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L1

L1

Monolingualism Balanced Bilingualism

L2

L2

L1

Dominant Bilingualism

Developing Bilingualism

Emi Yoshida October 13, 2005

Definitions and typologies of bilingualism

Definitions of bilingualism

What is bilingualism? In general, bilingualism is accepted as native-like control of two

languages (Bloomfield, 1935). However, there are broader definitions of bilingualism. Some

researchers consider bilingualism as being able to use two languages at some level, not the highest

level.

Types of bilingualism

Criterion of

distinctions Types of bilingualism

1 Balance of skill

in two languages

Balanced bilingualism

()

Dominant bilingualism

()

2 Semantic

distinction

Compound bilingualism

()

Coordinate bilingualism

()

3 Period of

acquisition

Simultaneous bilingualism

()

Consecutive bilingualism

()

4 Social position of

two languages

Additive bilingualism

()

Subtractive bilingualism

()

(1) Balance of skill in two languages

Balanced bilingualism () occurs when a speaker has equal skill in two languages.

These skills may correspond to native-like.

Dominant bilingualism () occurs when a speaker has a better skill in one

language than the other.

(2) Semantic distinction

Compound bilingualism () occurs when a speaker learns two languages in one

context and develops only one, fused conceptual system.

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Coordinate bilingualism () occurs when a speaker learns two languages in

separate environments. He associates two languages with different contexts; therefore he

develops different conceptual systems for the two languages.

(3) Period of acquisition

Simultaneous bilingualism () occurs when a child acquires two languages almost

at the same time as a first language.

Consecutive bilingualism () occurs when a child is introduced to a second

language after he has acquired his first language.

(4) Social position of two languages

Additive bilingualism () occurs when two languages have high status both

socially and economically so that a speaker places positive values to both languages. In this case,

both two languages are developed.

Subtractive bilingualism () occurs when a second language has higher social

and economical status than a first language. In this case, a second language replaces a first

language.

Immersion bilingual education

History of immersion

Immersion education () is one type of bilingual education, which first started in

Canada. In 1965, 26 children joined an experimental immersion kindergarten where they were

exposed to two languages; English(L1) and French(L2). The children succeeded to achieve the goal

of the program as they acquired a high level of French we well as English. Since then, French

immersion has spread across the country.

house

Compound bilingualism

house

Coordinate bilingualism

L 1

L 1

L 1

L 2

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020406080100

K. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12GradeEnglish Japanese

Immersion education in Japan

Katoh Gakuen

Katoh Gakuen () is the first Japanese school to start English immersion in 1992. The

private school was accredited its K-12 bilingual program by Monkasho. The bilingual program

was also received the International Baccalaureate authorization().

Curriculum and school life

Kindergarten

Each class has both a native Japanese and native English speaking teacher.

Elementary school (Grades 1-6)

In grades 1-3, each class has two native-English speaking homeroom teachers and one Japanese

homeroom teacher. In grades 4-6, each class has one native-English speaking homeroom

teacher and one Japanese homeroom teacher.

The program follows the regular Japanese curriculum. In grades 1-3, English, math, theme,

computer, PE, music and art classes are taught entirely in English, while Japanese and language

arts classes are taught entirely in Japanese. In grades 4-6, English, math, science and

computer classes are taught entirely in English, while Japanese, social studies, art, music and

PE classes are taught entirely in Japanese. The same content is never taught in both

languages.

High school (Grades 7-12)

The program integrates 3 different curriculums into one: the International Baccalaureate

Middle Years Program, Diploma Program and the national Japanese curriculums.

Type: Partial immersion

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Academic achievement

In 2004, 17 students graduated from Katoh Gakuen as the first immersion students. 11 of them

were those who had attended the program since 1992 and other 6 joined from high school.

26 students completed the IB middle school diploma.

11 received a bilingual diploma and the other 6 received their certificates.

Most students scored 70% or higher on the national center test ().

Allegedly, 8 students attended Japanese universities. They were accepted at Aoyama Gakuin,

Meiji Gakuin, Keio, Waseda, Chuo, Tokai and Nihon universities.

Allegedly, 9 students attended U.S. universities. They were accepted at Harvard, Yale,

Columbia, Michigan State, Oklahoma State, and university of Georgia.

The students seem to have acquired the same skill in math and Japanese as non-immersion

students in Katoh Gakuen (Bostwick, 2001).

Most of the 8th grade students have obtained pre-second of STEP ().

