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The Hart and Quinn
(1998) typology
for
assessing
variations in
managerial
roles
was used to
explore
managers
self-reported successful
use of
influence
tactics
with subordinates. Data
were
obtained from
116 managers
using
ques-
tionnaires completed
anonym ously. The
investigation
found that the managers
vision setter
role was
positively
related to
the
use
of
the
consultation tactic.
Managers motivatorrolewas positivelyrelatedto theuseo fingratiating and
inspirational
appeals, and
negatively related
to the
use
of
exchange
and coali-
tion tactics. Managers analyzer
role
w as
related
to the
use
of pressure and
rationality tactics, and
negatively related
to the
use
of the
coalition
tactic.
Managers
task
master
role was positively related to
the
use
of the
exchange
and
inspirational appeals
tactics. Implications of
these
findings for
research
and
practice
are
discussed
Relation sh ip o f M an ag eria l VWbrk Roles to
Tactics Used to nflu en ce Su bordinates
Kevin G. Lamude
California State University San Bernardino
Joseph Scudder
Indiana University
T n te re s t in man agerial work role activities ha s grown rapidly in recen t
J . yeare (Martinko Gardner, 1990), yet the bulk of research which ha s
been conducted has focused on typologies for classifying work roles
rat he r tha n the relationsh ip between ma nag erial roles and actual com-
munication behavior or behavioral intentions. The present study was
un de rtake n to explore the relationship between self-reported manage-
rial work roles and successM infiuence strategies with subordioat^JS. The
geBeral im portan ce of this area of research results from the belief tha t
influence abilily is central to being effective in a variety of work roles
(Dreher, Dougherty,
Whitely, 1989).
armger Work
oles
The literatu re on m anag erial wo rk has changed significantly ia the
pas t decade or
so.
Prev:iously, it was dom inated by single case-oriented
accounts of specific companies o r biographies of specific le aders th a t had
been subjected to m inim al em pirical study (Bowditch Buono, 1985).
Early controveisies revolved around the participants' reasons for the
observable activities. For instance, Carroll and Iky ior(1968)pointed out
th at since man agerm l work is m ental, it is not directly observable. Sim-
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6 4 The Journai of usinessCom mu nica t ion 32:2Apr iN995
is more emphasis on cognitive processes, as in Quinn's (1981, 1988)
Competing Values concept which suggest that effective manager per-
formance requires the simultaneous m aste ry of seemingly contradictory
capab ilities. Th ere is also more em ph asis on integra ting tjT)ologies for
describing m ana geria l wo rk activities (Carroll
Gillen, 1987).
M ore recently, H a rt and Qu inn (1993) proposed a useful in tegrative
way to distinguish m anagerial work roles. Tbis approach revolves around
the Competing Values concept as the organizing framework. Citing
empirical sup port, Qu inn and his colleagues (Quinn Rohrba ugh,
1983;
Quinn, Spreitzer,
Hart,
1992)
proposed tha t different value dimen-
sions (flexibility to pred ictability and inte rn al to externa l focus) un der -
Heth e conceptualizations of the four m ajor perspec tives of organizational
and manag em ent effectiveness h ter atu re . For example, the hum an rela-
tions perspective (participation, openness, morale and commitment)
em phasizes fiexibility and inte rn al focus. The open system perspective
(innovation, adaptatio n, growth, and resource acquisition) stresses flex-
ibihty and exte rna l focus. The ration al goal perspective (direction, goal
clarity, productivity, and accomplishment) emphasizes predictability
and e xter na l focus. Finally, the in terna l process perspective (informa-
tion m anagem ent, docum entation, and control) stresses predictabihty
and in ternal focus. Evidence suggests that an effective m anager may need
to perform
w ll
on all four conflicting dem ands (Q uinn
Cam eron, 1988;
Qu inn, 1988).
