U.S. History to Reconstruction

Unit 7 – Jeffersonian Republicanism

America in the Jeffersonian Age An age of rapid population growth

In 1800, population was just over 5.3 million By 1810, it was well over 7.2 million 20% were black slaves Children under sixteen the largest single group

Strong regional identities developed Main three: New England, south, and west Facilitated by transportation improvements Motivated by defensiveness

Early secession movements threatened national unity Mainly focused on slavery

America in the Jeffersonian Age In November 1800, the government moved from

Philadelphia to the District of Columbia New capital was little more than a swampy village of

5,000 inhabitants Little of Pierre L’Enfant’s vision from 1791 had been

built Americans began moving more rapidly to the

west after 1790 Creation of new states:

Kentucky and Tennessee added in the 1790s Indiana, Ohio, Louisiana, Michigan, and Illinois in the

1800s Missouri added in 1812

North America in 1800

The Northeast In the early republic, the vast majority of

Americans drew their living from the land 83% of the labor force was engaged in agriculture

The Northeast region, stretching from eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey to New England, was dominated by family farms In New England, farmers increasingly opted for

dairying and livestock In New York and Pennsylvania, farmers cultivated

land intensively Farmers in southeastern Pennsylvania and along

New York’s Hudson River valley produced a surplus which was exchanged in nearby towns

The Northeast Across much of the rural Northeast, cash

played a small part in economic exchange Most farms were not large, generally no more

than 100 to 150 acres by 1800 Size had decreased from previous century as a

result of inheritance In fact throughout the region productivity was

declining By 1800 nearly 20% of male taxpayers in

southeastern Pennsylvania were single In some areas as many as 30% of married

taxpayers were landless

The Northeast Growing numbers of rural folk also worked for

wages as artisans or day laborers or in small manufactories

Farm women contributed by helping with the livestock, preserving food, and making clothes for sale or exchange with neighbors

Reformers pushed for more scientific agricultural methods

The demand for heating fuel and new land quickly depleted the region’s forests Iron furnaces, production of potash and turpentine,

planks for houses and fencing for fields further depleted forest ranges

The South The South stretch from Maryland to Georgia

along the coast, and west to the newly forming states of Alabama and Mississippi

In 1800 much of southern agriculture was in disarray. Low prices, land exhausted of fertility and loss of

slaves had left Chesapeake in shambles Planters had experimented with a number of

grains, but had little success until cotton was imported from Europe In 1790 the South produced 3,135 bales By 1820 output was 334,378 bales Cotton export went from 30% of nation’s

agricultural exports to more than half by 1820

The South Ideal circumstances for cotton growth

Growing demand for raw cotton by English and Northeastern textile mills

Productive virgin soil Long, steamy growing season Ample supply of slave labor Southern planters’ long experience in producing

and marketing staple crops The invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney

in 1793 allowed one laborer to clean up to 50 pounds of short-staple cotton a day

The South Move to cotton raised the value of southern

land Opened economic opportunity for countless

southern whites Increased the demand for slave labor and led

to more importations In 1803 alone Georgia and South Carolina

imported 20,000 new slaves Much of demand for slaves was met by the

internal slave market as black labor moved from the Chesapeake farther south

The West Region known as Trans-Appalachia

Abroad and shifting “middle ground” of settlement Extended from the mountains to the Mississippi

River and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico

In 1790, barely 100,000 had lived in region In1810, population was nearly 1 million By 1820, nearly 2 million

Settlers were drawn by the promotions of speculators

The West North of the Ohio River, settlement followed a

grid pattern and involved free labor South of the Ohio, white settlers and their

black slaves distributed themselves more randomly

Transience of the population coupled with large numbers of young, unattached males kept society unsettled

Settlers began transforming the heavily forested land by clearing the trees

America in the Jeffersonian Age Jefferson had a vision of an expanding agrarian

nation but he had to deal with numerous conflicting groups Southern planters, Jefferson included, were determined

to maintain a slavery based agrarian order Lower- and middle-class southerners were committed

to black servitude but proponents of political equality among whites

Northern artisans harbored an aversion to slavery though rarely a commitment to racial equality

Western farmers were devoted to self-sufficiency on the land

Northern intellectuals were committed to political democracy

The Nation’s Cities Although most Americans lived on the land or in

small villages, a growing number chose to live in the expanding cities From 1790 to 1830, nation’s population increased

