BILINGUALISM AND DIGLOSSIA IN SPAIN. Defining Individual Bilingualism What is bilingualism? Definitions: –Weinreich (1968) “The practise of alternately

BILINGUALISM AND BILINGUALISM AND DIGLOSSIA IN SPAINDIGLOSSIA IN SPAIN

Defining Individual BilingualismDefining Individual Bilingualism

What is bilingualism?What is bilingualism?Definitions:Definitions:– WeinreichWeinreich (1968) “The practise of alternately using two languages will (1968) “The practise of alternately using two languages will

be called bilingualism, and the person involved, bilingual.”be called bilingualism, and the person involved, bilingual.” – Diebold Diebold (1964) “Incipient bilingualism”(1964) “Incipient bilingualism”– BloomfieldBloomfield (1933) “In the cases where this perfect foreign-language (1933) “In the cases where this perfect foreign-language

learning is not accompanied by loss of the native language, it results in learning is not accompanied by loss of the native language, it results in ‘bilingualism’, native like control of two languages.”‘bilingualism’, native like control of two languages.”

– MackeyMackey (1970) “It seems obvious that if we are to study the (1970) “It seems obvious that if we are to study the phenomenon of bilingualism we are forced to consider it as something phenomenon of bilingualism we are forced to consider it as something entirely relative…We shall therefore consider bilingualism as the entirely relative…We shall therefore consider bilingualism as the alternate use of two or more languages by the same individual.” alternate use of two or more languages by the same individual.”

Factors to take into account (Mackey):Factors to take into account (Mackey):– Degree, function, alternation, interference.Degree, function, alternation, interference.

ExamplesExamples1.1. A 2yo who is beginning to talk, speaking English to one parent and Welsh to A 2yo who is beginning to talk, speaking English to one parent and Welsh to

the other.the other.2.2. A Danish immigrant in New Zealand who has not had contact with Danish A Danish immigrant in New Zealand who has not had contact with Danish

for the last 40 years.for the last 40 years.3.3. A schoolchild from an Italian immigrant family in the USA who increasingly A schoolchild from an Italian immigrant family in the USA who increasingly

uses English both at home and outside but whose older relatives address uses English both at home and outside but whose older relatives address him in Italian only.him in Italian only.

4.4. A young graduate who has been studying French for eleven years.A young graduate who has been studying French for eleven years.5.5. A personal interpreter of an important public figure.A personal interpreter of an important public figure.6.6. The Turkish wife of a Turkish immigrant in Germany who can converse The Turkish wife of a Turkish immigrant in Germany who can converse

orally in German but cannot read or write it.orally in German but cannot read or write it.7.7. A Japanese airline pilot who uses English for most of his professional A Japanese airline pilot who uses English for most of his professional

communication.communication.8.8. A fervent Catalanist who uses Catalan at home and work, but is exposed to A fervent Catalanist who uses Catalan at home and work, but is exposed to

Spanish in the media etc and is fully conversant in both.Spanish in the media etc and is fully conversant in both.

Bilingualism as a CONTINUUMBilingualism as a CONTINUUM

Describing Individual BilingualismDescribing Individual Bilingualism

AGEAGE– Early bilingualism, late bilingualismEarly bilingualism, late bilingualism

CONTEXTCONTEXT– Natural/ascribed bilingualism, achieved/secondary bilingualismNatural/ascribed bilingualism, achieved/secondary bilingualism

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SIGN AND MEANINGRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SIGN AND MEANING– Coordinated bilingualism, subordinate bilingualism, compound Coordinated bilingualism, subordinate bilingualism, compound

bilingualismbilingualism

ORDER AND CONSEQUENCEORDER AND CONSEQUENCE– Incipient and ascendant bilingualism, recessive bilingualismIncipient and ascendant bilingualism, recessive bilingualism

COMPETENCECOMPETENCE– Maximalist/minimalist views, semilingualismMaximalist/minimalist views, semilingualism