It is assumed that the first immersion students have succeeded academically. They seem to have

achieved a high level of English as well as Japanese. Moreover, the students skill in other subjects

is probably over average according the number of universities they had been accepted. However,

their academic success cannot only depend on the immersion program they had joined. It is

notable that most of their parents are able to communicate with the native English speaking

teachers, and all of the parents could afford to have sent their children to the immersion program

from kindergarten to high school. The expectation of the parents and the teachers also might

have increased the students motivation. Furthermore, there is a question whether first 17

graduates are naturally intelligent enough to apply to the English immersion or the English

immersion has developed their intelligence.

Discussion

Acquiring high level of English has been a dream for many Japanese. If English immersion

enables Japanese to use the language, should they start English immersion in all schools? Is an

immersion program ideal English education in Japan?

Benefits

Students are expected to acquire two languages.

Students are expected to become more tolerant to other languages and cultures.

Students are expected to be heighten the students sense of Japanese identity and appreciation of

Japanese culture.

Problems

A vast sum of money would be needed to employ as many native English teachers as Japanese

speaking teachers, and to train them.

Parents and Japanese speaking teachers would be required to make a great effort to be able to

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communicate with native English speaking teachers.

If a student fails to acquire an appropriate level of English especially around 9th or 10th grade, he

would fail in all classes.

Although English immersion is beneficial in terms of access to two languages and cultures, it is not

ensured that all students would succeed academically. If parents are incapable to communicate

with native English speaking teachers and do not expect their children to learn English, they might

fail to acquire a high level of English because they are not highly motivated.

English immersion cannot apply to a general education style in Japan since it requires a vast sum

of money and a great effort to parents and teachers.

Language attrition()

Types of language attrition (Van Els, 1986)

He divided language attrition into four groups.

Language

L1 L2

Environment

L1

Type1

Language death()

Type3

People who learn in L2 and

the people who back in L1

lose L2.

L2

Type2

Immigrants lose their mother

language in L2.

Type4

Immigrants lost L2 in L2.

Why languages are lost (Reason)

(1) Passed year (time)

How long have the people who lose language left in L2?

Gardner said that the time is incubation period.

In generally, the longer people stay in L1, the more they lose L2. That is important but another

reason is more important.

(2) Degree of proficiency

The level of L2 (proficiency) is one of the reasons why people lose language. The higher

proficiency people learn L2, the more they can memorize L2. And the lower proficiency people

learn L2, they lose L2 (Codsall-Myers, 1981).

Reetz-Kurashige (1998) reported about 18 returnee Japanese children. They collected and

analyzed dates about morphosyntax speech(). Target people are those who lived

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more than 2 years in English-speak countries. The people that know the laws of grammar in verb,

that is more important than age and period to retain L2.

But why the person who is high degree of proficiency does not lose L2?

This theme was studied by Neiser (1984). That is critical threshold hypothesis ().

Some people get critical mass () once, it is hard for the people to lose a language.

(3) Age

Mr. Yoshida reported that the juniors lose L2 more than senior. But Kuhberg is different. He

countered about that. He reported that senior lose L2 more than junior.

(4) Motive and attitude forward languages

If we want to retain our language ability after graduations, what can we do?

There are several ways to retain language ability after graduation.

. Read English

Read anything written English language, the book, newspaper article, letters, website, magazine,

etc. we do not need to buy them; we can read them in the library or bookstore for browsing.

. Write English words and sentences

Write English words. Long sentences are helpful to use a lot of words. Also translating into

Japanese from English will be good and vice versa. Keep diary and write letters and e-mail is

good.

. Speak in English

With friends, talk or chat about any topic. Advise each other on their mistakes without words or

idioms and so on and write down these mistakes words so we do not do it again.

Use NHK radio program Lets speak English and MSN messenger.

.Listen to English

Talk with the friends or listen to radios, music, news on TV, and etc.

Use NHK radio program and NHK news and NHK program.

Watch TV and DVDs with and without subtitles.

Listen to music and etc.

They are all easy things. We want to try by ourselves to maintain English. It is difficult to find

native English speaking people and to make English environment that is only use English all the

time in Japan. How many times do we study a week? From the forgetting curve of view, at least

one hour per three days a week will be needed.

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References

Baker, C. 1996. Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Trans. Hideo Oka. Tokyo:

Taisyukan.

Bearsmore, Hugo Baetens. 1986. Bilingualism: Basic Principles. 2nd. ed. Cleverdon:

Multilingual Matters Ltd.

Bloomfield, L. 1935. Language. London: Allen & Unwin.

Childs, Marshall. First Immersion Students Graduate. Daily Yomiuri 23 Apr. 2004, 14.

Koike, Ikuo, Masanori Terauchi, Koji Kinoshita, and Masumi Narita, eds. 1986.

. Tokyo: Taisyukan.