Three Doctrines

• Buddhism→Chan/Zen and Pure Land

• Daoism→Sectarian Daoism

• Confucianism→Neo-Confucianism (The Learning of the Way, 道學 Dàoxué )• To reestablish the superiority of Confucianism• Rejuvenation of the Confucian tradition and

incorporation of aspects of Buddhist and Daoist doctrines and practices

The revival of Confucianism• Neo-Confucianism or “The learning of the

Way” represents a recreation and revival of Confucianism ( 儒學 rú xué )

• Han Yu of the Tang is regarded as the forerunner • He considered “Dao and De combines Ren and

Yi”• While continuing to focus on the improvement of

society and government, Song Neo-Confucianists also made effort to redefine human nature, humanities, and its relations with the cosmos

• Neo-Confucianism is characterized by the metaphysics and intellectualism in its discourse on human nature (xing), and humaneness (ren), and the Principle (li).

• Neo-Confucianism can be the sum of what these terms stand for or one of them• the Learning of the Way (Daoxue), and the

Learning of the Sage(s) or the Way to Sagehood, the Learning of Principle (Lixue),

[Neo-]/Confucianism

• ConfucianismConfucianismFocuses on the way of the Focuses on the way of the sage kings or Way of the sage kings or Way of the noble person (noble person (junzijunzi) as ) as social and political leader.social and political leader.

• Neo-ConfucianismNeo-ConfucianismAspires to a spiritual ideal of Aspires to a spiritual ideal of sagehood for everyone, sagehood for everyone, achievable by methods of achievable by methods of cultivation taught by the Five cultivation taught by the Five MastersMasters inin thethe NorthernNorthern SongSong and byand by Zhu Xi (image)Zhu Xi (image) inin thethe SouthernSouthern SongSong

• The Five Masters in the Northern Song:• Zhou Dunyi (1017-1073)• Zhang Zai (1020-1077) • Shao Yong (1011-1077)• Cheng brothers:

• Cheng Yi (1033-1107)• Cheng Hao (1032-1085)

• Zhu Xi in the Southern Song: synthesizer

Confucius, by Ma Yuan, Southern Song, National Palace Museum, Beijing

Cheng (Ch’eng) Brothers: Cheng Hao (left) and Cheng Yi (Right)

“Three Friends of Cold Seasons: Pine, Bamboo, and Plum” by Zhao Mengjian, Southern Song. Shanghai Metropolitan Museum

Shao Yong

• Known as Mr. Happiness and one who predicted that southerners were to be dominant in court

• Fascinated with numerological of the book of Changes (Yijing), he considered the dao as the basis of Heaven and Earth, which were basis of everything else.

• The dao was both the creator of the world and the source of the good in human nature

Zhou Dunyi: Taiji

• Known for his “Explanation of the Diagram of the Great Ultimate (or Supreme Polarity)” (Taiji tushuo)

• The “Explanation” talks about the Great Ultimate (Taiji), which is a cosmogonic theory concerning the origin of all beings• It represents cosmic creativity

that generate all beings• And human being is its

highest manifestation

• Central theme of his Explanation:

• Integration of the metaphysical, psycho-physical, and ethical dimensions of the mind• Integration of Confucian ethics and Daoist naturalism

• Zhou Dunyi regards that “sincerity” (cheng) is the substance of the universe, and inner Principle (li) is the source of all virtures

• The Great Ultimate generates yang through activity, then it becomes tranquil when the activity reaches its limit. Through tranquility, it generates yin….

• Alternation and transformation of activity and tranquility, yin and yang give rise to Five Agents (Phases)

• Zhou: “It is man alone who receives (the Five Agents) in their highest excellence, and therefore he is the most intelligent. His physical form appears, and his spirit develops consciousness. The five moral principles of his nature (humanity or ren, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faithfulness) are aroused by, and react to, the external world and engage in activity; good and evil are distinguished; and human affairs take place.”