230% and urban areas of more than 2500 increased twice as fast

The most aggressive urban growth was found in the Northeast Due to established ports of commerce and booming

economy By 1830 the region contained four cities of more

than 100,000 people Cities were ethnically diverse

The Nation’s Cities U.S. economy based on agriculture and trade

American shipping prospered between 1793–1807 Cities’ main function was international trade

Otherwise, they played a marginal role in national life

Only 7% of population was urban Commerce was preferred as manufacturing

was seen as too risky Industrialization and mechanization just

beginning to frighten skilled craftsmen

The Nation’s Cities Urban life centered on wharves

However, manufacturing was growing and artisans slowly gave way before factory based labor

Changes led to greater gaps between rich and poor Prosperous merchants at the top of the hierarchy

followed by a middle-class of artisans, shopkeepers and professionals

Rising land values forced lower classes into alleys and tenements Wealthy began to cluster in fashionable neighborhoods

In the Southeast, urban development centered on long established ports Half their population was black, predominantly slaves

The Nation’s Cities In Trans-Appalachia, cities like Chicago and

Pittsburg began to spring up along the Great Lakes and interior rivers Interior cities held 30% of the nation’s urban

population in 1830 Cities were relatively small, dangerous, and

unhealthy New York did not have safe drinking water until

1832 Rising land prices caused gardens and livestock to

disappear, further weakening diet and health Scarcely half he urban population reached 45, often

less for women who were weakened by childbearing

Indian Land Cessions 1750-1830

Goals of Indian Policy Federal policy also attempted to regulate the fur trade

Rum devastated Indian communities, trade goods transmitted diseases and Indians often became dependent on trade

Over-trapping increased intertribal conflict The government attempt to ensure fairer trading through

the factory system had failed by 1822 The government sought to “civilize” and “Christianize”

Native Americans and assimilate them into white society Missionaries went to try to convert the Indians Education was the other weapon of assimilation White assimilationists often cared deeply about the Indians

but little about their culture

Goals of Indian Policy Jefferson wanted to “civilize” the Native

Americans Like the British he hoped to move them west of

Mississippi to designated Indian lands Desire was for them to become yeoman farmers with

help of federal Indian agents There was no desire to protect Native culture Jefferson in 1780 stated that “If we are to wage a

campaign against these Indians the end proposed should be their extermination, or their removal beyond the lakes of the Illinois River. The same world would scarcely do for them and us.”

His feelings had not changed by the time he became president

Goals of Indian Policy Native Americans were not unified in the

western territories Settlers bought land fraudulently

Small bands of natives claimed to “own” land belonging to other tribes and would sell the land at a deep discount

Some tribal leaders turned to reform to help give strength to their people

Among the Iroquois, prophet Handsome Lake led his people through a religious renewal and cultural revitalization Used traditional tribal religious beliefs to help bring

about tribal cohesion

Native Resistance The Cherokee found their tribal autonomy

undercut Control millions of acres in Tennessee, Georgia,

and western Carolina In 1801, Tennessee brought Cherokee land under

the authority of state courts After fierce debate, accommodationists won out

over those who wanted to use force to resist In 1808, the Cherokee National Council

adopted a written legal code Developed a constitution in 1827 and declared

themselves an independent nation

Native Resistance In 1829, the Cherokee government made it

punishable by death to transfer land to white ownership without the approval of tribal authorities

Cherokee turned to settled agriculture Moved from villages to individual farmsteads while

others established stores Concept of private property took hold Some accumulated hundreds of acres of land and

scores of black slaves

Native Resistance During the early 19th-century, Cherokee

slavery expanded and became harsher In 1824, tribal law was passed that forbade

intermarriage with blacks As accommodation increased, slave ownership

became a mark of status While changes made Cherokee stronger and

reinforced their sense of identity, it increased the hostility of their white neighbors

Tecumesh Chief of the

Shawnee (1768-1813)

Native Resistance In 1794, Washington sent army to crush Indians of

Old Northwest at the Battle of Fallen Timbers At the Treaty of Greenville, assembled chiefs ceded

southern two-thirds of Ohio Subsequent treaties further reduced the land base

By 1809, Shawnee leaders Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa (“The Prophet”)were warning of danger and seeking to forge an alliance To bring reform, they called for an end of contact with

the whites, refraining from alcohol, and holding on to their lands

Established center in northern Indiana and spread the message to Creek and Cherokee between 1809 and 1811

