication relies on listening, explaining perceptions, acknowledging, and
discussing the differences and similarities in views, recommending appropriate
treatment, and negotiating agreement. In our increasingly diverse workplaces, language
and cultural barriers can exist among members of a team. These barriers can make it
difficult for one member to understand the finer points in the meanings, intentions, and
reactions of other team members. Our cultural heritage, our sex, our class, and our
stage of life all of these influence our use of language and our perception of others.
Some degree of cultural competency must be in place for team members to effectivelycommunicate with each other as well as with the addresser of our work.
Decision-making and conflict resolution are also components of the communication
process that must be acknowledged by teams. Establishing a planned process for
decision-making is essential, and the process must also take resolution of conflicts into
account, because conflict is inevitable. The group process must integrate openness and
confrontation, support and trust, cooperation and conflict, sound procedures for solving
problems and getting things done, and good communication.
Some barriers to effective communication and teamwork at the team level include:
Lack of a clearly stated, shared and assessable purpose.
Lack of training in interdisciplinary collaboration.
Role and leadership ambiguity.
Team too large or too small.
Team not composed of appropriate professionals.
Lack of appropriate mechanisms for suddenly exchange of information.
Even among team members of similar cultural backgrounds, members need to
recognize and value the different competencies and approaches of different
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disciplines. People do not need to think the same to be unified. The key to team
success is to value the differences on the team and use such diversity to achieve the
teams common purpose.
The following tips will be helpful for valuing diversity on your team:
Reasonable people can differ with each other. No two people are the same.
Diversity among team members improves creativity.
It s fundamental to learn as much as possible from others. Learning the various
backgrounds, cultures, and professional values of others can enrich your own skills
and abilities.
Its better to evaluate a new idea based on its merits. Its dangerous to avoid
evaluating ideas based on who submitted them or how they mirror your own personal
preferences.
Its necessary to avoid comments and remarks that draw negative attention to a
persons unique characteristics. Humour is a key factor in a healthy team environment
but should never be used at the expense of anothers identity or self-esteem. Its not positive to ignore the differences among team members. The differences
should be honoured and utilized to advance the goals of the team.
Barriers to communication range from the lack of a shared language born of
differences in core values and terminology used by different disciplines, to systems
and organizational barriers.
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ENCOURAGE PEOPLE TO CONTINUALLY ACHIEVE SUCCESS.
It is necessary to encourage people to do their best. For this reason the following tips
can be very useful:
1. Positive and negative feedback. Feedback requires the giver to pay
compliments as well as to note improvements.
2. Given with attention to context and caring. Review the actions and decisions
that led to the moment. The manager must pay attention to what he or she is doing
while giving feedback. This promotes a two-way exchange with some depth of
communication. Allow abundant time for discussion and be sure there is privacy.
3. Invited by the recipient. Feedback is most effective when the recipient has
invited the comments. This provides a platform for openness and some guidelines; it is
also gives the recipient an chance to identify and explore particular areas of concern.
4. Expressed directly. Be descriptive and as objective as possible. Give specificexamples and use I statements, talking about yourself first, rather than you
statements. I messages create an adult/peer relationship and people are more likely
to remain open to message.
5. Expressed fully. Effective feedback requires more than a plain statement of facts.
Feeling reactions also need to be expressed so that the recipient can judge the full
impact of his or her behaviour.
6. Uncluttered by evaluative judgements. Feedback is most helpful when it is not
exaggerated or consists of judgments, or evaluations, such as assuming the other
persons motivation or intentions. Its better to avoid exaggerations such as always
and never and judgmental words such as should, good, bad and worst. Ifjudgments must be included, the giver should first state clearly that these are matters
of subjective evaluation, then describe the situation as he or she sees it and, finally, let
the recipient make the evaluation.
7. Well timed. The most useful feedback is given when the recipient is receptive to it
and is sufficiently close to the particular event being discussed for it to be fresh in his
or her mind. Accumulating comments over time can lead to a building of recriminations
that reduces the effectiveness of the feedback when it is finally given.
8. Easily acted on. The most useful feedback deals with the behaviour that can be
changed by the recipient. Feedback concerning matters outside the recipients control
is not often helpful. Often it is useful to suggest alternative ways of behaving and allow
the recipient to think about new ways of dealing with old problems.
9. Checked and clarified. If possible, the recipient of the feedback should check
with other people to determine whether the givers perceptions are shared by others.