An im por tant extension of the Competing Values concept was m ade
by H a rt and Q uinn (1993), who classified m ana ger ial work roles found
in the lite ratu re into four competingrol categories (Vision S etter, Moti-
vator, Analyzer, Task M aster. See Table 1.) th at correspond to Quinn's
value framework and examined how these roles are related to perfor-
mance. UsingQ typecluste r analysis they found the four h ypothesized
managerial reles could be grouped together on the basis of Quinn's
Com peting Valuesframework.In addition, they found th at m anag ers who
focused on all fou rw ork role s achieved hig he r levels of perform ance. In
this study, we extend tha ttypeof rese arch to lear n how m ana ger s effec-
tively use different tactics to influence subo rdinates .
nfluence Strategies
Much of the recent research on managerial infiuence with subordi-
nate s ha s focused on factors th at condition th e tactics th at are used (Del-
uga,1988; Harper Hirokawa, 1988;Lamude,1993;L amu de, Scudder,
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Managerial Work Roles / Lamude, Scudder 1 6 5
Table1
Definit ions of M anagerial oles
Vision Setter Manager focuses on creating a sense of identity, mission, aind
agendas for organizational members.
Motivator Manager employs personal examples, metaphors, anecdotes,
ceremony and symbols to emphasize organizational values and
create a
sense
of excitement and challenge for oi^^anizational
members.
Analyzer Manager is concerned with the critical review of projects and
proposals, evaluating decisions, negotiating, and conflict solving.
Iksk Master Manager has a strong focus on hands on results, knowledge,
decision making, and resource options.
behav ior. Yet, a growing body of lite ra tu re (Kan ter, 1982; Kotter, 1982;
fe.vett & Lau ,1983;YuM Falbe, 1990) has argued th at influencing sub-
ordinates is an im po rtan t component of m anag erial work
roles,
landthe
study of managerial roles may provide a more detailed analysis of the
influence process.
The spedfic influence strategies m ade available
to
respond ents in the
presen t study were based
on Yukl
and Falbe's (1990) modification ofKip-
nis and Schm idt's (1985) hawi and soft influence tactics . Th e fouir
hand tactics involve use of auth ority and position power, and they tend
to be used in an impersonal and manipulative way (JPalhe
,
Yukl,
1992, p.644). The hard tactics include press ure, upw ard appeal,
exchange, and coalition.
In turn , Falbe and Yukl (1992) propose the four soft influence tac-
tics involve use of personal power and power sharing
(p.
644).Tb e soft
tactics include ingratia ting, rationality, inspiration al appeals, and con-
sultation. Definitions of these tactics a re shown inTable2.
Since Ha rt and Q uinn's m anag erial role typology makes no prediction
abo ut influence stra teg y use, the pr esen t stud y was exploratory^?. How-
ever, several prio r man ager-to-subo rdinate tactics of influence studies
s u r e s t th atsomespeculation is possible. In particular, in a series of stud-
iesresearch ers repo rt th at soft tactics such
as,
rationality, inspirationa l
appeal, consultation, ingratiation a nd less pressure are m ore success-
ful in influencing sub ordin ates' comm itment to vrork-related outcom es
(Falbe
Yukl,
1992;
Yukl
Fadbe, 1990; Yukl Tracey, 1992).
While man age rs are likely to possess trans-role preferences for soft
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66
The Journal of
usiness
ommunication 32:2April 995
Table
efinition of Influence T actics
Rational persuasion
Inspirational appeals
Consultation
Ir^atiation
Exchange
Coalition tactics
Pressure
Upward appeals
The manager uses logical ai^uments and factual evidence
to persuade the ta i^et subordinate th at
a
proposal or
requestisviable and likely toresult in the attainmentof
task objectives.
The manager makes a request or proposal tha t arouses
tai^et enthusiasm yappealit^ tothe subordinate s
values, ideals,
and aspirations, or
y
increasing th e
subordinate s self-confidence.
The m anager seeks the subordinate s participation in
planning a strategy, activity, or chais e forwhichtlie
subordinate s support and assistance are desired, or the
manager is
willing to
modify a proposal
to
deal with the
subordinate s concerns and su ^esti on s.
Tlie manager uses praise,fiattery,friendlybehavior,or
helpful behavior
to
get the target subordinate in
a
good
mood or to think favorably of him or he r before asking for
something.
The manager offers an exchange of favour, indicates
willingness to reciprocate
at
a later
time,
or promises
a
share of the benefits if the ta i^e t subordinate helps
accomplish a task .
The m anager seeks the aid of others to persuade tiie
tai^et subordinate
to do
something or
uses
the support
of
others as a reason for th e targettoagree also
The
mam ger
uses demands, threats,
firequent
checking,
or persistent reminderstoinfluence th e targ et subordi-
nate to do w hat he or she wants.