Native Resistance William Henry Harrison attacked the center

and burned it to the ground Tecumseh’s War (1811-1812)

Tecumseh and followers joined the British at the start of the War of 1812 and launched devastating raids

Took Fort Detroit in 1811 Were subsequently defeated in the War of 1812

American victory at the Thames and the death of Tecumseh broke Indian resistance in Old Northwest By 1815 white settlers surged into the area

Native Resistance In the South, the Creeks challenged intruders into

their lands in northwestern Georgia and central Alabama

Creek War (1813-1814) Red Sticks of the Creek Indian tribe were inspired by

Tecumseh’s actions During a civil war amongst the Creek, they wanted to

return to their traditional way of life Whites were pulled into the war when settlers were

killed Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814), they were defeated

by Andrew Jackson Creeks were forced to cede over 57,000 square miles

of land (23,000 acres)

Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814)

Jeffersonians Take Control Jeffersonians took office in 1801 determined to:

Calm the political storms Consolidate their recent electoral victory Rescue the government from Federalist

mismanagement and set it on a proper republican course

The original plan was to: Follow strict interpretation of the Constitution Engage in peaceful foreign relations Reduce the role of the federal government However, as Jefferson’s administration progressed,

these became more and more difficult to hold

Jeffersonians Take Control Jefferson planned a simple inauguration where

he announced the “essential principles” that would guide his administration: Equal and exact justice to all Support of the states as the bulwark to anti-

Republicanism Supremacy of civil over military authority Reduction of government spending Spoke of political reconciliation even though he

actually removed most Federalist officeholders and replaced them with Jeffersonians

Jeffersonians Take Control Jefferson’s personal style

Despised ceremonies and formality Dedicated to intellectual pursuits

Jefferson was skillful politician Good relations with Congressional leaders and he

never had to veto a bill Picked talented, loyal men for his cabinet

First major reform movement Aimed at achieving social justice Wanted to bring the conditions of daily life into

conformity with democratic ideals was launched in early nineteenth century

Jeffersonians Take Control Social reform was inspired by the democratic

ideals of the Revolution Americans believed strongly in social equality which

meant equality of opportunity and equality of worth Also believed in “youthfulness” of United States which

encouraged a sense of uniqueness, especially compared to Europe

Political liberty could survive only under the specific conditions These were broad-based social and economic equality Strategy centered on independent yeoman farmer—

self-reliant, industrious and concerned for the public good

Jeffersonians Take Control Problem was industriousness generated wealth

Wealth bred social inequality Inequality threatened to undermine democratic society

The path to equality in a world valuing the pursuit of wealth was territorial expansionism It would draw restless people out of crowded cities and

preserve the social equality that liberty required Thomas Malthus’ Essay on the Principle of

Population (1798) Argued that population would outrun subsistence

abilities This spurred desire for expansion Jefferson thought that the U.S. could avoid this fate

because of the vast reservoir of land to its west

Jeffersonians Take Control Occupation of the West would secure the

nation’s borders against lingering threats from Britain, France and Spain

Newly created western states would strengthen Jeffersonian control and ensure the Federalists’ demise

Jefferson also focused on dismantling the Federalist war program He ended prosecution of newspaper editors under

the Sedition Act, freed its victims and let it lapse in 1802

Freedom of press was reaffirmed

Jeffersonians Take Control Jefferson dismantled the inspection system

used to enforce the Alien Acts Congress restored the requirement of 5 rather

than 14 years residency to become a citizen Federalists’ provisional army was disbanded

Military cut substantially Cut government expenses Republican ideology favored militia over standing

army Military professionalism kept by creating Army

Corps of Engineers and West Point

Jeffersonians Take Control Jefferson was concerned about the size of the

federal government Had only 3000 employees, only 300 in Washington Felt Federal government should only oversee

foreign policy, deliver the mail, deal with Native Americans on federal land and administer the public domain

Everything else should be left to the states Other Jeffersonian reforms included

Cutting federal debt a priority Tax system was to be re-structured Direct taxes were to be eliminated with federal

revenue coming from customs instead

Jeffersonians Take Control During this period, the Federalists fell apart

Moderate Federalists allowed to remain bureaucracy and were co-opted by Republicans

Many leaders like Jay retired from public life Campaigning to commoners was seen as

demeaning Westward expansion favored Republicans

There was an attempt to rekindle the Federalist Party in 1804 They were successful at gaining a revival in the

northeast from 1807 to 1814 However, these politicians were still distasteful of

appealing for votes

Louisiana Purchase (1803)

Louisiana Purchase Third Treaty of San Ildefonso (1800)

Secret treaty between France and Spain Spain would retrocede the colony of Louisiana to France Spain would retain administration of Louisiana Terms were openly disclosed as part of the Treaty of

Aranjuez (1801) Americans were frightened of a renewed French

empire in North America Napoleon could easily send troops from Haiti to New

Orleans In October 1802, the Spanish commander at New

Orleans closed the Mississippi to American commerce

Louisiana Purchase Jefferson saw New Orleans as vital to U.S.