Zhang Zai and Ren

• Known for his “Western Inscription” (Ximing) and “Correct Youthful Ignorance” (Zhengmeng)

• A new notion or interpretation of Ren, • Ren should encompass all

human beings, Heaven and Earth—all should join together as though creatures of one flesh and blood, as appropriate to their kinship

• All are constituent elements of a family system “Yuan Lu Tu” (Monkey

and Egret)

• A new notion of Qi• Zhang Zai explained that qi (material force) existed

at the beginning of the world and consolidated itself into matter

• All matter arises from qi and dissolves into qi and then arises again

• The interaction of the qi of Heaven and the qi of Earth creates all things that exists.

• “Heaven is my father and Earth is my mother, and even such a small creature as I finds an intimate place in their midst. Therefore that which extends throughout the universe I regard as my body and that which directs the universe I consider as my nature. All people are my brothers and sisters, and all things are my companions.”

• For Zhang Zai, “all people” include all people of the world, regardless of who they are, be they, sick, handicapped, maimed, widowed, orphaned, and dying.

• He believes:• “Wealth, honor, blessing, and benefits are

meant for the enrichment of my life, while poverty, humble station, and sorrow are meant to help me to fulfillment .”

• “In life I follow and serve [Heaven and Earth]. In death, I will be at peace.”

Cheng Brothers and the “Principle”• ChengCheng HaoHao

•RepresentsRepresents thethe idealisticidealistic SchoolSchool ofof MindMind ((xinxuexinxue))

• ChengCheng YiYi•RepresentsRepresents thethe SchoolSchool ofof PrinciplePrinciple ((lixuelixue),), knownknown forfor stressingstressing thethe HeavenlyHeavenly PrinciplePrinciple ((tianlitianli))• LiLi isis thethe foundationfoundation ofof allall truthtruth andand valuesvalues

• Cheng Hao: Cheng Hao: • ““All things possess Principle”All things possess Principle”

• Cheng Yi: Cheng Yi: • ““All things under heaven can be understood in the light All things under heaven can be understood in the light

of their Principle”of their Principle”• ““Even blade of grass and every tree possess principle Even blade of grass and every tree possess principle

and should be examined”and should be examined”• ““Principle of one thing is one with Principle of all things,” Principle of one thing is one with Principle of all things,”

thatthat isis “[there“[there isis a]a] unity of principle and diversity of its unity of principle and diversity of its particularizations”particularizations”

• ““PrinciplePrinciple isis oneone butbut itsits manifestationsmanifestations areare many”many”

Principle and Human Fulfillment

• “Knowledge” comes from the apprehension of the Principle in things (gewu)

• Human fulfillment can be achieved by a combination of two approaches:• Investigation of the principles in

things• Introspection of principles in

the mind

• Two methods serve this aim:• Study the classics, in which key

principles were expressed• Examine one’s mind/heart

through quiet sitting

“Ye he hua” (probably what is called “Coco magnolia” today), by anonymous, Southern Song. Shanghai Metropolitan Museum

Buddhism in the SongBuddhism in the SongEnjoyed the support and protection of many Enjoyed the support and protection of many

Song emperors, ministers, and ranking Song emperors, ministers, and ranking officialsofficials

Ordination of monks increased dramaticallyOrdination of monks increased dramaticallyCentral government sponsored the printing of Central government sponsored the printing of

the the Buddhist Canon (Dazang jing)Buddhist Canon (Dazang jing)Carved on130,000 woodblocks in 983Carved on130,000 woodblocks in 983

Many temples were recognized as “official Many temples were recognized as “official temples”, sanctified because they were temples”, sanctified because they were regarded as possessing magical power.regarded as possessing magical power.