Different viewpoints can be collected and assimilated, points of difference and
similarity clarified, and a more objective picture developed.
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Recognizing progress
Employee involvement consist in creating an environment in which people have an
impact on decisions and actions that affect their jobs. It is not the goal nor is it a tool,
as practiced in many organizations. Rather, it is a management and leadership
philosophy about how people are most enabled to contribute to continuous
improvement and the ongoing success of their work organization.
The secret is to involve people as much as possible in all phases of work decisions
and planning. This involvement increases ownership and commitment, retains the
best employees, and fosters an environment in which people choose to be motivated
and contributing.
How to involve employees in decision-making and continuous improvement activities
is the strategic aspect of involvement and can include such methods as suggestion
systems, manufacturing cells, work teams, continuous improvement meetings,
corrective action processes, and periodic discussions with the supervisor.Intrinsic to most employee involvement procedures is training in team effectiveness,
communication, and problem solving; the development of reward and recognition
systems; and habitually, the sharing of gains made through employee involvement
efforts.
Even though their contributions may not be exactly equal, it's important to recognize
the team's efforts. Acknowledge individual achievement during group meetings and
compliment the team as a whole on working well together. Emphasize interim
successes with a team lunch or food brought into a meeting. Such mini-celebrations
are a great morale booster. People repeat performance that collects reward and
recognition.
Discuss openly and supportively
In leadership people need clear instructions and expectations for their behaviour.
Without it, people behave the way they think they should and do whatever they know
how to do. And the silence, especially if the behaviour is ongoing, gives them
permission to continue to do what theyve always done whether the behaviour is
acceptable or not.
Communication slides occur in both personal and business relationships. In order tobring about the results you want in your relationships with others its necessary to
learn to speak up and address issues frankly. There are four steps to communicating
directly. They sound so simple but with each step there are obstacles that can get in
the way. It takes greater awareness, lots of practice, and a willingness to try new
behaviours - and to make mistakes - in order to develop the communication muscles.
Its important to :
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Identify needs. This is a big obstacle to successful relationships and productive
employees. If you dont know what you want, how can you expect others to
know? Stop and consider what it is you want from this person, or what needs to
be done. Envision the outcome you seek. The clearer you are about your vision
for success, the easier it will be to share it with others.
Make no assumptions. People are not mind-readers. They do not know what is
going on inside your head! Once you know how you want things to be, dont
assume that other people know what youre thinking or that they think the same
way you do about how things should be. They have their own ideas and
opinions and priorities. Whats a priority for you may not even be on their radar.
It is important not to assume anything; validate any assumptions you may have
by asking questions to make sure all involved parties are on the same page.
Ask for needs. Its necessary to be clear and specific in your request. Itsuseless to make excuses and dangerous to beg. Many times, people are
intimidated or fearful of asking for what they want. Fear can be an obstacle to
success. Its fundamental to rise above your fear and muster your courage to
achieve what you want. You have every right to ask for what you need. You
have no control over peoples response to your request. You can only be
responsible for speaking your truth in a way that can be heard.
When asking for what you need, its important to eliminate the emotional energy
and make a direct request. This means your voice should carry no emotional
energy. The incapacity to manage emotions is an enormous obstacle for most
people because they simply werent taught the skills to deal with them. You
must handle your emotions separately from making your request. If you are
emotional, the person is less likely to hear you or may become defensive or
emotional themselves.
Members of effective teams let each other know what is happening that might affect
teams work. They inform the team members when they will miss a meeting or be late,
and they keep other members informed about their progress or lack of progress
Teamwork and co-operation are essential in an organisation which aims to be effective
and efficient, and not likely to be divided by conflicting factions. The best teamworkusually comes from having a collective vision or goal, so that leaders and members
are all committed to the same objectives and understand their roles in achieving those
objectives. Important behaviours in achieving teamwork and minimising potential
conflict include a commitment by team members to share information by keeping
people in the group up-to-date with current issues or to express positive expectations
about each other. Its important to empower each other, such as publicly crediting
colleagues who have performed well and encouraging each other to achieve results.