“There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans.”

Jefferson preferred to have negotiations rather than go directly to war against France He instructed James Monroe and Robert Livingston,

the U.S. Minister to France, to possibly purchase New Orleans from the French

By the time Monroe arrived in April 1803, Napoleon had decided to sell all of Louisiana It was bought for $15 million Added 830,000 acres to American territory

Louisiana Purchase This purchase would help make America a

first-rank power Even Napoleon remarked “This accession of

territory affirms forever the power of the United States, and I have given England a maritime rival who sooner or later will humble her pride.”

Federalists were concerned over the size of country now They feared that the new states would be

Jeffersonian Also believed that the expanding frontier would

“decivilize” the nation

Louisiana Purchase Jefferson himself questioned the constitutionality of

the purchase There was nothing in the constitution that provided for

the purchasing of land or the incorporation of foreigners At first, he suggested an amendment to the

constitution Instead, he had the Senate quickly ratify the agreement

by a vote of 24 to 7 Louisiana’s French and Spanish inhabitants

unfamiliar with Republican principles They were tied to European autocratic ways Jefferson was fearful that they would not be able to

elected competent officials nor want to remain part of the U.S.

Louisiana Purchase Louisiana Government Bill (1804)

It established an appointed government for the territory

Also established a system for the collection of taxes Denied Louisiana self-rule which was another

Jeffersonian departure from Republicanism In 1810, American adventurers fomented a

rebellion in Spanish West Florida Proclaimed an independent republic Congress annexed the region two years later

Adams-Onís Treaty (1819) Helped formalize the boundaries between the U.S. and

Spain Spain ceded East Florida

Adams-Onís Treaty (1819)

Lewis and Clark Expeditions In the summer of 1803, Jefferson sent an

expedition to explore the new purchase Led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark Goal to find if Missouri River goes to Pacific and to

explore flora and fauna Asked to contact Native Americans, open the fur trade

and bring back scientific information Shoshone woman Sacagawea assisted them on their

two and a half year exploration to the Pacific coast and back.

Returned to St. Louis in September 1806 Report on Louisiana’s economic promise confirmed

Jefferson’s belief that the territory would benefit the U.S.

Lewis and Clark Expeditions Lewis and Clark’s trip fanned people’s interest in

the Trans-Mississippi West Demonstrated the feasibility of an overland route to

the Pacific In 1805 and 1806, Lieutenant Zebulon Pike

explored the sources of the Mississippi River in northern Minnesota They then went on to explore the Rocky Mountains

In the following decade, the government established a string of military posts from Minnesota to Arkansas Intended to secure the frontier, promote the fur trade

and encourage white settlement

Lewis and Clark’s Expedition (1804-1806)

Conflict with the Barbary States North African states demanded tribute from

ships sailing in Mediterranean Barbary States: Tangier, Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis

Jefferson refused to pay the ever increasing tribute to Tripoli Dispatched U.S. fleet to intimidate Barbary states

First Barbary War (1801-1805) Attacks failed U.S. ended up paying ransom for crew of U.S.S.

Philadelphia U.S. finally forced negotiation with a blockade

Burning of the U.S.S. Philadelphia in the Harbor of Tripoli February 16,

1804

Election of 1804 The Louisiana Purchase helped bolster Jefferson’s

popularity in time for the 1804 presidential election Two main candidates

Democratic-Republican President Thomas Jefferson Federalist Charles Cotesworth Pinckney

Jefferson won by a wide margin Received 73% of the popular votes (104,000 to 38,900) Largest win margin (45.6%) of popular votes in U.S.

history George Clinton became Vice President

Burr unsuccessfully ran for Governor of New York in 1804 instead of Vice President