The manager seeks to establish th e legitimacy of a request
by claiming the authority or righ ttomake it or yverify
ing tha t itisconsistent with organizational policies, rules,
practices, or traditions.
Other researchers have considered the impact of task activity on the
influence process. For example, task activity has been identified
a s
a source
of hard infiuence tactic differentiation with subordinates. Kim and Yukl
(1989) reported the pressure tactic
is
used more often for influencing sub-
ordinates in work-related task than with peers or superiors. In turn,
Lamude, Scudder, and Furno
(1993)
found
coahtion,
exchange, rationahty,
and pressure tactics were successful in influencing subordinates to per-
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Managerial Work
Roles
/ Lamude, Scudder 1 6 7
vision articulate s an attractive ftiture, and m anage rs should behave in
ways th a t reflect t he viisioE.O Hairand F riedrich(1992)concluded th at
if a vision becomes a rigid pa tte rn of behavior ins tead of an inspii-ational
challenge, it may do m ore ha rm th an good (p.87). Such writings sug-
gest th at soft tactics are more likely
to be
significantly associat3d w ith
the vision sette r role th an hard tactics. This finds su pp ort from
researcherswhofound inspirational appea ls and consultation tactics are
used m ost often as a me ans to obtain subo rdinate com mitment for new
objectives, stra teg ies , and projects (Yukl Falbe, 1990).
The an alyzer role involves competing viewpoints, the recognition of
comm onalities and con trasting viewpoints, and the ability to influence
t
subordinatetoadopt a comm on poin t of view ( H art Quinn , 1993).
Because th e analyze r m ana ger assum es a Mghly active and control-ori-
en ted role in com municating decisions, we expect tM s role to besignif-
icantly associated w ith hard tactics. TMs is sup ported by little pa ge ,
Nixon, and Gibson (1993) who provide evidence th at the u se of ingrati-
ating, and two hard tactics, coalition and rationality are the mos t
effective in negotiating, so lvir^ problems and conflicts. Ha rt and Q uinn
(1993) suggest the m otivato rrolehelps managerstolink employees with
enduring oi^aniza tional values, develop and m aintain M gher levels of
perfonmance, a nd promo te their own and employees' em otion and ide a
expression. Res earchers h ave no ted the im portance of infiuence behav-
ior in undeistanding how managers motivate suboitiinates commit-
ment and extra effort (Bass, 1985;Yukl, 1989). DeFleur, Kearney, and
Plax(1993)suggesttheexercise of doseness, enthusiasm , and MMng behav-
iors are generally perceived as eflfective in motivating others. Results from .
prior research on downward influence of managers over suboniinates
found these motivating behaviors were positively associated with the use
of more ing ratiating and less exchange tactics (Lamude, etai.,
1993).
We
would expect, then , th at thes e tactics are m ore likely to be employed in
the role of m otivator.
etho
Sample
The presen t study employed volunteer sampling (O'Hair & Kieps, 1990)
in ordertogenerate a sufficient num ber of participantstoproduce a power
estimate of.90(Cohen, 1969) for the princ iple an alys is of inte res t. O ur
sample consists of116volunteer m anag ers (66 ma les and 50 females)
participating in a one day business and m anagem ent education program
sponsored by the N atio na l In stitute for Professional Development. TMs
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? 6 8 The Journal of usiness ommunication 3 : Apn7 f995
top level managem ent. The resp onden ts' ages ranged from27to69,with
a mean age of
45.
All of th e respo ndents h ad at le ast a college degree.
Procedures
One -hundred twenty-seven questionnaires were adm inistered a t the
program site cafeteria during the lunch break. The self-report ques-
tionnaire was composed of m easu res of m ana geria l roles and influence
tactics, and limited demographic information. A cover lette r attached to
the que stionnaire explained the purpose of the study and assu red con-
fidentiality. Responden ts were told tha t they were taking pa rt in a sur-
vey to assess m anagem ent communication issues. Similartothe procedure
of Falbe et a l., (1993) respond ents we re asked to reca ll a recent conver-
sation in which the y were successful in influencing a subordina te to com-
m ittoa work-related activity and to describe on a5-point agree-disagree
scale which items, if any, represe nted the ir work role(s) an d tactic(s) of
downward influence. Com mitment was described as when the employee
agrees with the request or decision, is enthusiastic about it, and is
likely to exercise initiative and dem onstrate unusu al effort and pe rsis-
tence in order to car ry out the requ est successfully. Partic ipan ts w ere
asked to complete the q uestionnaire during lunch and deposit them in
abox as they left the cafeteria. If they were unabletocomplete them imm e-
diately, they were allowed to place them in a box located at the infor-
m ation cen ter later in the day. The vast majority of the que stionn aires
upon w hich the study results are based w ere completed at th e time of
distribution.
