Introducing ‘narrative’

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What does narrative mean?

The way that stories are told, how meaning is constructed to achieve the understanding of the audience.

Groups events into cause and effect – action and inaction. Organises time and space in very compressed form. The voice of the narrative can vary; whose story is being told and

from whose perspective? Narrative plot refers to everything audibly or visibly present, i.e.

selective. Narrative story refers to all the events, explicitly presented or

referred. In film, narrative is constructed through elements like camerawork,

lighting, sound, mise-en-scene and editing.

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Why is narrative important to us?

As children we listen to fairytales and myths/legends. As we grow older, we read short stories, novels, history and biographies.

Religion is often presented through a collection of stories/moral tales e.g. the Koran, the Bible, the Ramayana, etc.

Scientific breakthrough is often presented as stories of an experimenter/scientist’s trials.

Cultural phenomena such as plays, films, dance and paintings tell stories. News events are told as stories. Dreams are retold as stories.

We use narratives or stories to make sense of our lives and the world around us. There are different ways in which we use the narrative form:

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Approaches to studying narrative

There are many ways of looking at and thinking about narratives.

For nearly 2300 years various ‘thinkers’, philosophers and theorists have tried to explain how narratives work.

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Aristotle

Over 2000 years ago the Greek philosopher Aristotle observed that all narratives have: a beginning a middle an end

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Five-stage narrative structure

Exposition – setting scene and introducing characters:-Little Red Riding Hood has to take food to grandmother who is ill

Development – situation develops, more characters introduced:-She sets out through woods where wolf is lurking

Complication – something happens to complicate lives of characters:-She meets wolf, he delays her and rushes ahead and ties up grandmother

Climax – decisive moment reached; matters come to head; suspense high:-She arrives, comments on size of grandmother’s ears, etc., Wolf eats her up

Resolution – matters are resolved and satisfactory end is reached :-Wolf falls asleep, passing forester investigates noise, rescues grandmother

from cupboard and Red Riding Hood by cutting Wolf’s stomach open

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Todorov’s approach to narrative

Todorov suggests that all narratives begin with equilibrium or an initial situation (where everything is balanced).

This is followed by some form of disruption, which is later resolved.

With the resolution at the end of the narrative a new equilibrium is usually established.

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Todorov’s approach to narrative

There are five stages a narrative has to passThrough:

1. The state of equilibrium (state of normality – good, bad or neutral).2. An event disrupts the equilibrium (a character or an action).3. The main protagonist recognises that the equilibrium has been

disrupted.4. Protagonist attempts to rectify this in order to restore equilibrium.5. Equilibrium is restored but, because causal transformations have

occurred, there are differences (good, bad, or neutral) from original equilibrium, which establish it as a new equilibrium.

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Todorov’s approach to narrative

In these stages, narrative is not seen as a linear structure but a circular one. The narrative is driven by attempts to restore the equilibrium. However, the equilibrium attained at the end of the story is not identical to the initial equilibrium.

Todorov argues that narrative involves a transformation. The characters or the situations are transformed through the progress of the disruption. The disruption itself usually takes place outside the normal social framework, outside the ‘normal’ social events (e.g., a murder happens and people are terrified or someone vanishes and the characters have to solve the mystery).

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A Summary of Todorov’s approach to narrative

Narratives don’t need to be linear.

The progression from initial equilibrium to restoration always involves a transformation

The middle period of a narrative can depict actions that transgress everyday habits and routines.

There can be many disruptions whilst seeking a new equilibrium (horror relies on this technique).

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Propp’s approach to narrative

Vladimir Propp studied hundreds of Russian folk and fairytales before deciding that all narratives have a common structure.

He observed that narratives are shaped and directed by certain types of characters and specific kinds of actions

He believed that there are 31 possible stages or functions in any narrative.

These may not all appear in a single story, but nevertheless always appear in the same sequence.

A function is a plot motif or event in the story. A tale may skip functions but it cannot shuffle their unvarying order.

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Propp’s approach to narrative

Villain struggles with hero Donor prepares and/or provides hero with magical agent Helper assists, rescues, solves and/or transfigures the hero Princess a sought-for person (and/or her father) who exists as goal and

often recognises and marries hero and/or punishes villain Dispatcher sends hero off Hero departs on a search (seeker-hero), reacts to donor and weds at end False Hero claims to be the hero, often seeking and reacting like a real hero Princess’ father – rewards the hero

Propp believed that there are eight roles which any character may assume in the story:

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Propp’s 31 narrative functions

Preparatory section

1. One of members of a family absents him/herself from home2. An interdiction (ban) is addressed to the hero3. Interdiction is violated (villain usually enters story here)4. Villain makes an attempt at reconnaissance (either villain tries to find children/jewels etc.

or intended victim questions villain)5. Villain receives information about victim (villain gets an answer)6. Villain attempts to deceive victim by using persuasion, magic or deception (trickery; villain

disguised, tries to win confidence of victim)7. Victim submits to deception and thereby unwittingly helps enemy (hero sleeps)

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Villainy/lack (plot set in motion) 8. Villain causes harm or injury to member of a family (e.g. abduction, theft,

casts spell on someone).Alternatively, a member of family lacks something, desires or desires to have something (magical potion, etc.).