Electoral College Vote for Election of 1804

Jefferson’s Critics Not everyone was enamored with Jefferson’s

heavy handed policies Over the course of his administration, the

focus would be on four major issues: Dispute over Jefferson’s reforms of federal

judiciary Conflicts between Republicans Burr’s plot to separate the West Sectional dispute over the slave trade

The problems with the federal judiciary had its roots during the last months of the Adams administration

Attack on the Judges Judiciary Act (1801)

Passed 19 days before the end of the Adams administration and the Federalist-controlled Congress

Hoped to keep some semblance of Federalism in the new government

Doubled the number of circuit courts to six, complete with judges, marshals and clerks

Designed to relieve Supreme Court justices of the task of “riding the circuit”

Adams filled these positions with staunch Federalists

Known as the “Midnight Judges”

Attack on the Judges In January 1802, Congress wanted to repeal the

act Wanted to abolish some of the federal courts as they

were deemed unnecessary and expensive Jefferson prepared to purge several highly partisan

judges Federalists charged that this was a violation of judges’

constitutional right of tenure Marbury v. Madison (February1803)

Madison had refused to deliver the commission to appoint Federalist William Marbury, a “Midnight Judge”

Court stated that the practice of delivering commissions for judges set down by the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional

Set down the precedence of judicial review

Attack on the Judges Republicans focused on impeachment to get

rid of opponents in the courts On March 2,1803 House of Representatives

impeached district judge John Pickering Charges were drunkenness and unlawful rulings Basically he was condemned for Federalist

diatribes (“dangerous opinions”) No charges of “high crimes” Followed with a successful impeachment trial in

the Senate Republicans began fearing the destruction of

an independent judiciary

Attack on the Judges In 1804, impeachment charges were brought

against Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase Chase was an outspoken Federalist He was accused of “intemperate and inflammatory

political harangues” Trial showed he had committed no impeachable

offenses so he was acquitted Many senators refused to convict for fear of

creating new interpretations of the Constitution This helped to ensure the political independence

of the judiciary

Attack on the Judges If the impeachment had succeeded, Chief

Justice Marshall would most likely have been next That would have precipitated a constitutional crisis

Realizing this, the Jeffersonians pulled back Content to allow time and attrition cleanse the

courts of the opposition

John Randolph Virginia

Representative (1803-1813)

Politics of Desperation Dissention began to grow amidst the Republicans One group was known as the “Tertium Quids”

Also known as “the good old republicans” Claimed pure Republicanism Attacked Jefferson as sacrificing virtue for pragmatism Led by John Randolph and John Taylor

Yazoo controversy Fraudulent land case in Georgia Georgia assembly sold 35 million acres of land (the

“Yazoo claims”) to private companies It was discovered that all of the assemblymen had

been bribed By this time, however, all the land had been

transferred

Politics of Desperation Jefferson set up a federal committee to investigate

Recommended that Congress set aside 5 million acres of land for those who purchased land from these companies

Quids complained settlement condoned fraud Fletcher v. Peck (1810)

Marshall Court upheld Jefferson’s settlement Stated that legislative fraud did not negate private

contracts Georgia could not take land away from innocent buyers Important case as it investigated the grounds that the

Court may nullify unconstitutional state laws

Aaron Burr Vice President (1801-1805)

Burr Conspiracy Jefferson and his vice president, Aaron Burr

did not get along Burr was considered too ambitious to stay under

Jefferson’s shadow In 1804, he made a break with Jefferson

Sought Federalist support in 1804 New York governor’s race

They were seeking secession of New England and New York from the U.S.

Alexander Hamilton blocked Burr’s efforts by stating that he was “a dangerous man…who ought not be trusted with the reins of government.”

Burr Conspiracy Burr blamed Hamilton for his loss that spring Responded by challenged Hamilton to a duel

In New York, duels were outlawed and punishable by death

Went to New Jersey where punishment was less severe

Burr killed Hamilton on July 11, 1804 Burr was indicted on counts of murder in both New

York and New Jersey Burr fled West once his vice presidency was over He hatched a plan to invade Spanish territory

This included separating Louisiana from U.S. Secession was a possibility as many from that

territory were unhappy with the U.S.