USE/FUNCTIONUSE/FUNCTIONATTITUDEATTITUDE– Consciousness of BilingualismConsciousness of Bilingualism

Societal MultilingualismSocietal Multilingualism

Historical Factors:Historical Factors:– Military conquest, occupation, annexationMilitary conquest, occupation, annexation– Political marriages and succession arrangementsPolitical marriages and succession arrangements– Colonisation Colonisation – Migrations and immigrationMigrations and immigration– FederationFederation

Contemporary FactorsContemporary Factors– Neo-colonialismNeo-colonialism– Present-day ImmigrationPresent-day Immigration– Language PromotionLanguage Promotion– InternationalisationInternationalisation

Societal Bilingualism Cont.Societal Bilingualism Cont.

Horizontal BilingualismHorizontal Bilingualism

Territorial monolingualismTerritorial monolingualism

Territorial bilingualismTerritorial bilingualism

InstabilityInstability

Diglossia & Charles FergusonDiglossia & Charles FergusonDiglossiaDiglossia – basic definition: – basic definition:Use of two languages/varieties of a language in one speech Use of two languages/varieties of a language in one speech community but in different situations.community but in different situations.Charles A. Ferguson (Word, 1959) – created English word ‘diglossia’ from French ‘diglossie’ (no English word before this to separate diglossia from standard bilingualism)

FERGUSON’S CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF DIGLOSSIA

FUNCTION:

• Which language is used when

• High language (‘H’) – e.g. Church sermon, political speech, news broadcast

• Low language (‘L’) – e.g. conversations amongst family/friends, cartoon strip

• Mixing up the uses speaker becomes object of ridicule.

PRESTIGE:

• H seen as superior (more beautiful & logical) maybe as religious texts were written in it

• Can lead to snobbery. Contemporary writers use words of old H to sound intellectual

Acquisition:Acquisition: L taught at home – mother tongueL taught at home – mother tongue H is taught in formal education – superposedH is taught in formal education – superposed children can speak L better than H and write H better children can speak L better than H and write H better than L!than L!

Before Before standardisationstandardisation at least, H has dictionaries, at least, H has dictionaries, vocabulary guides and a set grammar; L has no unified vocabulary guides and a set grammar; L has no unified grammar and may have lots of varieties within itgrammar and may have lots of varieties within it

Grammar &Grammar & vocabulary rangevocabulary range of H, even after of H, even after standardisation = more complexstandardisation = more complex

Stability of Diglossia:Stability of Diglossia:• With illiteracy in society, diglossia can live for centuries / With illiteracy in society, diglossia can live for centuries /

forever forever • Widespread literacy can lead to unification of the 2 Widespread literacy can lead to unification of the 2

languages languages problem - which one to choose as base? problem - which one to choose as base?

DIGLOSSIA: DIGLOSSIA:

‘ ‘a relatively stable language situation in which, in a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language addition to the primary dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional (which may include a standard or regional standards), there is a very divergent, highly standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education and which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary conversation’community for ordinary conversation’

Charles A. FergusonCharles A. Ferguson

Ferguson’s ideas mainly still stand some outdated and have been expandedFerguson’s ideas mainly still stand some outdated and have been expanded

Joshua FishmanJoshua Fishman biglossia biglossia – diglossia involving two completely separate languages– diglossia involving two completely separate languages digraphia digraphia – H is for written use, L is for conversational use– H is for written use, L is for conversational use

• PauwelsPauwels interlingual diglossia interlingual diglossia - 2 different languages- 2 different languages intralinguaintralingual l diglossiadiglossia - both derived from same language - both derived from same language diglossia as a ‘continuum’ – ranging from diglossia as a ‘continuum’ – ranging from rigid diglossia rigid diglossia (clearly defined (clearly defined

codes/situations for use) to codes/situations for use) to fluid diglossia fluid diglossia (lots of overlapping of use)(lots of overlapping of use)