Portraits of emperors were placed in the Portraits of emperors were placed in the large Buddhist (and Daoist) temples in large Buddhist (and Daoist) temples in KaifengKaifeng

In 1067, the government introduced the sale In 1067, the government introduced the sale of the monk’s “ordination certificates,” thus of the monk’s “ordination certificates,” thus creating many untonsured monkscreating many untonsured monks

Buddhist establishments engaged in a wide Buddhist establishments engaged in a wide range of economic activities:range of economic activities:Operating oil presses, water-powered mills, Operating oil presses, water-powered mills,

pawnshops, hostelspawnshops, hostelsBuddhists owned large estates and leased Buddhists owned large estates and leased

small plots to tenants small plots to tenants

Monasteries flourished and their numbers Monasteries flourished and their numbers increased and reached 400,000 monks and increased and reached 400,000 monks and 61,000 nuns in 1221, as compared with 61,000 nuns in 1221, as compared with 260,000 monks and nuns registered in 845.260,000 monks and nuns registered in 845.

Large Chan monasteries and pure land Large Chan monasteries and pure land societies emergedsocieties emerged

The joint practice of Chan/Zen and Pure Land The joint practice of Chan/Zen and Pure Land Buddhism became common in Song times Buddhism became common in Song times

Buddhists produced sutras, such as theBuddhists produced sutras, such as the Sutra Sutra of Parental Love, of Parental Love, to promote Buddhist to promote Buddhist concept of filial piety and counter anti-concept of filial piety and counter anti-Buddhist diatribesBuddhist diatribes

Two originally Indian Two originally Indian Buddhist deities were Buddhist deities were transformed into Chinese transformed into Chinese deitiesdeities Indian Bodhisattva Indian Bodhisattva

Avalokiteśvara was turned Avalokiteśvara was turned into Guanyin (one who into Guanyin (one who observes the sounds of observes the sounds of the world)the world)

Amitābha Buddha was Amitābha Buddha was called “Amituo Fo”called “Amituo Fo”

Reproduction of Guanyin originally painted by Song painter, NPM, Taipei

Cult of Guanyin resulted in Cult of Guanyin resulted in “Guanyin arts” that depict “Guanyin arts” that depict Guanyin’s many Guanyin’s many manifestations:manifestations: The Water and Moon GuanyinThe Water and Moon Guanyin The White-robed GuanyinThe White-robed Guanyin The Fish Basket GuanyinThe Fish Basket Guanyin

Guanyin, by Fachang, better known as Muxi, Southern Song monk, Daidoku ji, Kyoto

The Seated Water and Moon Guanyin, Anonymous, Song Dynasty, Nelson Museum of Art, Kansas

• Guanyin was worshiped throughout East Asia as

• the Goddess of Mercy• the protector of all in distress and misery• the patron goddess of mothers• the bestower of children

Transformation of other Transformation of other Indian Buddhist deities:Indian Buddhist deities:Maitreya, the future Maitreya, the future

Buddha, or the Buddha Buddha, or the Buddha yet-to-come, became yet-to-come, became the Chinese Milefo, the the Chinese Milefo, the Laughing Buddha, a Laughing Buddha, a jovial pot-bellied figure, jovial pot-bellied figure, often regarded as the often regarded as the deification of the “Hemp-deification of the “Hemp-bag Bonze,” or “Cloth bag Bonze,” or “Cloth Sack Monk” (Budai Sack Monk” (Budai heshang)heshang)

by Fachang, Song monk

“Eight Eminent Monks” by Liang Kai, Southern Song, Shanghai Art Museum, a series of eight paintings

Part 1: Scholar-officials paying tribute to an eminent monk

Muxi’s “Bodhidharma” and “Six Persimmons”

“Shakyamuni Emerging from the Mountain”

Left: Anonymous, Southern Song, The Cleveland Museum of Art

Right: Liang Kai, Southern Song, Tokyo National Museum

“Pure Land Society,” anonymous, Southern Song, later copies of Li Goglin’s works, Nanjing City Museum

Left, “Laozi,” by Fachang, Song Dynasty

Right: “Five Hundred Arhats Meditating in a Cave” by Zhou Jichang and Lin Ting’gui, Song Dynasty. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Right: “Sixteen Arhats Subdued Dragons,” by Lu Xinzhong, Song Dynasty