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Its useful to promote good morale and protect the group's reputation with outsiders
and to solve potential conflict by bringing differences of opinion into the open and
facilitating resolution of conflicts
When members begin to demand more participation in running the Group, slowly
begin to empower them to have it
In the first stage of group development, leaders have considerable influence. Members
tend to be dependent on the leader for direction and safety. Leaders have a good deal
of influence with regard to initial definition of goals and preliminary decisions about the
type of group structure being established. Group members expect the leader to
provide direction, safety, order, and group goals and structures. Attempts to engage
members in these activities would be futile. Afterwards, however, member
expectations and reactions to the leader change quite a bit. As members becomemore comfortable in the group, they begin to resent what they now perceive to be
undue influence on the part of the leader. The leaders competence may be
challenged. Some members may feel manipulated by the leader. The safety and
competence that members perceived the leader as providing is questioned. Suspicion
of, and challenges to, the leaders authority often start to take place.
Not all members become dissatisfied with the leader. Some remain loyal. The group
may split into two factions over this issue. One faction is supportive of the leader and
the other is not. These two factions often fight about their expectations of the leader
and his or her performance with regard to those expectations. Some of this conflict
may be due to real leader behavior in the group. Much of the conflict, however, isabout things that go beyond the role of the leader. In essence, the conflict with and
about the leader is a way for the group to discuss who can have input into decisions.
Roles and decision-making, power, status, and communications structures are being
clarified in this process. Efforts to reorganize power begin to occur as well. These are
all necessary for group progress.
During the first stage of group development, the role of leader is the most
distinguished and important role. Other roles are just being assigned. The leader role
is necessary to the establishment of some sense of safety and order. In effect, the role
of leader and members reactions to that role are the impetus for the emergence of
other roles and structures in the group. The importance of the leader in the first part
and member dependence on the leader allow for initial structures to form. Once these
are in place, the group can begin to define its structure even further. A major way that
the group does this is by redefining the leaders role and reducing, to some extent, the
power associated with that role. This redistribution of power clears the way for other
structures and roles to emerge.
The acquisition of power tends to make individuals want more power, not less. Thus,
the redistribution of power essential for further group development is not an easy
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process. When leaders are met with resistance, their efforts to use power and
influence tend to increase, not decrease. Three types of power have been described in
the literature. There ispower over, which is associated with dominance. Power from is
the ability to resist unwanted influence and demands. Power to, or empowerment, is
the ability to act more freely through power sharing. The strategies of power over and
power from tend to have negative effects on group relationships and goal
achievement. Such leadership tactics often push others to attempt to take power from
the leader, and conflict is the inevitable result. Leaders who employ power-to, or
empowering, strategies facilitate group development since no leader can perform all
the functions of leadership alone. Redistribution of power is essential
to facilitate group development and productivity.
Given the previous discussion, a group is not always successful in altering its
perceptions, or the leaders perceptions, of the leadership role. Also, even if the
groups perceptions change, the leader may force the group into continuing to respond
as it did initially. If the group fail to alter its perceptions, it will regress to thedependency stage of group development. If the leader and group disagree about the
leaders role and be unable to resolve this controversy, a prolonged fight for power and
control is likely to occur. If that happen, the groups cohesiveness, social structure, and
efficiency will be very affected. Power struggles, fights, and the like will take
precedence over goal achievement, efficiency, and productivity.
Effective leaders expect challenges to their authority and expect member demands for
more participation in running the group. These leaders see those challenges and
demands as a positive sign of group progress and not as threats to their authority.
They respond to these challenges by slowly beginning to empower group members to
participate more equally in group management functions. Effective leaders do thisslowly, since it will take members some time to work out conflicts and roles with regard
to group management. Giving up the reins all at once could be troublemaking. As
lower redistribution of power will be most effective.
Not to take attacks and challenges personally
One of the reasons why groups fail to resolve the tension and conflict inherent in this
stage of group development is that leaders and members tend to personalize the
experience. That is, when others challenge an individual members views, the
individual has a natural propensity to feel hurt and personally attacked. Leaders who
are attacked or discounted by members also tend to perceive these as personal
affronts. As a result, individuals may become quite defensive or combative. This
increase of tension to unmanageable levels may significantly reduce the groups
chances of resolving conflict and creating a unified group culture and structure.
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Adopting a group perspective can be very helpful to members and leaders, especially
at this stage. Rather than feel personally attacked, a leader, with a group perspective,
could view the attack as a sign that the group is ready to define its structure further.
The leader would view his role at this stage as a focus or catalyst for continued
development. He or she would not feel threatened by the loss of some power or
influence. Rather, the leader might see this redistribution of power, roles, and tasks as
indispensable to group productivity and goal achievement. For this reason in case of
conflict, instead of reacting defensively, the member might focus on clarifying his or
her views and the views of others in an attempt to gain agreement.