• FasoldFasold Double-nested diglossia Double-nested diglossia – two Hs, one L (‘lower’ H acts as H and L)– two Hs, one L (‘lower’ H acts as H and L)

• Polyglossia Polyglossia – more than 2 languages– more than 2 languages• (Code-switching (Code-switching – 2 languages used in one situation/sentence)– 2 languages used in one situation/sentence)

Other Theorists’ views / Types of Diglossia

Language Choice and DomainsLanguage Choice and Domains(Ferguson would argue this is ‘societal bilingualism’ and not diglossia)(Ferguson would argue this is ‘societal bilingualism’ and not diglossia)

LANGUAGE CHOICE:LANGUAGE CHOICE:

GROUP – age, religion, sex…GROUP – age, religion, sex…

SITUATION – formality-informality, status equality-inequality…SITUATION – formality-informality, status equality-inequality…

ROLE RELATIONS – e.g. mother-daughter (both as speaker & listener)ROLE RELATIONS – e.g. mother-daughter (both as speaker & listener)

TOPIC – can overrule the 3 factors aboveTOPIC – can overrule the 3 factors above

DOMAINS:DOMAINS:• e.g. family, playground and street, school, church, military e.g. family, playground and street, school, church, military (Schmidt-Rohr)(Schmidt-Rohr)

LANGUAGE SHIFT:LANGUAGE SHIFT:• can occur with socio-political changes over timecan occur with socio-political changes over time

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BILINGUALISM & DIGLOSSIARELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BILINGUALISM & DIGLOSSIA(Joshua Fishman)(Joshua Fishman)

BILINGUALISM AND DIGLOSSIA:BILINGUALISM AND DIGLOSSIA: occurs when definite roles (of prestige) are established in a societyoccurs when definite roles (of prestige) are established in a society everyone understands both (generally)everyone understands both (generally)

DIGLOSSIA WITHOUT BILINGUALISM:DIGLOSSIA WITHOUT BILINGUALISM: in past or in less developed countries with great social dividein past or in less developed countries with great social divide each group doesn’t fully understand the other but have no need toeach group doesn’t fully understand the other but have no need to

BILINGUALISM WITHOUT DIGLOSSIA:BILINGUALISM WITHOUT DIGLOSSIA: in societies with social unrest or change (e.g. immigrant influx in Western in societies with social unrest or change (e.g. immigrant influx in Western society during industrialization era)society during industrialization era) taught native language for work – this used at home and their native taught native language for work – this used at home and their native language bought to worklanguage bought to work ‘ ‘pidgin’ versions of both languages; inevitable language shiftpidgin’ versions of both languages; inevitable language shift

NEITHER BILINGUALISM NOR DIGLOSSIA:NEITHER BILINGUALISM NOR DIGLOSSIA: in small, isolated communities (but rare) with no social hierarchy or in small, isolated communities (but rare) with no social hierarchy or immigrationimmigration still words people don’t recognize (e.g. words used by young people to old still words people don’t recognize (e.g. words used by young people to old people)people)

Galician HistoryGalician History

1212thth – 14 – 14thth century ‘Golden Years’, present century ‘Golden Years’, present in all formal domainsin all formal domains1616thth – 18 – 18thth century ‘ Dark Ages’, entirely century ‘ Dark Ages’, entirely absent from formal domainsabsent from formal domains1919thth century Renaissance, won back some century Renaissance, won back some areas of formal useareas of formal use1983 Statute of Autonomy and Law of 1983 Statute of Autonomy and Law of Linguistic Normalisation, officially present Linguistic Normalisation, officially present alongside Spanish in all formal domainsalongside Spanish in all formal domains

Galician SpeakersGalician Speakers

Highly proficientHighly proficientGalician the language of preferenceGalician the language of preferenceOnly in oral communicationOnly in oral communicationWritten communication improving through Written communication improving through educationeducationOld, lower classes, rural, less educatedOld, lower classes, rural, less educatedNegative imageNegative imageLess social successLess social success

