Third Edition Dr. Wasim Al-Habil. Chapter 5...................... The Evolution of Management and Organization Theory

Third EditionThird Edition

Dr. Wasim Al-Habil.Dr. Wasim Al-Habil.

Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Evolution of Management and The Evolution of Management and Organization TheoryOrganization Theory

22

Chapter FiveChapter Five

The Evolution of Management The Evolution of Management and Organization Theoryand Organization Theory

33

Key TopicsKey Topics

The Origins of Public AdministrationThe Origins of Public Administration The Evolution of Management The Evolution of Management

Principles Principles What is Organization Theory?What is Organization Theory? The Origins of Scientific ManagementThe Origins of Scientific Management The Period of OrthodoxyThe Period of Orthodoxy BureaucracyBureaucracy Neoclassical Theory & Systems TheoryNeoclassical Theory & Systems Theory

44

““Civilization and administration Civilization and administration

have always gone hand in handhave always gone hand in hand”.”.

55

The Origins of Public The Origins of Public AdministrationAdministration

Management:Management: A term that can refer to both: A term that can refer to both:1.1. The people responsible for running an The people responsible for running an

organizationorganization2.2. The running process itself - the utilization of The running process itself - the utilization of

numerous resources to accomplish an numerous resources to accomplish an organizational goal.organizational goal.

Hierarchy:Hierarchy: Any ordering of persons, things, Any ordering of persons, things, or ideas by rank or level. Administrative or ideas by rank or level. Administrative structures are typically hierarchical in that structures are typically hierarchical in that each level has authority over levels below each level has authority over levels below and must take orders from level above.and must take orders from level above.

66


The Military Heritage of Public Administration:The Military Heritage of Public Administration: Government Government administrators are still considered servants in this sense; they are public administrators are still considered servants in this sense; they are public servants because they, too, have accepted obligations, which means they servants because they, too, have accepted obligations, which means they are not completely free.are not completely free.

Comparing Military and Civilian Principles:Comparing Military and Civilian Principles:

1.1. Objective: Direct Every military operation toward a clearly Objective: Direct Every military operation toward a clearly defined, decisive, and attainable objective.defined, decisive, and attainable objective.

2.2. Offensive: Seize, retain, and exploit the initiative.Offensive: Seize, retain, and exploit the initiative.3.3. Mass: Concentrate combat power at the decisive place and time.Mass: Concentrate combat power at the decisive place and time.4.4. Economy of force: Allocate minimum essential combat power to Economy of force: Allocate minimum essential combat power to

secondary efforts.secondary efforts.5.5. Maneuver: Place the enemy in position of disadvantage through Maneuver: Place the enemy in position of disadvantage through

the flexible application of combat power.the flexible application of combat power.6.6. Unity of command Ensure unity of effort under one responsible Unity of command Ensure unity of effort under one responsible

commander.commander.7.7. Security Never permit the enemy to acquire an advantage.Security Never permit the enemy to acquire an advantage.8.8. Surprise: Strike the enemy at a time/place for which he is Surprise: Strike the enemy at a time/place for which he is

unprepared.unprepared.9.9. Simplicity: Prepare clear, uncomplicated plans, concise orders to Simplicity: Prepare clear, uncomplicated plans, concise orders to

ensure thorough understandingensure thorough understanding

77


Comparing Military and Civilian Principles:Comparing Military and Civilian Principles:

1.1. Policy should defined.Policy should defined.2.2. Work should be subdivided.Work should be subdivided.3.3. Tasks and responsibilities should be specifically assigned Tasks and responsibilities should be specifically assigned

and understood.and understood.4.4. Appropriate methods and procedures should be developed Appropriate methods and procedures should be developed

and utilized by those responsible for policy achievement.and utilized by those responsible for policy achievement.5.5. Appropriate resources (men, money, materials).Appropriate resources (men, money, materials).6.6. Authority commensurate with responsibility should be Authority commensurate with responsibility should be

delegated and located.delegated and located.7.7. Adequate structural relationships.Adequate structural relationships.8.8. Effective and qualified leadership.Effective and qualified leadership.9.9. Unity of command.Unity of command.10.10. Continuous accountability for utilization of resources.Continuous accountability for utilization of resources.11.11. Effective coordination.Effective coordination.12.12. Continuous reconsideration of all mattersContinuous reconsideration of all matters

88

What is Organization Theory?What is Organization Theory?