9. Misfortune or lack is made known: hero is approached with a request or command; hero allowed to go or is dispatched.

10. Seeker (hero) agrees to or decides upon counteractions.11. Hero leaves home interrogated, attacked, etc. which prepares way for

receiving magical agent or helper (donor usually enters story here).12. Hero reacts to actions of future donor (withstands/fails the test, frees

captive, reconciles disputants, performs service, uses adversary's powers.13. Hero is tested against them.

Propp’s 31 narrative functions

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14. Hero acquires use of magical agent (directly transferred, purchased, etc.).15. Hero is transferred, delivered or led to whereabouts of object of search.

Path A: Struggle and victory over villain; end of lack and return

16. Hero and villain join in direct combat.17. Hero is branded (wounded/marked, receives ring or scarf).18. Villain is defeated (killed in combat, defeated in contest, etc.).19. The initial misfortune or lack is liquidated (object of search distributed;

spell broken, slain person revived, captive freed).20. Hero returns.21. Hero is pursued (pursuer tries to kill, eat, undermine the hero).22. Hero is rescued from pursuit (obstacles delay pursuer, hero hides, etc.).

Propp’s 31 narrative functions

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Path B: Unrecognised arrival, task, recognition, punishment, wedding

23. Hero, unrecognised, arrived home or in another country.24. False hero presents unfounded claims.25. Difficult task is proposed to hero (trial by drink, riddle, test of strength).26. Task is resolved or accomplished.27. Hero is recognised, often by mark or object.28. False hero or villain is exposed and/or punished.29. Hero is given new appearance (is made whole, handsome, etc.).30. Villain is pursued.31. Hero is married and ascends throne.

Propp’s 31 narrative functions

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Propp’s theory of narrative seems to be based in a male orientated environment (due to his theory actually reflecting early folk tales) and as such critics often dismiss the theory with regard to film. However, it may still be applied because the function (rather than the gender) of characters is the basis of the theory. E.g. the Hero could be a woman; the reward could be a man.

Critics argue that Propp’s strict order of characters and events is restrictive. We should rather apply the functions and events randomly as we meet new narratives. E.g. the Hero may kill the Villain earlier than Propp expects.

Criticisms of Propp

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Some critics claim there are many more character types than Propp suggests and we should feel free to identify them. E.g. the stooge in a sci-fi film, who is usually nameless and usually killed early on to suggest the power of the alien force, is a typical modern character type.

AS Level examiners have grown to HATE Propp- because everyone learns the lists & tries to apply it to any narrative they are discussing. It applies to Fairy Stories and to other similar narratives based around 'quests' –

THEREFORE - IT DOES NOT APPLY TO ALL NARRATIVES.

Criticisms of Propp

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An example: Star Wars

The hero

is dispatched on a search, struggles with and defeats the villain, marries the Princess.

The Hero is introduced in the initial situation.

Example: Luke Skywalker

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An example: Star Wars

The dispatcherdirects the hero to depart on the search. The dispatcher is usually introduced in the initial situation.

Example:Luke’s Uncle Owen, in Star WarsIV:A New Hope.

(The uncle directs Luke to take care of the droids, which is why he goes out into the desert on that fateful night)

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An example: Star WarsThe villainNear the beginning of the tale the villain performs an act of villainy. Later the villain struggles with and is defeated by the hero.

The villain appears twice in the story, first as a surprise, the second as a result of the hero’s search.

Example: Darth Vader

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An example: Star Wars

The helper helps the hero search out and struggle with the Villain and generally provides assistance in difficult situations.

The Helper is provided to the Hero by the Donor.

Example: Ben Kenobi often appears from the grave to give Luke advice

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An example: Star Wars

The donor

provides the hero with a magical agent that will help in the pursuit of, and struggle with, the Villain.

The Hero usually encounters the Donor by accident once the tale is under way.

Examples of Donors include: Yoda in Star Wars, the magical agent given is ‘the Force’

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An example: Star Wars

The false heroWho disrupts the hero’s success by making false claims.See Point 28 above - The False Hero is at last seen to be what they are. They often expose themselves through the display of non-heroic actions, including cowardice, cheating and otherfalse actions. http://changingminds.org/disciplines/storytelling/plots/propp/propp.htm

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An example: Star Wars

The Princess (and/or herFather) assign the hero tasks toperform, recognise the Hero when he returns, and expose False Heroes and Villains. The Princess usually marries the Hero. The Princess and/or her Father are usually introduced in the initial situationExample: Princess Leia, in StarWars

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An example: Star Wars

The Princess’ Fatherwho acts to reward the Hero for his efforts

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Claude Levi-Strauss’s approach to narrative

After studying hundreds of myths and legends from around the world, Levi-Strauss observed that we make sense of the world, people and events by seeing and using binary opposites everywhere.