Galician UsageGalician Usage

Code changeCode change– EducationEducation– Professional/economic interestProfessional/economic interest– Respect/courtesyRespect/courtesy– Social prestigeSocial prestige

Informal/unofficial social contextsInformal/unofficial social contexts

Classic diglossic situationClassic diglossic situation

Education, Church, MediaEducation, Church, Media

EducationEducation– Increased Galician language proficiencyIncreased Galician language proficiency– Degalicianise Galician speakersDegalicianise Galician speakers– Though important for status and survivalThough important for status and survival

ChurchChurch– Prestige and influencePrestige and influence– Mass predominantly taken in SpanishMass predominantly taken in Spanish

MediaMedia– Reflect and condition sociolinguistic behaviourReflect and condition sociolinguistic behaviour– State-owned TV/radio SpanishState-owned TV/radio Spanish– Local TV/radio GalicianLocal TV/radio Galician– Daily press SpanishDaily press Spanish– Advertising SpanishAdvertising Spanish

ConclusionConclusion

Classic example DiglossiaClassic example Diglossia

Legal provisions → ↑ proficiency and Legal provisions → ↑ proficiency and positive attitudepositive attitude

Galician still seen as the low language (L) Galician still seen as the low language (L) and Spanish the high language (H)and Spanish the high language (H)

Sociolinguistic inequalitySociolinguistic inequality

Outlook bleakOutlook bleak

Examples of bilingualism Examples of bilingualism and diglossia in the Basque and diglossia in the Basque

CountryCountry

Euskalherria consists of three principal areas:

•the Basque Autonomous Community (BAC), made up of Gipuzkoa, Araba, Bizkaia

•Navarra

•the three French provinces of Iparralde.

•The Basque Autonomous Community Statute of Autonomy 1979 – Castilian and Basque share co-official status

•High rate of bilingualism, encouraged by institutions such as the education system,

•However, the majority language of the BAC is Castilian.

Basque

•family and friends

•predominantly oral situations,

•used informally and daily

Castilian

•high-status situations that required a degree of formality

•e.g. academic spheres.

repression under the repression under the regime regime

urbanisation urbanisation

immigration immigration

……mean that the diglossic mean that the diglossic situation has changed. situation has changed.

‘The situation in the BAC could be best described as fragmentary bilingualism with residual diglossia in the Basque speaking districts of the BAC.’

2001 BAC Navarra Iparralde

Euskaldunes 29.4% 10.3% 24.7%

Cuasi-euskaldunes 11.4% 6.6% 11.9%

Erdaldunes (Castilian

or French speaking)

59.2% 83.1% 63.4

•Euskaldunes: capaces de entender y hablar euskera

•Cuasi-euskaldunes: Con alguna competencia activa o simplemente pasiva en euskera

•Erdaldunes – Sin ninguna competencia en euskera’

•Since 1991 there has been an increase of 5.3% in the number of euskaldunes in the BAC

•an increase of 25% in 1991 to 48% in 2001 of basque speakers in the age range 16 – 24

•‘In times of rapid urbanisation, it was seen rather as an annoying obstacle to geographical and social mobility.’

•Suffered harsh repression under Franco’s regime

•Immigration - Castilians entered the BAC in the industrial revolution

•Drop in number of Basque speakers, in favour of Castilian

• Basque became the language of the rural poor, came to represent ‘backwardness’ in an era of progress

•Ikastolas – private schools to promote the basque language in 1960s

•1982 the Law of Normalisation of the Use of the Basque Language

•Bilingualism Decree of 1983

In the BAC, there are three different In the BAC, there are three different models of bilingual education.models of bilingual education.

Model AModel A the language of instruction is Castilian the language of instruction is Castilian Basque is taught as a second Basque is taught as a second language for 3 to 5 hours a week. language for 3 to 5 hours a week.