An “organization” is a group of people who An “organization” is a group of people who jointly work to achieve at least one jointly work to achieve at least one common goal.common goal.

A “theory” is a proposition or set of A “theory” is a proposition or set of propositions that seeks to explain or predict propositions that seeks to explain or predict something.something.

The organization theory shows how groups The organization theory shows how groups and individuals behave in differing and individuals behave in differing organization arrangements.organization arrangements.

Organization theory was always there in Organization theory was always there in the authoritarian model offered by the the authoritarian model offered by the military.military.

99

Classical Organization TheoryClassical Organization Theory

The first school of organization theory rooted in the The first school of organization theory rooted in the industrial revolution of the 1700s.industrial revolution of the 1700s.

Characteristics of Classical Organization Theory:Characteristics of Classical Organization Theory:

1.1. Organizations exist to accomplish production-Organizations exist to accomplish production-related and economic goals.related and economic goals.

2.2. There is one best way to organize for productionThere is one best way to organize for production3.3. Production is maximized through specialization Production is maximized through specialization

and division of labor.and division of labor.4.4. People and organizations act in accordance with People and organizations act in accordance with

rational economic principles.rational economic principles.

1010

The Origins of Scientific The Origins of Scientific ManagementManagement

Frederick Taylor, the “father” of scientific management, is the Frederick Taylor, the “father” of scientific management, is the pioneer who developed time and motion studies and provided the pioneer who developed time and motion studies and provided the impetus around which classical organization theory would evolve.impetus around which classical organization theory would evolve.

Through scientific management, Taylor believed that there is ‘one Through scientific management, Taylor believed that there is ‘one best way’ to accomplish any given task (Shafritz and Hyde, 1997, best way’ to accomplish any given task (Shafritz and Hyde, 1997, p.2). He argues that the “one best way” provides the “fastest, most p.2). He argues that the “one best way” provides the “fastest, most efficient, and least fatiguing production method” (Ibid.). efficient, and least fatiguing production method” (Ibid.).

In 1912, the U. S. House of Representatives investigated Taylor’s In 1912, the U. S. House of Representatives investigated Taylor’s systematic use of management techniques. Some of the systematic use of management techniques. Some of the management techniques or as Taylor called them “duties,” management techniques or as Taylor called them “duties,” included: included:

1.1. Replacing traditional rule of thumb methods of work accomplishment with Replacing traditional rule of thumb methods of work accomplishment with systematic, more scientific methods of measuring and managing individual systematic, more scientific methods of measuring and managing individual work elements;work elements;

2.2. Studying scientifically the selection and sequential development of workers Studying scientifically the selection and sequential development of workers to ensure optimal placement of workers into work roles;to ensure optimal placement of workers into work roles;

3.3. Obtaining the cooperation of workers to ensure full application of scientific Obtaining the cooperation of workers to ensure full application of scientific principles; andprinciples; and

4.4. Establishing logical divisions within work roles and responsibilities between Establishing logical divisions within work roles and responsibilities between workers and management. (From the book of the Principles of Scientific workers and management. (From the book of the Principles of Scientific Management, Ibid., 3)Management, Ibid., 3)

1111

Fayol’s six principlesFayol’s six principles

Fayol’s major work, Fayol’s major work, General and Industrial ManagementGeneral and Industrial Management, which published in , which published in France in 1916 and translated to English in 1925, also came with general France in 1916 and translated to English in 1925, also came with general principles that can improve the performance of management in every type of principles that can improve the performance of management in every type of organization. organization.

Fayol’s six principles are: Fayol’s six principles are: Technical (production of goods)Technical (production of goods) Commercial (buying, selling, and exchange activities)Commercial (buying, selling, and exchange activities) Financial (raising and using capital)Financial (raising and using capital) Security (protection of property and people)Security (protection of property and people) AccountingAccounting Managerial (coordination, control, organization, planning, and command of Managerial (coordination, control, organization, planning, and command of

people)people)

Shafritz, Ott, and Jang (2005) states that “Fayol believed that his concept of Shafritz, Ott, and Jang (2005) states that “Fayol believed that his concept of management was universally applicable to every type of organization” (p.31). management was universally applicable to every type of organization” (p.31).