Measures
Managerial roles
M anagerial roles were m easured by the16item M anag er Role Item
scale (Hart & Quinn, 1993). Each of the four managerial roles were
assessed by a four-item questionnaire. The alpha coefficients of inter-
nal consistency for each subscale were as follows: Vision Setter = .80,
M otivator = .82, Analyzer =.83,an d Tksk M ast er = .88 indicating con-
sistency within the scales.
Influence strategies
Weassessed 8 sets of influence strate gies v ia Yukl and Falbe's (1990)
modification of Kipnis etal's(1980; 1985), Intraorgan izatio na l Influence
Scale. These
included:
pressu re, upw ard appeal, exchange, coalition, con-
sultation, ingratiation, ra tional persuasion, a nd inspirational appeals.
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Managerial Work Roles
Lamude Scudder
169
Results
The data were analyzed using a series of stepwise regression tech-
niqu es to identify influence tactic s th a t were significantly related to the
four m ana geria l work roles. As seen in kble
3,
therewas
a
different set
of predic tors for each of the four
roles.
Vision se tte r ha d one signi.ficant
predictor. More use of consu ltation (Beta=.45) was re lated to
the
man-
ager s vision s etter w ork role. Motivator ha d four significant pred ictors.
M ore use of insp irational appeal (Beta=.45) and ing ratiating (Beta=.33 )
tactics and less use of exchange (Beta=-.25) and coalition (Beta.16) tac-
ticswere related to the m anager s m otivator role. Aiialyzer ha d three sig-
nificant predictors. More use of pressure (Beta=.56) and rationality
CBeta=.25) tactics and less
use of
the coalition (Beta=-.21) tac tic were
rela ted to the m anager s analyzer role. Finally, tas k m as ter h ad two sig-
nificant predictors. Moreuse of inspira tional appeals (Beta=.25) and
exchange (Beta=.47) tactics were rela tedtothe m anager s task role. The
upw ard appeal tactic failed to exert any appreciable im pac t on the four
work roles.
Table 3
Stepwise Multiple Regression of Manager s Tactics on
Work oles
Tkctics
Pressiire
Upward Appeal
Exchange
Ingratiating
Rationality
Inspirational Appeal
Coalition
Consultation
Constant
RSQ (Adjusted)
Viision
Setter
B Beta
_,
_
_
_ _
_
_
_
_
1.61 .45
5.813
.19
(8/107d0
Motivator
B Beta
_
_
- 0 . 8 1
- .25
1.18 .33
_
_
1.40 .45
- 0 . 6 0
-.16
-
6.676
.36
{4/llldf)
Analyzer
B Beta
1.82 .56
_.
_
_
.76 .25
_ ._
- .72
-.21
_
4492
.3 9
(3/112df)
Task
Mas te r
B Beta
_ _
1.65 .47
_ _
_ _
.84
.25
_
_
-
3.558
.27
(2/113dQ
Discussion
Weejqjiored w ork roles as an important antecedent factor conditioning
m anagers perceived effective tactics of influence with subord inates . The
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1 7 The Journal of
usiness
Com munica t ion 32:2Apri l 1995
In recent years considerable attention has been given to the role of
vision setting in m anagem ent attitudes and ieadersMp skill. The pre-
sent results suggest tha t the consultation tactic and visionary role are
positively rela ted TMs is consistent with Bennis and N anus's ( 19 8^ argu-
m en t th at the visions tha t man agers have are based on communicating
sha red va lues. TMs asso ciation is also consonan t with th at offered by
O'Hairan d BHedrich (1992), who suggested th a t acting on visions often
requires man agers to remainflexibleandtostrive to modify and improve
the ir original vision.