He observed that all narratives are organised around the conflict between such binary opposites, or narratives progress through the threat of conflict arising from binary opposites

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Claude Levi-Strauss’s approach to narrative

As well as Aristotle deciding that 'all drama is conflict' in the 4th century BC, 20th century theorist Claude Levi-Strauss suggested that all narratives had to be driven forward by conflict that was cause by a series of opposing forces. he called this the theory of Binary Opposition, and it is used to describe how each main force in a narrative has its equal and opposite. Analysing a narrative means identifying these opposing forces

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Examples of binary opposites

Good vs evil Black vs white Boy vs girl Peace vs war Civilised vs savage Democracy vs dictatorship Conqueror vs conquered First world vs third world Domestic vs foreign/alien Articulate vs inarticulate Young vs old Man vs nature

Protagonist vs antagonist Action vs inaction Motivator vs observer Empowered vs victim Man vs woman Good-looking vs ugly Strong vs weak Decisive vs indecisive East vs west Humanity vs technology Ignorance vs wisdom

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Joseph Campbell’s approach to narrative

After comparing the myths, legends and religions of various cultures in his book, The Hero with a Thousand Faces, Joseph Campbell observed that most narratives follow a common pattern of the mythic hero quest, journey or monomyth.

Campbell believed that most narratives, regardless of their time, place or culture, follow the same narrative stages and contain universally recognisable characters and situations i.e. archetypes.

The Hero’s Journey

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Archetypes

Examples of character archetypes Hero (Arthur, Theseus, Simba) Shadow (Scar, Minotaur, Voldermort) Outcast (Cain, Ancient Mariner) Devil figure (Lucifer, Anakin/Darth Vader) Woman figure:

Earth mother (Mother Nature) Temptress (Eve, Sirens, Delilah) Platonic ideal (Dante's Beatrice) Unfaithful wife (Anna Karenina, Madame Bovary)

Wise old man (Merlin, Rafiki, Yoda, Dumbledore)

Archetypes are recurring character types (and relationships), and/or patterns of symbols or situations found in mythology, religion and stories of all cultures.

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Archetypes

Situation archetypes Quest (Holy Grail, Ahab) Initiation (Huck Finn, Stand by Me) Fall (Paradise Lost, Darth Vader) Death and Rebirth (Christ, Hercules)Archetypal symbols Light–darkness Water–desert Heaven–Hell

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Campbell’s monomyth

Departure, separation World of common day Call to adventure Refusal of the call Supernatural aid Crossing the first threshold Belly of the whale

Descent, initiation, penetration Road of trials Meeting with the goddess

Stages of the hero’s journey:

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Campbell’s monomyth Woman as temptress Atonement with the father Apotheosis The ultimate boon

Return The refusal of the return The magic flight Rescue from within Closing the threshold Return Master of the two worlds Freedom to live

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Chris Vogler and the hero’s journey in Hollywood

Chris Vogler, story analyst for various Hollywood film companies, was inspired by Campbell when he wrote his book, The Writer's Journey.

Vogler developed and simplified Campbell’s stages of the hero’s journey. Emphasises importance of mythic structure and mythic archetypes when constructing screenplays and analysing ‘classic’ examples of film.

Vogler argues that great films are such because they ‘have an appeal that can be felt by everyone, because they well up from a universal source in the shared unconscious and reflect universal concerns’.

Vogler’s re-definition of character archetypes and the 12 'stages' of the hero's journey has become very influential in Hollywood.

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Vogler’s 12 stages of the hero’s journey

1. Ordinary world -The hero's normal world before the story begins 2. Call to adventure -The hero is presented with a problem, challenge or

adventure 3. Refusal of the call - The hero refuses the challenge or journey, usually

because he's scared4. Meeting with the mentor - The hero meets a mentor to gain advice or

training for the adventure5. Crossing the first threshold -The hero crosses leaves the ordinary world

and goes into the special world 6. Tests, allies, enemies - The hero faces tests, meets allies, confronts

enemies & learn the rules of the Special World

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Vogler’s 12 stages of the hero’s journey cont.

7. Approach to the inmost cave - The hero has hit setbacks during tests & may need to try a new idea

8. Supreme ordeal - The biggest life or death crisis 9. Reward (seizing the sword) - The hero has survived death, overcomes

his fear and now earns the reward 10. The road back - The hero must return to the Ordinary World. 11. Resurrection - another test where the hero faces death – he has to use

everything he's learned12. Return with the elixir - The hero returns from the journey with the “elixir”,

and uses it to help everyone in the Ordinary World

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Vogler’s archetypes and their functions

1. Hero to serve and sacrifice2. Mentor to guide3. Threshold guardian to test4. Shapeshifter to question and deceive5. Shadow to destroy

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Summary

Aristotle beginning, middle and end Todorov equilibrium disequilibrium re-

equilibrium Propp 31 Functions Levi-Strauss binary oppositions Campbell Monomyth and archetypes Vogler 12 stages and archetypes

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Summary of Structuralism

A Structuralist approach to film narrative argues:

That there is an underlying structure, which can be uncovered, and that elements of this structure are common to all narratives.

In short narratives share a common structure