Burr Conspiracy Burr attempted to implement his plan in the

summer of 1806 His co-conspirator, General James Wilkinson, told

Jefferson of Burr’s plan Burr attempted to flee to Florida but was arrested

by federal officials He was put on trial for treason in February 1807

Trial judge was John Marshall, a Federalist Demanded two witnesses for each charge of

treason Acquitted due to insufficient evidence Protected civil rights by not allowing circumstantial

evidence Burr went into exile in Europe

Hamilton and Burr Duel (July 11, 1804)

Slave Trade In the South, the aggressive growth of cotton

cultivation made the price of slave labor skyrocket This was the case even as post-revolutionary

idealism was fading Two major slave rebellions generated alarm

among southern whites Haitian rebellion caused tightening of Black Codes

and cut importation of new slaves The 1800 rebellion outside Richmond, Virginia, led

by a slave named Gabriel resulted in the deaths of 25 slaves, including Gabriel, but no whites

Slave Trade Antislavery appeals all but disappeared from the

South This even included the once-vehement religious groups Slavery continued to exist in nation’s capital

Antislavery reform also weakened in the Northeast Whites increasingly invoked the doctrine of black

inferiority to justify racial exclusiveness and ensure their own continued control

Encouraged conciliatory attitudes toward southern slave holders

Supported growing sentiment for colonization of free blacks in West Africa, which allayed white concerns but often led to protests from blacks

Slave Trade Racism appeared in West as well Constitution had said Congress could consider

banning importation of slaves after 1808 Jefferson asked for and Congress approved such a

ban Beginning in 1807, there was discussion on how

to end the slave trade Broke down into sectional conflict over what to do

with captured slaves Northerners could not agree Southerners demanded states regulate slavery Law said states deal with captured smuggled slaves

Lewis Miller sketch of a slave coffle

Jeffersonian Principles Jefferson’s second term in office was

dominated by foreign affairs Several goals guided Jefferson’s foreign policy

efforts: Protect American interests on the high seas Clear the Great Lakes region of British troops Break free of country’s dependence on Europe

with a policy based on principle of no entangling alliances

Emphasized importance of overseas commerce Wanted peace

Struggling for Neutrality European war started again in 1803 and

Britain and France resumed seizing American shipping By England through “Orders in Council” By Napoleon through Berlin and Milan Decrees

Britain continued to: Refuse to stop impressment Vacate its posts south of the Great Lakes Re-open the West Indies to American trade

Non-Importation Act (April 1806) Congress passed it in response to British seizures Banned British imports that could be produced

domestically or acquired elsewhere

Struggling for Neutrality In May 1806, the British blockaded the European

coast Napoleon retaliated by banning all trade with the British

Isles U.S.S. Chesapeake vs. H.M.S. Leopard (June 22, 1807)

Captain of the Chesapeake refused to allow the Royal Navy ship search for deserters off the Virginia coast

The Leopard opened fire, killing three With this event, the public demanded war

Jefferson refused to go to war Fearful of the financial impact of the war on the U.S. Specifically, he was fearful of undoing the financial

reforms passed during his first administration Recognized that his military cuts had left nation ill-

prepared for war

Struggling for Neutrality Congress passed the Embargo Act (December

1807) Forbade American vessels from sailing for foreign

ports Purpose was to win English and French respect for

American rights Had little effect on Britain

British shipping actually profited from withdrawal of American competition

British merchants found new agricultural sources in Latin America

U.S. exports plummeted 80% in a year while imports dropped by more than half

Depression hit New England

Struggling for Neutrality Embargo unpopular at home

Detailed government oversight of commerce Army suppressed smuggling New England economy damaged

Many communities in the northeast openly violated it English goods were smuggled in across the Canadian

border Federal officials declared martial law and sent in troops

to upstate New York leading to encounters with local citizens

Connecticut’s Federalist governor declared that states were duty bound to protect their citizens from oppressive government legislation

Congress repealed the act in 1809

The Ograbme turtle biting a tobacco smuggler trying to break the embargo

Election of 1808 By the time of the presidential election, the main

debate was over the Embargo Act Even with the negative economic impact of the Act,

Jeffersonian politics were still popular The Democrat-Republican candidate was James

Madison The Federalist candidate was Charles Pinckney Madison won with 64.7% of the popular vote and

122 Electoral College votes Pinckney received only 32.4% and 47 respectively

George Clinton became Vice President again Six “faithless electors” voted for George Clinton for

president

Results of the Election of 1808

New Administration Goes to War Non-Intercourse Act (1809)

U.S. would resume trade with England and France on promise to cease seizure of U.S. vessels

