The Progressives

Brinkley Chapter 20

The Progressives

Progressivism was an optimistic vision of a utopian society

Society could be improved by government intervention

The Progressives

Continued growth and advancement were necessary

But it could not continue to occur “recklessly” as is had in the past

The natural laws of laissez faire and Social Darwinism could not create the stability, order and justice society needed

The Progressives

Progressives did not always agree on what form their vision should take

They often disagreed with each other

“Antimonopoly”

The fear of concentrating too much power in the hands of a few and the urge to limit and disperse authority and wealth

Appealed to Populists, workers, farmers, and middle-class Americans

It helped empower government to break up trusts at both the state and the national level

Social Cohesion

Individuals are not autonomous, but are part of a web of social relationships

The welfare of any single person is dependent on society as a whole

This leads to the idea that some people are “victims” of industrialization

Social Cohesion

And to initiatives and reforms designed to help women, children, industrial workers, immigrants

And to a lesser extent, African Americans

Faith in Knowledge

The principles of the natural and social sciences could be applied to society as a means to organization and efficiency

The social order could be guided by knowledge

The Progressives

This would make society more just and equitable and humane

Modern life was too complex to be left to party bosses and random chance

Leaders and experts should run things

The Progressives

The Muckrakers were crusading journalists who sought to direct public attention to social, economic and political injustices

They were committed to exposing scandal, corruption and injustice to public view

The Progressives

The term was a reference to a character in John Bunyan’s “Pilgrim’s Progress”

It was first applied to these journalists in a 1906 speech by Theodore Roosevelt

They exposed organizations they saw as dangerously corrupt

Ida Tarbell’s exposé of Standard Oil was an early example

The Progressives

Lincoln Steffens (“The Shame of the Cities”) exposed corrupt “boss rule” in the cities

The Muckrakers investigated governments, labor unions and corporations

They denounced prostitution, family disorganization, destruction of natural resources, subjugation of women, etc.

The Progressives

The Muckrakers reached their peak of influence 1900-1910

Many reformers committed to what has become known as “Social Justice”

Took root first in Protestantism, then Catholicism

The Salvation Army had over 20,000 members by 1900

The Progressives

Walter Rauschenbush was a Protestant theologian

He advocated salvation through Christian reform

The message of Darwinism was not “survival of the fittest”

Rather, it was humanitarian evolution of the social fabric

The Progressives

Rerum Novarum (1893), Pope Leo XIII Catholic underpinning for social justice Father John A Ryan: “small number of very

rich men have been able to lay upon the masses of the poor a yoke little better than slavery itself”

The Progressives

The Settlement House MovementThey proposed that ignorance, poverty,

even criminality were not inborn, but were the effects of an unhealthy environment

To elevate the distressed required an improvement in the conditions under which they lived

The Progressives

Hull House (1899), the first Settlement House , in Chicago

Staffed by educated members of the middle class

Sought to help immigrant families adapt to the language and customs of their new country

The Progressives

The Allure of Expertise The expertise of scientists and engineers could

be brought to bear on the problems of the economy and society

Social Scientist Thorstein Veblen argued for an economic system in which highly trained engineers would wield power

The Professions

Industries needed managers, technicians, accountants in addition to workers

These required institutions and instructors to train them

No longer could a patent-medicine salesman claim to be a doctor

No longer could a frustrated politician claim to be a lawyer

No longer could someone who could merely read and write claim to be a teacher

The Progressives

American Medical Association, 19012/3 of all doctors joined by 1920Strict scientific standards of

admission“Gatekeepers”Medical schools emerged

The Progressives

By 1916, all states has a Bar AssociationLaw schools expandedSchools of Business Administration

emergedNational association of Manufacturers,

1895National Association of Realtors, 1908Chamber of Commerce, 1912

Women and the Professions

Women often found themselves excluded from the reform impulse

But a few did enter professional careers5% of all physicians were female by 1900(this remained unchanged until the

1960s)

The Progressives

Women dominated education 2/3 of all grammar school teachers were

women 90% of “professional” women were teachers Segregated schools in the South created a

substantial market for black teachers Nursing also became a woman’s field during

and after the Civil War

The Progressives

In most states in the early 20th century, women could not vote and seldom held public office