This generic model of Fayol’s general principles had an impact on public This generic model of Fayol’s general principles had an impact on public administration because it was theorized to work in both public and private administration because it was theorized to work in both public and private organizations.organizations.

1212

The Period Of OrthodoxyThe Period Of Orthodoxy

It covers the development of the public It covers the development of the public administration between the WWI and WWII.administration between the WWI and WWII.

The tenets of orthodoxy ideology held that the work The tenets of orthodoxy ideology held that the work of government could be neatly divided into decision-of government could be neatly divided into decision-making and execution (politics-administration making and execution (politics-administration dichotomy of Woodrow Wilson).dichotomy of Woodrow Wilson).

This dichotomy, which played an important role in This dichotomy, which played an important role in the historical development of PA, would hardly have the historical development of PA, would hardly have been possible of scientific management had not been possible of scientific management had not evolved when it did.evolved when it did.

According to Lynn (1996), orthodoxy “was finished According to Lynn (1996), orthodoxy “was finished off in public administration after World War II in a off in public administration after World War II in a series of articles and books” (p.31) including the series of articles and books” (p.31) including the works of Simon, Dahl, Appleby, Waldo, Long, and works of Simon, Dahl, Appleby, Waldo, Long, and Marx.Marx...

1313

Orthodox and Paul Orthodox and Paul ApplebyAppleby Paul Appleby was the Dean of Maxwell School at Syracuse Paul Appleby was the Dean of Maxwell School at Syracuse

University.University. Appleby (1945) contends similarly that, “ Government is Appleby (1945) contends similarly that, “ Government is

different because it must take account of all the desires, different because it must take account of all the desires, needs, actions, thoughts and sentiments of 140,000,000 needs, actions, thoughts and sentiments of 140,000,000 people.” (Shafritz et al., 2004: p.135). people.” (Shafritz et al., 2004: p.135).

Paul Appleby, by some accounts wrote the definitive endnotes on the Paul Appleby, by some accounts wrote the definitive endnotes on the politics -administration dichotomy. Essentially, Appleby in politics -administration dichotomy. Essentially, Appleby in Big DemocracyBig Democracy (1945) compared government to business and determined government (1945) compared government to business and determined government was different and that politics is what comprises that difference.was different and that politics is what comprises that difference.Appleby states that:Appleby states that:““Other institutions admittedly are not free from politics, but government is Other institutions admittedly are not free from politics, but government is politics. Government administration differs from all other administrative politics. Government administration differs from all other administrative work to a degree not even faintly realized outside, by virtue of its public work to a degree not even faintly realized outside, by virtue of its public nature, the way in which it is subject to public scrutiny and public outcry. nature, the way in which it is subject to public scrutiny and public outcry. (Paul Appleby in “Big Government” reprinted (Paul Appleby in “Big Government” reprinted in Classics of Public in Classics of Public Administration,Administration, 125) 125)

1414

Luther Gulick’s POSDCORBLuther Gulick’s POSDCORB

Gulick’s book “The Papers on the Science of Administration” Gulick’s book “The Papers on the Science of Administration” (1937).(1937).

Gulick argues that for governmental organizations to achieve Gulick argues that for governmental organizations to achieve technical efficiency there is need to arrange or structure units and technical efficiency there is need to arrange or structure units and departments according to their level of homogeneity, as failure to departments according to their level of homogeneity, as failure to do so, as he argues has often been the case, can only lead to do so, as he argues has often been the case, can only lead to unsatisfactory results. unsatisfactory results.

Of significant importance is Gulick’s prescription of the functions Of significant importance is Gulick’s prescription of the functions of the chief executive, which he derived from Henry Fayol’s of the chief executive, which he derived from Henry Fayol’s general principles of management. general principles of management.

He coined the famous POSDCORB from planning, organizing, He coined the famous POSDCORB from planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting, and staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting, and these were to be equally applicable to all forms of organizations these were to be equally applicable to all forms of organizations irrespective of type, context and size, presumably exhibiting some irrespective of type, context and size, presumably exhibiting some general science based qualities.general science based qualities.

1515

Federalism & FinanceFederalism & Finance

Fiscal federalism is the financial relations between and among the Fiscal federalism is the financial relations between and among the units of government in a federal system.units of government in a federal system.