The p resen t findings indicate t ha t in the role of motivator, m anagers
can obtain more commitment and effort from subordinates by relying
less on coalition an d exchange tactics and more on use of ing ratia ting
and inspirational appeals tactics. As others have ai^ued, the use of
exchange and coalition tactics result in being perceived as impersonal
an d manipu lative, and seldom resu lt in subo rdinate com mitment (Falbe
& Yukl, 1992).
Results related
to
the analyze r role were all hard tactics and resem-
bled those found by other researchers with problem solving managers
(Littlepage, etal.,
1993).
T hese results m ight be explained best by H ar t
and Q uiim's (1993) obseirvation tha t m anag ers focusing on comm unica-
tion to seek information, to shape decisions rega rding competing view-
points and to maintain control, or for managing superior-subordinate
relationsMp s, typically ignore behaviors tha t enh ance relationships and
participation.
Contrary
to
expectations,
we
found th at the task m aster role
was
related
toeffective use of hard and soft tactics . The most defensible conclusion
is the recent finding tha t th e inspirational ap peal tactic is much more
effective when u sed in combination with a
hard
tactic such
as
exchange
(Falbe
Yukl, 1992). These researchers also observed that it may not
be app rop riate to regard the exchange tactic as a hard tactic except
wh en it is used in imperso nal and man ipulative ways. Future research
exploring wMch charac teristics a re mo st salient to m ana ger s in decid-
ing w he the r the exchange tactic is hard or soft would be of value.
Caution is suggested in the generalization of the p resentfindings.The
present study was designed to be exploratory in nature. One primary
limitation istiaefeictha t the sample
was
non-random an d limited
to
man-
agers
who
self-selected into the responden t group . In addition, onlyself-
report da ta w ere used . WMle a recent review by Specto r (1987) found
little evidence of common va riance among self-report m easure s of affec-
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Managerial Work Roles / Lamude, Scudder 1 7 1
behavior. The instrum en t developed by H art and Quinn (1993) to m ea-
sure m ana gers' propensity to engage in role behavior was shown to be
internally con sistent an d to differentiate among responde nt m anag ers.
It is also associated with an a rray of tactics use d to influence subordi-
nates.
The focus on influence tac tics however begs the question of how
well the H art and Quinn
framework
generalizestoman agers across man-
agerial functions. Lamude, Scudder, and Furno (1993), for example
foxmd perceived differences of downward influence tactics across tech-
nical, middle-line, and su pp ort m anag erial functions an d influence suc-
cess.Belatedly, future research should examine th e relationship between
m a n ^ e r i a lrolesand effective upw ard and horizontal influence a ttem pts.
O ther re sea rchers have suggested links between use of influence tac-
tics and othe r influence attem pt outcome factors such
as,
unsuccessful,
resistance , and com pliance (Falbe Yukl,1992;Yukl, 1989). Such rela-
tionsh ips m ight be profitable future directions to more fully explore t he
roles of m ana geria l work activity an d influence processes.
Although caution is needed in offering guidelines until follow-up
research verifies th e prese nt results, the se findings also sugges t inter-
ven tion work can be und erstood in the context of roles and effective us e
of hard and soft tactics with subo rdinates.
OT
Kevia
G.
Lamude (Ph.D., University of
Utah)
is an Associate Professor of Com-
mimication Studies at California S tate
University,
San Bernardino.
His
research
on
influence, stress, and relational dimensions has appeared in Communication
Research Reports, The Journal of Business
Communication,
Journal of Social
Behavior andP ersonality,Management ommunicationQua rterly,Perceptual and
M otor Skills,Psychological
Reports,
WesternJournal of Speech Com munication,
andWomenStudies inCommunication.Address correspondence toK.
G.
Lamude,
Ph.D., Department of Commimication Studies, California State University, San
Bernardino,
5500
University
Parkway,
San Bernardino, CA. 92407-2397.
Joseph Scudder
(Ph.D.,
Indiana University) is an Assistant Professor of Speech
Comm unication at Indiana University.Heha s contributed articles toCommunica-
tion Reports,
ommunication Research
Reports,
ommunicationQuarterly,
The
Journal of Business
Communication,
Human
ommunication
Research, Journal
of Social Behavior and
Personality,
Public Relations Review, Perceptual and
Motor
Skills, and Psychological
Reports.His
research interests center on
tlie
study
of influence, small group comm unication, and information systems.
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