But the “New Woman” emerged By this time, most economic activity had

moved outside the home Children were beginning school and spent

more time there The home no longer kept women busy

The Progressives

Some women chose to remain single to assume the public role they wanted

Jane Addams and Lillian Ward (Settlement House), Anna Howard Shaw (suffrage movement) were single women

The divorce rate also rose rapidly, from 1 in 21 in 1880 to 1 in 9 by 1916

Women’s clubs proliferated during this period

Clubs focused on self-improvement, philanthropy, and community advocacy

There were hundreds of Women’s Clubs with thousands of members across the country

The Clubwomen

The Progressives

Many club members came from wealthy families, and substantial funding was often available

Women could not vote, so the clubs took a nonpartisan position that politicians found it difficult to ignore

The Progressives

Although black women occasionally joined white-dominated clubs, many clubs excluded black women

So black women organized clubs of their own

National Association of Colored WomenTheir clubs often took political positions,

e.g., anti-lynching, anti-segregation

The right to vote for women

Women’s suffrage spawned probably the largest single reform movement of the Progressive Era

It was asserted as a “natural right,” something that men and women alike were entitled to

The Progressives

Elizabeth Cady StantonAnna Howard ShawCarrie Chapman Catt (Founder of the

League of Women Voters)The National Woman Suffrage

Association went from about 13,000 in 1893 to over 2,000,000 by 1917

The Progressives

Suffragists argued that enfranchising women would strengthen the voice of the temperance movement

Some argued that suffrage was just a part of the problem, and discrimination against women in all areas should be prohibited by a constitutional amendment

The Progressives

Eventually, most Progressive goals required the involvement of government

Only government could counter the many powerful private interests that threatened the nation

But government was hardly less corruptThe first step would be to reform

government

The Progressives

To reform government, they had to reform the political parties

Greenbackism and Populism were examples of movements that challenged the two-party system

The Independent Republicans (“Mugwumps”) also attempted to challenge the grip of partisanship

The Progressives

Municipal government became the first targets of the reformers

This struck a responsive chord among urban, middle-class Progressives

But the bosses and the political machines were powerful

The reformers gradually gained strength

New forms of governance for cities

The Commission PlanThe City-Manager PlanThe Mayor-Council PlanNext, many Progressives turned their

attention to state government reform

Initiative and Referendum

Legislation could be submitted directly to the voters, bypassing state legislatures

Actions taken by state governments could be reviewed and approved or denied by local voters

The Progressives

The primary election was another innovation to limit the power of the party machine and give it to the people

Recall was a way to remove public officials through a special election, which could be called after a certain number of citizens signed a petition

The Progressives

Lobbying and campaign finance reform were also targets of Progressives

Regulating public utilities was also addressed

The Progressives

Robert “Fightin’ Bob” La Follette was an important state-level Progressive reformer

Elected governor of Wisconsin in 1900 Helped turn his state into a “laboratory of

progressivism” Primaries, initiatives, referendums, workman’s

compensation, graduated inheritance taxes, corporate taxes

The Progressives

La Follette called on newspapers, citizen’s groups, educational institutions, business and professional organizations, to help take responsibility for reform

The Progressives

Political parties did not disappear, but their influence lessened

Voter turnout declined from 81% in the late 1800s

Today, it fluctuates around 50% In Malta, Chile, Austria, Belgium, Italy and

Luxembourg, it tops 90% today

The Progressives

The secret ballot may account in part for the decline in voter turnout

Party bosses had less control over the voters

Illiteracy may also have been a factorOther power centers emerged to supplant

the power bosses Interest groups, trade associations, labor

organizations

The Progressives

Initially, labor unions stayed out of the fray

But some played important roles in reform efforts

Child labor, workman’s compensation, limiting work hours for women

The Progressives

The Triangle Shirtwaist Fire, 1911Triangle Shirtwaist Company factory,

New York City146 people died, mostly womenManagement had locked the emergency

exits to discourage malingering

The Progressives

The fire renewed interest in safety in the workplace

This led to pioneering labor laws that imposed strict regulations on factory owners and established effective mechanisms for enforcement