The assets and financial resources are divided and shared between The assets and financial resources are divided and shared between and among the three levels of government. For example, income and among the three levels of government. For example, income tax goes for the federal government and house and property tax tax goes for the federal government and house and property tax goes for the state government.goes for the state government.

The theory of fiscal federalism, or multiunit government finance, is The theory of fiscal federalism, or multiunit government finance, is one part of the branch applied economic known as public finance.one part of the branch applied economic known as public finance.

Medicaid is a federally aided, state-operated, and state-Medicaid is a federally aided, state-operated, and state-administered program that provides medical benefits for a certain administered program that provides medical benefits for a certain low-income people in needed of health and medical care.low-income people in needed of health and medical care.

Grant: It is an intergovernmental transfer of funds (or other Grant: It is an intergovernmental transfer of funds (or other assets). Since long along time, state and local governments have assets). Since long along time, state and local governments have become increasingly dependent upon federal grants for an almost become increasingly dependent upon federal grants for an almost infinite variety of programs. infinite variety of programs.

1616

BureaucracyBureaucracy

The word bureaucracy is derived from two words; “bureau” The word bureaucracy is derived from two words; “bureau” and “Kratos.” While the word “bureau” refers to the office and “Kratos.” While the word “bureau” refers to the office the Greek suffix “kratia or kratos” means power or rule. the Greek suffix “kratia or kratos” means power or rule.

We use the word “bureaucracy” to refer to the power of We use the word “bureaucracy” to refer to the power of the office (Hummel, 1998, 307). the office (Hummel, 1998, 307).

““Bureaucracy” is rule conducted from a desk or office, i.e. Bureaucracy” is rule conducted from a desk or office, i.e. by the preparation and dispatch of written documents and by the preparation and dispatch of written documents and electronic ones. electronic ones.

Bureaucracy is borrowed by the field of public Bureaucracy is borrowed by the field of public administration (PA) from the field of sociology. administration (PA) from the field of sociology.

It was borrowed by PA in much a similar way that practices It was borrowed by PA in much a similar way that practices of business were borrowed from the field of business of business were borrowed from the field of business administration and economics. administration and economics.

1717

Bureaucracy & Max WeberBureaucracy & Max Weber

Weber (1946) presents bureaucracy as both a scientific Weber (1946) presents bureaucracy as both a scientific and generic model that can work in both the public and and generic model that can work in both the public and private sectors (Rainey, 1996).private sectors (Rainey, 1996).

Max Weber’s work about bureaucracy, translated into Max Weber’s work about bureaucracy, translated into

English in 1946, was one of the major contributions that English in 1946, was one of the major contributions that has influenced the literature of public administration. has influenced the literature of public administration.

Weber’s bureaucracy consists of the traditional way of Weber’s bureaucracy consists of the traditional way of thinking in public administration that relied on the same thinking in public administration that relied on the same “ingredients” to reform public administration based on the “ingredients” to reform public administration based on the science of administration (Thompson, 2005). science of administration (Thompson, 2005).

1818

Bureaucracy & Max WeberBureaucracy & Max Weber

Weber’s bureaucracy has the following characteristics:Weber’s bureaucracy has the following characteristics:

1.1. The bureaucrats must be free agents.The bureaucrats must be free agents.2.2. The bureaucrats are arranged in a clearly defined The bureaucrats are arranged in a clearly defined

hierarchy of offices.hierarchy of offices.3.3. The functions of each office are clearly specified in writing.The functions of each office are clearly specified in writing.4.4. The bureaucrats accept and maintain their appointment The bureaucrats accept and maintain their appointment

freely.freely.5.5. The appointments to office are based on the technical The appointments to office are based on the technical

qualifications.qualifications.6.6. The bureaucrats receive money salaries and pension rights.The bureaucrats receive money salaries and pension rights.7.7. The office must be the bureaucrat’s sole.The office must be the bureaucrat’s sole.8.8. A career system is essential.A career system is essential.9.9. The bureaucrats do not have property rights.The bureaucrats do not have property rights.10.10. The bureaucrats’ conduct must be subject to systematic The bureaucrats’ conduct must be subject to systematic

control.control.