Shokoku ji, Kyoto, Japan

Left: “Second of the Sixteen Arhats (Chi. Lohan),” Kanakavatsa (Skt.) by Zhao Qiong, Southern Song, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Daoism in the SongDaoism in the Song

Continued to enjoy imperial patronage and consolidate its statusconsolidate its statusEmperors Taizong, Zhenzong, and Huizong

were among the most supportiveEmperor Taizong:

Worshiped Northern Emperor (Beidi) and built the Daoist Temple of Northern Emperor in Kaifeng

Built the Palace of Highest Purity and Great Peace (Shangqing taiping gong) to celebrate Daoist deity General Black Killer, the Perfected Lord.

Emperor Zhenzong:Emperor Zhenzong:Prime minister Wang Prime minister Wang

Qinruo encouraged the Qinruo encouraged the emperor to support emperor to support Daoism, claiming that a Daoism, claiming that a “Heavenly Text” had been “Heavenly Text” had been bestowed on him, which bestowed on him, which proved the divine origin of proved the divine origin of the imperial household the imperial household

Zhenzong, went up to Mt. Tai to perform the sacrificial ceremonies.

Emperor Zhenzong (r.998-Emperor Zhenzong (r.998-1022)1022)

After the sacrifice, Zhenzong began his investiture of the [Daoist] gods, making the Jade Emperor the tutelary god of the Song dynasty. Jade Emperor became the emperor of heaven, Jade Emperor. [Yuhuang dadi, or Yudi]

He granted The Perfected Lord the title of “Supporter of Sageliness and Protector of Virtue” (Yisheng zhenjun) and devoted himself to the Lord

Built the Palace of Jadelike Purity (Yuqing gong), the largest imperial building, in the capital and hundreds of Daoist temples throughout the empire

Emperor HuizongProbably the most fervent private and public

supporter of the Daoist philosophical tradition and magical practices in Chinese history

Imagined himself a Daoist deityUsed Daoist priests as religious advisors,

among them Lin Lingsu introduced a new Daoist school called the Divine Empyrean Daoism (Shenxiao)

Constructed the Sacred Peaks of Longevity (Genyue)

Important New School of DaoismImportant New School of Daoism

Other than the Divine Empyrean School, there was the Integral Realization or Perfect Truth School (Quanzhen jiao), which pushed the concept of three teachings in one—the three religions formed a family.

The founder, Wang Chongyang, taught his disciples to study the Daode jing, the Heart Sutra (Xin jing), and the Classic of Filial Piety (Xiao jing)

The New Role of Daoism

The status of Daoism in the Song managed to capture the

attention of large portions of the official and literati class

became the religion of the townspeople

The Ten Kings and Their Tribunals

(Right: Four of the Ten Kings of Chinese Purgatory, by Lu Xinzhong, Southern Song)

The Ten Kings and PurgatoryThe Ten Kings and Purgatory

New Daoist New Daoist immortals and godsimmortals and gods

Legendary Daoist heroes and immortals (transcendents) were assimilated in local cults

Eight Daoist immortals

Right: one of the Eight Immortals, Tieguai Li (Iron-Crutch Li ), by Yan Hui, Yuan Dynasty, Chion ji (知恩寺 ), Kyoto

Daoist gods and Daoist gods and immortals immortals

Daoist gods and immortals proliferated Daoist gods were

recognized by Song emperors

Legendary figures became popular immortals

“Immortal Iron-crutch Li” by Yan Hui, Yuan, National Palace Museum, Beijing

Daoists as Ritual MastersDaoists as Ritual Masters Daoists assumed the role of ritual

masters, becoming administers of the ritual in honor of different Daoist gods or immortals

Served as a mediator between Daoism and the possessed medium of local cults and village religion

Acted as spirit medium who spoke to the faithful and performed spirit writing to answer people’s requests

Attempted to dominate rituals associated with spirit-possession and spirit medium

Mask used in modern time for the “Nuo” dance and ritual, 2002, Jiangxi

Rituals in Popular Religion

• Rituals revolving around spirit-possession became an important portion of religious practice in Chinese society, particularly during and after the Song dynasty.