The Progressives

“Niagara Movement” led to a joining with white progressives to found the NAACP

Court victories followedGuinn v. United States (1915):

grandfather clause struck downBuchanan v. Worley (1917):residential

segregation illegal

The Temperance Crusade

Many Progressives considered elimination of alcohol from American life a necessary step in restoring order to society

Workers spent their wages in saloonsDrunkenness spawned violence, and

sometimes murder, in urban families

The Progressives

Workers missed time at work due to drinking, or came to work intoxicated

Some saw the liquor industry as a “sinister” trust

Some saw the saloon as one of the central institutions of the urban machine and “boss rule”

The Progressives

Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), 1873

Crusade grew to a demand for complete prohibition of alcoholic beverages

By 1916, nineteen states had passed prohibition laws

Eighteenth Amendment (1919) banned beverage alcohol throughout the US

Immigration restrictions

The introduction of immigrants from “inferior races” was “polluting” the nation’s “racial stock”

The scientific theory of eugenics was applied to human reproduction

Forced sterilization of the mentally retarded, criminals, etc.

The Progressives

Eugenics and Nativism (“to assist the race toward the elimination of the unfit”)

“The Passing of the Great Race”The dangers of racial “mongrelization”The importance of protecting the purity of

Anglo-Saxon and other Nordic stock from pollution by eastern Europeans, Latin Americans, and Asians

Challenging the Capitalist order

Some Progressives saw the growing modern industrial economy as the source of the problems of growing power and influence and corruption of corporate America

The solution was reshaping or reforming the behavior of the capitalist world

The Dream of Socialism

Radical critiques of the capitalist system in the US were strongest from about 1900-1914

The Socialist Party gained considerable strength

In 1912, Socialist presidential candidate Eugene V. Debs garnered over a million votes

The Progressives

Socialists agreed that the economy should be reformed

Some favored the goals of the European Marxists

Some favored more moderate reforms which would nationalize major industries but allow small-scale private enterprise to survive

The Progressives

The International Workers of the World (IWW)

The “Wobblies”Favored a single union for all workers

and abolition of the “wage slave” systemRejected political action in favor of strikesMay have been responsible for

bombings, etc.

The Progressives

Such direct action led to imprisonment of IWW leaders and effectively outlawing the union in 1919

The IWW never recovered World War I dramatically weakened the

socialists Most Progressives favored reform within the

capitalist system

Challenging the Capitalist Order

– Decentralization and Regulation The Problem of Corporate Centralization “Good Trusts” and “Bad Trusts” Trust-busting

The Progressives

Theodore Roosevelt is the American president first – and most closely – identified with Progressivism in America.

“T. R.”

At 42, TR was the youngest man ever to serve as President.

Succeeded to office upon the assassination of McKinley in September 1901

Mark Hanna, party boss

“I told William McKinley that it was a mistake to nominate that wild man at Philadelphia. I asked him if he realized what would happen if he should die. Now look, that damned cowboy is President of the United States.”

Theodore Roosevelt: Basics

TR had already published several respected books on history.

TR owned a ranch in the Badlands of South Dakota and lived there for several years after the death of his first wife.

Served as New York Police Commissioner, Assistant Secretary of the Navy

Army Colonel, Spanish-American War Governor, Vice-President, President.

The Progressives

Roosevelt’s good humor and political skill did much to create bi-partisan cooperation in government.

More liberal than his Republican predecessors Worked with other “reformers” to curb

corporate monopoly, promote competition in business, and work toward a “Square Deal” for all.

The Progressives

Saw the government not as advocate for one side or the other, but as mediator of the public good.

TR pledged strict enforcement of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890

As a practical matter he only sought to break up what he saw as the “bad” trusts – those that acted with total disregard for the public good.

The Progressives

Generally, Progressives wanted to get more involved in the process of governing.

They also enabled many large American cities to root out political machines run by corrupt bosses.

Department of Commerce and Labor, 1903

Later divided into Department of Commerce and Department of Labor

Sought to address the concerns of business and unions

“Bureau of Corporations” empowered to investigate potentially illegal corporate activity.

The Progressives

After serving the remainder of McKinley’s term, TR ran for president in his own right in 1904

Pledged to the Republican party that his interest lay in reforming corporate monopolies and the railroads, not in interfering with money policy or with protective tariffs in place.