Model BModel BBasque and Castilian are both used Basque and Castilian are both used as languages of instructionas languages of instruction

Model DModel DBasque is used as the language of Basque is used as the language of instruction instruction Castilian is taught as a subject.Castilian is taught as a subject.

1983 - 84 1990 - 91 1996 - 97 2002 - 03

Model A % 72.8 50.6 31.5 30.6

Model B % 10.5 24.9 27.7 22.5

Model D % 16.5 24.4 40.7 46.4

Evolution of the three linguistic models at pre-university level

•Model A – decline in number of students

•Models B and D – increase in popularity

Diglossia•In theory, Basque can be used in all levels of society. •However, in practice, the majority of all daily interactions take place in CastilianMany don’t use Basque, even if they have the capability to.

2006 Basque

Autonomous

Community %

What language do you speak in with your friends?

Most often in Basque 46

Both in Basque and in Castilian 19

Mainly in Castilian 35

What language do you speak in in neighbourhood shops?




What language do you speak in in banks?




What language do you speak in in the health centre?




What language do you speak in with your partner?




What language do you speak in with your children?




What language do you speak in at home?




Keeping it in the family

‘…‘…the linguistic behaviour of Basque the linguistic behaviour of Basque speakers has changed: they now use their speakers has changed: they now use their own language in more diverse social own language in more diverse social contexts than ever before. This, together contexts than ever before. This, together with the language promotion efforts made with the language promotion efforts made by many different institutions, has by many different institutions, has contributed to an improvement in the contributed to an improvement in the perceived social status of Basque.’ perceived social status of Basque.’

CataloniaCatalonia

Population: 6,343,110 Population: 6,343,110 GDP :GDP :196,546€million (18.7% of total 196,546€million (18.7% of total Spanish GDP) Spanish GDP) Officially Bilingual –Officially Bilingual –– Catalan is the official language of Catalan is the official language of

Catalonia, together with Castilian, the official Catalonia, together with Castilian, the official language of the Spanish State. All persons have language of the Spanish State. All persons have the right to use the two official languages and the right to use the two official languages and citizens of Catalonia have the right and the duty citizens of Catalonia have the right and the duty to know them. to know them.

How Many People Understand How Many People Understand Catalan?Catalan?

Diglossia in CataloniaDiglossia in Catalonia

Historically Historically – IndustrialisationIndustrialisation– Franco DictatorshipFranco Dictatorship

Current situation : Current situation : “the diglossic situation that was, “the diglossic situation that was, in the past, attributed to Catalonia, has ceased to exist”in the past, attributed to Catalonia, has ceased to exist”

Biglossia as opposed to DiglossiaBiglossia as opposed to Diglossia

Catalan or not Catalan? – That is Catalan or not Catalan? – That is the Question!the Question!

In-group/ intergroup interactionIn-group/ intergroup interaction

It is proper to Speak Catalan only to those It is proper to Speak Catalan only to those who are know to be Catalanwho are know to be Catalan– LocationLocation– ApperenceApperence– AccentAccent

Fa cara de catalàFa cara de català??

Bilingualism in cataloniaBilingualism in catalonia

Involuntary BilingualismInvoluntary Bilingualism– Prefer to use their own language but can Prefer to use their own language but can

speak Castilian speak Castilian

Natural BilingualismNatural Bilingualism

Achieved / Secondary BilingualismAchieved / Secondary Bilingualism

Passive bilingualismPassive bilingualism

ConclusionsConclusions

Catalonia is a bilingual region – re-enforced Catalonia is a bilingual region – re-enforced by the state (language planning)by the state (language planning)Probably more appropriate to talk about Probably more appropriate to talk about biglossia or interlingual diglossia biglossia or interlingual diglossia Natural, achieved/secondary, passive and Natural, achieved/secondary, passive and involuntary bilingualism.involuntary bilingualism.Catalan is a language of prestige and is Catalan is a language of prestige and is promoted as such by the Catalan people.promoted as such by the Catalan people.Standardised form of Catalan – Some slight Standardised form of Catalan – Some slight regional variation but there is a standard form regional variation but there is a standard form which also prevents diglossia.which also prevents diglossia.