• Two types of spirit-possession• Ritualized:

• Spirit-medium• Daoist and Buddhist

exorcism• Funeral rites

• Non-ritualized:• All common cases of

spirit-possession

“Festival for Exorcising Demons Causing Plague” Anonymous, Song

The Social Role of Ritual MastersThe Social Role of Ritual Masters

►Medium/Surrogate of the deity, Medium/Surrogate of the deity, generally referred to as generally referred to as ““generalgeneral”” or or ““marshal,marshal,”” of a specific lineage of of a specific lineage of therapeutic movementtherapeutic movement Represented/controlled the deity by means Represented/controlled the deity by means

of registers, talismans, spells, and sealsof registers, talismans, spells, and seals

►Two types of ritual mastersTwo types of ritual masters Clerical masters: Initiated ones who were Clerical masters: Initiated ones who were

members of Daoist organization, e.g., Bai members of Daoist organization, e.g., Bai YuchanYuchan

Lay masters: outside of Daoist organizationLay masters: outside of Daoist organization

Functions of Ritual MastersFunctions of Ritual Masters►As exorcists: As exorcists: fashifashi

Provided exorcistic services to cure Provided exorcistic services to cure disease, expel ghost , demon, and spiritdisease, expel ghost , demon, and spirit

►Who were these Who were these fashi?fashi? Daoist priestsDaoist priests Lay practitionersLay practitioners

►Many of them officialsMany of them officials Spirit-mediums (Spirit-mediums (wuwu))

►Method of exorcism:Method of exorcism: Use of mantra (spell) and mudra (hand-Use of mantra (spell) and mudra (hand-

seal)seal) Sword, mirror, talismans, registersSword, mirror, talismans, registers

Clientele of Ritual MastersClientele of Ritual Masters Two common groups:Two common groups:

– Uneducated, unsophisticated local people Uneducated, unsophisticated local people like many ritual masters themselveslike many ritual masters themselves

– Bureaucratic and economic elite serviced Bureaucratic and economic elite serviced by highly literate, worldly, and mobile by highly literate, worldly, and mobile practitioners. practitioners. Many of them ranking officials and their family Many of them ranking officials and their family

membersmembers Students and literati of nonofficial statusStudents and literati of nonofficial status

One special group:One special group:– Members of imperial family, serviced by Members of imperial family, serviced by

their relatives who were practitioners of their relatives who were practitioners of therapeutic ritualstherapeutic rituals

Official Exorcists and Social OrderOfficial Exorcists and Social Order

High official practicing therapeutic rituals High official practicing therapeutic rituals or exorcism assumed the role of Daoist or exorcism assumed the role of Daoist ritual master and had other purposes ritual master and had other purposes than curing illness:than curing illness:– Terminated demonic cults and practicesTerminated demonic cults and practices– Suppressed spirit-mediums and the likeSuppressed spirit-mediums and the like

Forms of suppression included: corporal Forms of suppression included: corporal punishment, tattooing, exile, and conversion to punishment, tattooing, exile, and conversion to the agricultural or medical professionsthe agricultural or medical professions

Sorcery, witchcraft, heresies (particularly Sorcery, witchcraft, heresies (particularly Vegetarian Devil-Worshipping Sects)Vegetarian Devil-Worshipping Sects)

Other Other ““perverse cultsperverse cults”” ( (yinciyinci))

Ritual Masters as a Social ClassRitual Masters as a Social Class

Ritual masters emerged as a social class as a result of:assimilation of Daoism and local cults after a

period of conflict and tensionCommercialization and urbanization

Created opportunities for Daoist ritual masters to expand their functions

fostered the awareness of the existence of new healing and therapeutic experts

National deity cults*

The Wenchang (Wen-ch’ang) cultWenchang: A local god turned into a

national deityWenchang, the “God of Literature”