The Progressives

Democrat opposition found little for which they could run against TR

Democrats endorsed his trust-busting stand, accepted the gold standard, and differed from Republicans only in calling for a stronger Interstate Commerce Commission to regulate railroads

TR, with charming personality and name recognition, won easily.

The Progressives

Avid outdoorsman and hunter Four-day camping trip with

John Muir TR proposed and signed a

series of laws (1902-1908) dealing with conservation

Helped set up national parks Established a National

Conservation Commission to oversee natural resources

The Progressives

TR then set about enacting both the Republican AND the Democrat platforms

He signed the Hepburn Act, expanding the ICC

Membership was increased to 7 members The ICC was abolished in 1995 and its

functions transferred to the Surface Transportation Board

The Progressives

The ICC had not been allowed to set railroad rates

TR asked Congress to expand its powers Railroads required to use the same set of

bookkeeping practices and to open their records to government inspection

But not everyone was satisfied

The Progressives

Pure Food and Drug Act Proposals:• limit working hours• workman’s compensation• income taxes• regulation of stock market

The Progressives

Prompted by his personal revulsion on reading Upton Sinclair’s muckraking novel The Jungle, TR pushed the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act in 1906.

The Meat Inspection Act won TR’s support also based on his experiences with soldiers made sick during the 1898 war, from being fed spoiled canned meat.

The Progressives

In a trial reform act, TR pushed the Immunity of Witness Act in 1906

Ended the practice of allowing corporate officials to take the 5th amendment and refuse to testify in trials when their corporations were being investigated for illegal activities.

The Progressives

TR promoted and signed the Elkins Act in 1903

Made it illegal for railroads to rebate part or all of freight rates to favored customers.

Together, the Hepburn and Elkins Acts gave the first real strength to the ICC, which had been in existence since 1887.

The Progressives

Overall the economy did well during TR’s presidency

Generally the climate favored consumers and working people more than corporate executives.

A mild economic panic in 1907 caused his administration to ease federal requirements somewhat

The Progressives

A short recession in 1907 focused public attention on the need for bank regulation, and of more government control over a flexible money supply that met the needs of businessmen and consumers

Discussions among Progressive legislators about these problems eventually led to the creation of the Federal Reserve Banking System.

The Progressives

Though he characterized himself as a “trust buster,” TR was careful about choosing targets for his anti-trust activities.

He ordered suit against the Northern Securities Company, a railroad “holding corporation” put together by financier J. Pierpont Morgan.

The Progressives

Roosevelt also ordered prosecution of John D. Rockefeller’s powerful Standard Oil Company.

By the time he left office in early 1909, TR had brought indictments against 25 monopolies

By then, he was seen by some as a “radical”

The Progressives

TR intervened directly in government mediation to end a strike between the United Mine Workers and coal mine owners in a bitter 1902 strike

First time in history that such intervention had not come automatically to the assistance of owners.

The Progressives

Though TR relaxed business regulation somewhat during the recession, he made it clear that his ongoing drive to restore truly free competition to the American marketplace would continue.

The Progressives

Progressivism and its successes brought new optimism to the country, and renewed citizen faith in government.

The Worlds Fair in St. Louis in 1904 celebrated the centennial of the Louisiana Purchase, and stressed the cooperation of all nations in global trade.

The Progressives

During TR’s administration, the Wright Brothers pioneered American flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

News of the achievement was slow to be reported, and many Americans doubted that it had really happened

The Progressives

The Progressives: Foreign Policy

The “Big Stick” TR – “Speak softly, but carry a big stick” “Civilized” nations: white, Anglo-Saxon,

Teutonic “Uncivilized” nations: non-white, Latin,

Slavic

The Progressives

But economics mattered as much as race Japan was rapidly industrializing and was

therefore “civilized” “Civilized” nations: producers of industrial

(manufactured) goods “Uncivilized” nations: suppliers of raw

materials and markets

The Progressives

By implication, “civilized” nations had the right and the duty to intervene in the affairs of backward nations

Order and stability was good for both nations

Sea power was a key to enforcing this view

By 1906, the US Navy was almost as large as Great Britain’s

“Open Door” in Asia

Russo-Japanese War over Manchuria, 1904

Roosevelt mediated, to prevent either nation from becoming dominant in the region