1919

Neoclassical Organization TheoryNeoclassical Organization Theory

There is no precise definition for “neoclassical” in the content of There is no precise definition for “neoclassical” in the content of organization theory.organization theory.

This school was important because it initiated the theoretical This school was important because it initiated the theoretical movement away from he over-simplistic mechanistic views of movement away from he over-simplistic mechanistic views of classical school.classical school.

The neoclassicalists raised issues and initiated theories that The neoclassicalists raised issues and initiated theories that became central to the foundations of the most schools or became central to the foundations of the most schools or approaches to organization theory that followed.approaches to organization theory that followed.

The majority of the writers and authors of the neoclassical school The majority of the writers and authors of the neoclassical school came after the end of the WWII.came after the end of the WWII.

They sought to “save” classical theory by introducing They sought to “save” classical theory by introducing modifications based upon research findings in the behavioral modifications based upon research findings in the behavioral sciences.sciences.

2020

Neoclassical Organization Theory & Herbert Neoclassical Organization Theory & Herbert SimonSimon

Herbert Simon looked back at the ‘principles’ and Herbert Simon looked back at the ‘principles’ and argued that they lacked all scientific rigor and they argued that they lacked all scientific rigor and they could be mere proverbs. could be mere proverbs.

He deconstructed Gulick’s POSDCORB and dethroned He deconstructed Gulick’s POSDCORB and dethroned them as confusing facts with values and lacking all them as confusing facts with values and lacking all scientific rigors (Stillman, 2000). scientific rigors (Stillman, 2000).

In his book ‘Administrative Behavior: A Study of In his book ‘Administrative Behavior: A Study of Decision Making Process in Administrative Decision Making Process in Administrative Organization’ (1947), he draws on “logical positivist Organization’ (1947), he draws on “logical positivist continental analytic philosophy” (Stillmann, 2000, continental analytic philosophy” (Stillmann, 2000, pg. 22) to explain administrative behavior. pg. 22) to explain administrative behavior.

2121


Herbert Simon looked back at the ‘principles’ and argued Herbert Simon looked back at the ‘principles’ and argued that they lacked all scientific rigor and they could be mere that they lacked all scientific rigor and they could be mere proverbs. proverbs.

He deconstructed Gulick’s POSDCORB and dethroned them He deconstructed Gulick’s POSDCORB and dethroned them as confusing facts with values and lacking all scientific as confusing facts with values and lacking all scientific rigors (Stillman, 2000). Trigors (Stillman, 2000). The POSDCORB functions of the he POSDCORB functions of the public administration orthodoxy were inconsistent, public administration orthodoxy were inconsistent, conflicting, and inapplicable in public administration conflicting, and inapplicable in public administration (Shafritz et al., 2004). (Shafritz et al., 2004).

In his book ‘Administrative Behavior: A Study of Decision In his book ‘Administrative Behavior: A Study of Decision Making Process in Administrative Organization’ (1947), he Making Process in Administrative Organization’ (1947), he draws on “logical positivist continental analytic draws on “logical positivist continental analytic philosophy” (Stillmann, 2000, pg. 22) to explain philosophy” (Stillmann, 2000, pg. 22) to explain administrative behavior. administrative behavior.

2222


He argued that a true scientific method should be used in the study of He argued that a true scientific method should be used in the study of administration, but what was used by the orthodoxy lacked the empirical administration, but what was used by the orthodoxy lacked the empirical basis to do so. basis to do so.

Simon (1946) believed that for “almost every principle [of orthodoxy] one Simon (1946) believed that for “almost every principle [of orthodoxy] one can find an equally plausible and acceptable contradictory principle.”can find an equally plausible and acceptable contradictory principle.”

Simon proposed the fact-value dichotomy because it provides a stronger Simon proposed the fact-value dichotomy because it provides a stronger basis for a science of administration. Through the behavioral approach, basis for a science of administration. Through the behavioral approach, Simon narrowed the scope of rationalism by separating facts from values Simon narrowed the scope of rationalism by separating facts from values and introducing his concept of bounded rationality. and introducing his concept of bounded rationality.

Bounded rationality refers to the bounds that people put on their decisions. Bounded rationality refers to the bounds that people put on their decisions. Because truly rational research on any problem can never be complete, Because truly rational research on any problem can never be complete, human make decisions on satisfactory as opposed to optimal information.human make decisions on satisfactory as opposed to optimal information.