Replaced the Embargo Act British official promised to comply

However, George Canning, the British Foreign Secretary, refused to comply English began seizing U.S. ships that had opened

trade with England

New Administration Goes to War Macon’s Bill Number Two (May 1810)

Replaced the Non-Intercourse Act Sponsored by Nathaniel Macon of North Carolina Trade with both England and France re-established First nation to respect American neutrality rights

won halt of U.S. trade with the other Napoleon promised to observe U.S. rights

Madison did not wait official word from Paris and opened up trade

Also asked England to lift the Orders in Council Later Madison discovered that Napoleon reneged

on his promise when trade re-opened

New Administration Goes to War Many frontier people believed British were

encouraging Tecumseh He was defeated at Battle of Tippecanoe by

General William Henry Harrison This forced him to turn to Britain for aid

War Hawks of Congress Included Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun Were Republicans but believed that war with

Britain was necessary Came predominantly from the South and West Felt the U.S. had tolerated enough of Britain’s

presence on American soil, encouragement of Indian raids and attacks on American commerce

Henry Clay Senator from

Kentucky (1810-1811)

War of 1812 President Madison finally asked Congress for a

declaration of war on June 1, 1812 Timed just as tensions between the U.S. and

Britain were easing War declaration occurred just as Britain, due to

domestic pressure, removed continental blockade Declaration was passed in both houses

79-49 in the House 19-13 in the Senate Opposition came entirely from New England and

the Mid-Atlantic states

War of 1812 Election of 1812 illustrated the division over the war The Federalist candidate was DeWitt Clinton

He was the Lieutenant Governor of New York He had been nominated by a caucus of dissident

Republicans who were angered over the declaration of war

The Federalists chose him as their candidate as well because of his anti-war stance even though he was a Republican

Madison only won reelection only by a small margin He received 50.4% of the vote and 128 electoral votes Clinton received 47.6% of the vote and 89 electoral votes

Results of the Election of 1812

War of 1812 Madison focused his attention on attacking

Canada Canada provided the British colonies in the

Caribbean with foodstuffs Americans unprepared for war

Congress refused to raise wartime taxes New England refused to support war effort United States Army small State militias inadequate Government designed by Jefferson was not

designed for a major war effort

War of 1812 Britain beat back several American forays into

Canada American forces were defeated at Niagara and Montreal Plagued with poorly trained soldiers and aging officers

Two key exceptions in 1813: Oliver Hazard Perry won control of Great Lakes for U.S.

in Battle of Put-In Bay William Henry Harrison defeated British and Indians at

Battle of Thames British also launched attacks on Gulf Coast

U.S. fleet was able to win some battles However, Britain had not put full naval effort into the

Caribbean; instead it was focused on the continental war

War of 1812 When the continental war ended in 1814, Britain

focused on the U.S. Set up three fronts: Chesapeake coastal settlements,

Canadian frontier, and New Orleans British forces occupied Washington in August1814

Burned down the Capital and presidential mansion Done in retaliation for the U.S. burning of York, Ontario

This followed with an attack on Baltimore Fort McHenry was able to withstand heavy bombing

from the British which prevented them from entering the harbor

Inspired Francis Scott Key to write “Star-Spangled Banner”

War of 1812 U.S. victory at Plattsburg (September 1814)

Stopped British land operations along Canadian border

Battle of New Orleans (December 1814-January 1815) Battle should not have occurred as the peace

process had already started British troops landed anyways due to a

communication lag British troops were unable to capture New Orleans

due to American forces under Andrew Jackson Gave Americans source of pride Made Jackson a national hero

War of 1812 Hartford Convention (Dec. 15, 1814-Jan. 4, 1815)

Federalist delegates from the five New England states met to assert the right of the state to “interpose” its authority against “unconstitutional” acts by the government

Proposed constitutional changes to lessen power of South and West

Appeared disloyal after the victory of New Orleans Federalists never recovered

Treaty of Ghent (December 24, 1814) Restored relations to status quo ante bellum British agreed to evacuate the western posts Ignored issues of impressment, neutral rights and

American access to Canadian fisheries

War of 1812 Senate unanimously ratified Treaty of Ghent Americans portrayed it as victory

It stimulated American nationalism Many considered this a second war of independence Some hoped it had unified the country from its

sectional divisions but that was only a temporary effect Four thousand African Americans fought in the

war About 20% of U.S. seamen Others sided with the British

After 1815, nation focused its energies on internal development

Signing of the Treaty of Ghent (December 24, 1814)