Flourished during the Song and established as patron deity of the civil service examinations

God administering rewards and punishments based on moral tracts

The God Wenchang and His The God Wenchang and His PowersPowers

►Wenchang was promoted by a lay personWenchang was promoted by a lay person ’’s s writing, the writing, the Book of TransformationsBook of Transformations A lengthy prosimetric auto-hagiography of the A lengthy prosimetric auto-hagiography of the

godgod The book conveys its didactic messages by The book conveys its didactic messages by

showing the godshowing the god’’s moral conduct, virtues, and s moral conduct, virtues, and rewards and punishments he dealt out as a godrewards and punishments he dealt out as a god

The book shows that Wenchang possesses the The book shows that Wenchang possesses the following powers:following powers:

►Controlling rain, wind, fire, flood; Controlling rain, wind, fire, flood; ►Lightening/thunder is his special tribute; casts Lightening/thunder is his special tribute; casts

““thunder shuttlesthunder shuttles”” to destroy evildoers to destroy evildoers►Can summon divine troopsCan summon divine troops►Can fly and manifest himself at any time and placeCan fly and manifest himself at any time and place

The Formation of WenchangThe Formation of Wenchang

►A nature deity; the wonder worker; A nature deity; the wonder worker; Martial protector; patron of the Martial protector; patron of the examinations; the judge of morality; examinations; the judge of morality; evangelist; provider of progenyevangelist; provider of progeny The Viper: The Viper: Zhang E-zi (Chang E-tzu): Zhang E-zi (Chang E-tzu): The God of Zitong (Tzu-tThe God of Zitong (Tzu-t’’ung): Transcendent ung): Transcendent

Zhang (Chang)Zhang (Chang) The Divine Lord of Zitong (Tzu-tThe Divine Lord of Zitong (Tzu-t’’ung)ung) Wenchang constellationWenchang constellation

The Spread of the CultThe Spread of the Cult► Originally a local cult in Sichuan (Szechwuan), it Originally a local cult in Sichuan (Szechwuan), it

was spread by was spread by GovGov’’t officials and merchantst officials and merchants religious professionalsreligious professionals examination candidatesexamination candidates MigrantsMigrants

► Spread from a locale to national center and Spread from a locale to national center and eventually became a national culteventually became a national cult

► The quick spread was due toThe quick spread was due to Booming tradeBooming trade ÉÉmigrmigréé communities communities Public demand for a deity capable of curing illnessPublic demand for a deity capable of curing illness The godThe god’’s ongoing revelations ongoing revelation

WenchangWenchang’’s Powerss Powers►Commander of the divine intelligence Commander of the divine intelligence

serviceservice Receives reports from every tutelary deity Receives reports from every tutelary deity

and city or mountain godand city or mountain god Punishes wicked local villains and officialsPunishes wicked local villains and officials Subjugates the plague demonsSubjugates the plague demons Provides progenyProvides progeny Supervises the civil service examinations, Supervises the civil service examinations,

determining the success or failure of determining the success or failure of candidatescandidates

Some Popular Song Rituals

Textual evidence of some most popular traditions and lineages of therapeutic/healing movement Thunder rites The Rites of the Celestial Heart (Tianxin

zhengfa) The Rites of the Five Thunder Gods (Wulei fa),

or the “Thunder Magic” lineage

Bai Yuchan (Pai Yu-ch’an, 1134-1229)A Daoist trained as an expert of physiological

alchemy and Daoist Thunder RitesOften referred to as a transcendent, teacher, of

transcendent official rather than ritual master of Daoist masterDespite this, he still acted as an expert in ritual artsActive in religious discourse with scholars and

religious personalitiesAlso known as a poet and calligrapherLived in a hermitage on Mt. Wuyi (Wi-i) but

remained actively in contact with lay persons and officials