Simon rejected the politics-administration dichotomy because of its failure Simon rejected the politics-administration dichotomy because of its failure to “define a value-free domain required for the development of a science of to “define a value-free domain required for the development of a science of administration, since administrators are involved in policy functions and administration, since administrators are involved in policy functions and thus values consideration” (p.186). thus values consideration” (p.186).

2323

Modern Structural Organization TheoryModern Structural Organization Theory

The basic assumptions of the modern structural The basic assumptions of the modern structural organization theory: organization theory:

1.1. Organizational are rational institutions whose Organizational are rational institutions whose primary purpose is to accomplish established primary purpose is to accomplish established objectives.objectives.

2.2. There is a “best” structure for any organization or at There is a “best” structure for any organization or at least a appropriate structure in light of its given least a appropriate structure in light of its given objectives, the environmental conditions.objectives, the environmental conditions.

3.3. Specialization and the division of labor.Specialization and the division of labor.

4.4. Most problems in an organization result from Most problems in an organization result from structural flaws.structural flaws.

2424

Mechanistic and Organic SystemMechanistic and Organic System

This system came up as a result of the fast technological This system came up as a result of the fast technological advancements. advancements.

British researchers including Tom Burns and G. M. Stalker, British researchers including Tom Burns and G. M. Stalker, developed the theory of “mechanistic” and organic systems” developed the theory of “mechanistic” and organic systems” of organization while examining rapid technological change of organization while examining rapid technological change in the British and Scottish electronic industry.in the British and Scottish electronic industry.

Stable conditions of organizations suggest use of Stable conditions of organizations suggest use of mechanistic form where traditional pattern of hierarchy, mechanistic form where traditional pattern of hierarchy, reliance on formal rules and regulations, vertical reliance on formal rules and regulations, vertical communications, and structured decision-making is possible.communications, and structured decision-making is possible.

Dynamic conditions of organizations require the use of Dynamic conditions of organizations require the use of organic form where there is less rigidity, more participation, organic form where there is less rigidity, more participation, and more reliance on workers to define and redefine their and more reliance on workers to define and redefine their positions and relationships.positions and relationships.

2525

Systems TheorySystems Theory

Since WWII, the social sciences have Since WWII, the social sciences have increasingly used systems analysis to increasingly used systems analysis to examine their assertions about human examine their assertions about human behavior. behavior.

Systems theory views an organization as a Systems theory views an organization as a complex set of dynamically intertwined and complex set of dynamically intertwined and interconnected elements, including its interconnected elements, including its inputs, process, outputs, feedback loops, inputs, process, outputs, feedback loops, and the environment in which it operates and the environment in which it operates and with which it continuously interacts.and with which it continuously interacts.

2626

Comparison Between Systems & Classical Comparison Between Systems & Classical TheoriesTheories

Classical theory tends to be one-Classical theory tends to be one-dimensional and somewhat simplistic while dimensional and somewhat simplistic while system theories tend to be system theories tend to be multidimensional and complex in their multidimensional and complex in their assumptions about organizational cause-assumptions about organizational cause-and-effect relationships. and-effect relationships.

The classical school viewed organizations as The classical school viewed organizations as static (unchanging structures,; systems static (unchanging structures,; systems theorists see organizations as continually theorists see organizations as continually changing process of interactions among changing process of interactions among organizational and environmental elements. organizational and environmental elements.

2727

Cybernetics SystemCybernetics System

Cybernetics is a Greek word meaning Cybernetics is a Greek word meaning “steersman.”“steersman.”

Norbert Wiener used this word to mean Norbert Wiener used this word to mean multidisciplinary study of the structures and multidisciplinary study of the structures and functions of control and information functions of control and information processing system in animals and machines.processing system in animals and machines.

The basic concept behind Cybernetics is self-The basic concept behind Cybernetics is self-regulation-biological, social, or technological regulation-biological, social, or technological systems that can identify problems, do systems that can identify problems, do something about them, and then receive something about them, and then receive feedback to adjust themselves automatically.feedback to adjust themselves automatically.

2828

ReviewReview

Documents

Third Edition Dr. Wasim Al-Habil. Chapter 5...................... The Evolution of Management and Organization Theory