ConclusionConclusion

BilingualismBilingualism

IndividualIndividual

SocietalSocietal

There is no single definition but instead a There is no single definition but instead a scale of different interpretations of what scale of different interpretations of what constitutes bilingualismconstitutes bilingualism

DiglossiaDiglossia

Two languages co existing within a society Two languages co existing within a society with completely separate functionswith completely separate functions

Different statuses for the two languagesDifferent statuses for the two languages

Spanish ExamplesSpanish Examples

Only truly a state of diglossia in GaliciaOnly truly a state of diglossia in Galicia

Less distinction between Castilian and the Less distinction between Castilian and the minority language in Catalonia and the minority language in Catalonia and the Basque CountryBasque Country

Galicia – the language with the least Galicia – the language with the least prestige. Perhaps why it is in the most prestige. Perhaps why it is in the most danger?danger?

BibliographyBibliographyHoffman, C. (1991) Hoffman, C. (1991) An Introduction to BilingualismAn Introduction to Bilingualism (Longman : New York) (Longman : New York)Romaine, S. (1995) Romaine, S. (1995) Bilingualism Second Edition Bilingualism Second Edition (Blackwell Publishing : Oxford)(Blackwell Publishing : Oxford)Wei, L. (2000) Wei, L. (2000) The Bilingualism Reader The Bilingualism Reader (Routledge : London)(Routledge : London)Hudson, A. (2002) Hudson, A. (2002) Outline of a Theory of Diglossia Outline of a Theory of Diglossia in in International Journal of the Sociology of International Journal of the Sociology of Language – Language – www.international .ucla.eduwww.international .ucla.eduPradilla, M. (2001)Pradilla, M. (2001) The Catalan-speaking Communities The Catalan-speaking Communities in in Mulitilinguaism in Spain Mulitilinguaism in Spain ed. Turell, M ed. Turell, M (Multilingual Matters: Clevedon)(Multilingual Matters: Clevedon)Woolard, K. (1989) Woolard, K. (1989) Double Talk: Bilingualism and the Politics of Ethnicity in Catalonia Double Talk: Bilingualism and the Politics of Ethnicity in Catalonia (Stanford (Stanford University Press : Stanford)University Press : Stanford)Beswick, J (2007) Beswick, J (2007) Regional Nationalism In Spain: Language Use and Ethnic Identity in Galicia Regional Nationalism In Spain: Language Use and Ethnic Identity in Galicia ((Multilingual Matters : Clevedon)Multilingual Matters : Clevedon)2001 Spanish Census 2001 Spanish Census www.ine.eswww.ine.esLasangabaster, D. and Huguet,Lasangabaster, D. and Huguet, A. A. (2007) (2007) Multilingualism in European Bilingual Contexts – Multilingualism in European Bilingual Contexts – Language Use and Attitudes Language Use and Attitudes (Multilingual Matters : Clevedon)(Multilingual Matters : Clevedon)Wright, S. (1996) Wright, S. (1996) Monolingualism and Bilingualism – Lessons from Canada and Spain Monolingualism and Bilingualism – Lessons from Canada and Spain (Multilingual Matters : Clevedon)(Multilingual Matters : Clevedon)www.eustat.eswww.eustat.esEtxebarria, M Etxebarria, M El Bilinguismo En El Estado Español El Bilinguismo En El Estado Español (Bilbao)(Bilbao)Skutnabb-Kangas, T (1981) Skutnabb-Kangas, T (1981) Bilingualism or not: The Education of Minorities Bilingualism or not: The Education of Minorities (Multilingual Matters: (Multilingual Matters: Clevedon)Clevedon)

Documents

BILINGUALISM AND DIGLOSSIA IN SPAIN. Defining Individual Bilingualism What is bilingualism? Definitions: –Weinreich (1968) “The practise of alternately