Both parties recognized Japan’s territorial gains

The Progressives

Also a “secret agreement” between Japan and the US

The US could continue to trade freely in the region

TR won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 for his work

But US-Japanese relations deteriorated

The Progressives

Japan emerged as the dominant power in the region

Began to exclude US from trade US took no direct action, but . . . Sent the “Great White Fleet” on a round-

the-world tour as a show of US naval power

The Iron-Fisted Neighbor

Latin America regarded as US sphere of interest

TR unwilling to share trading rights with European nations

Began an enduring pattern of US intervention in the region

The Progressives

1902: Britain, Italy and Germany blockaded Venezuela over non-payment of debts

“Roosevelt Corollary” to the Monroe Doctrine

The US had the right to oppose European intervention in the Western Hemisphere, and . . .

The Progressives

The US had the right to intervene in Latin American nations to protect its interests

Dominican Republic, 1903: US establishes a “receivership” that lasted into the 1930s

Cuba, 1902: US grants independence, but not really

Platt Amendment

US could intervene in Cuban domestic affairs as necessary

Panama Canal

Preferred route was a sea-level canal through Nicaragua (no locks would be needed)

But a route through the Isthmus of Panama would be shorter, though it would require locks

Plus, a French company had already done about 40% of the work

The Progressives

Isthmus was then part of Colombia Original treaty with Colombia rejected by

Colombian Senate Revolution fomented in Panama Troop from USS Nashville sent to “maintain order” New Panamanian government recognized three

days later Canal completed in 1914

The Progressives

“The Troubled Succession” William Howard Taft easily won election in

1908 Succeeded to the Presidency in 1909 By the time he left office in 1912-1913, he had

been thoroughly defeated

William Howard Taft

Taft was the last President with facial hair*

The Progressives

Taft asked Congress to lower the protective tariff

But the “Old Guard” Republicans opposed it Thought the Executive was interfering in

legislative matters Passed a weak version of tariff reform

Department of the Interior Controversy

Ballinger, Secretary of the Interior Accused of financial improprieties by staffer Louis

Glavis Reported the matter to Gifford Pinchot, head of

the forest service Pinchot investigated and went to the President Taft investigated, decided the charges were

unfounded

Department of the Interior Controversy

Ballinger fired Glavis Pinchot leaked it to the press . . .

“The squeaky wheel gets the grease”

But sometimes, the squeaky wheel gets replaced by a quieter wheel

The Progressives

Roosevelt was away on safari during this period

When he returned, he initially disavowed any intention to return to politics.

But he was furious with Taft Believed Taft had betrayed what TR had

accomplished

The Progressives

TR was convinced that only he could reunite the Republican Party

Launched a nationwide speaking tour Presented a platform of “New Nationalism” Argued that only the vigorous efforts of a

strong federal government could bring social justice

The Progressives

Argued that the federal executive should be the “steward of the public welfare”

Suggested that private profit and personal gain must give way to the welfare of all

Supported income taxes, inheritance taxes, workman’s compensation

The Progressives

TR supported regulation of the labor of women and child labor, tariff revision, and firmer regulation of corporations

But TR still insisted that he was not running for re-election to the Presidency

The Progressives

Taft and “Dollar Diplomacy” Taft not interested in TR’s larger vision of

world stability Sought to advance American economic

interests overseas through US investment American interests in the Caribbean

The Progressives

Meanwhile, a Republican insurgency was spreading

A pattern was emerging in local elections Conservative Republicans were losing Progressive Republicans were winning

The Progressives

Some Democrats began moving in the direction of progressivism

Democrats won control of the House of Representatives and gained ground in the Senate

Roosevelt still denied that he was running for President

Sought only to pressure Taft to return to the progressive fold

The Progressives

But two things changed his mind First, the Taft administration filed suit

against US Steel Charged that its acquisition of the

Tennessee Coal & Iron Company had been illegal

Roosevelt had approved the acquisition during his presidency, and took this as a personal affront

The Progressives

Second, Senator Robert LaFollette suffered an apparent nervous breakdown during a campaign speech

LaFollette was a leading progressive Roosevelt had been reluctant to challenge

him But now LaFollette is out of the race TR announced his candidacy

The Progressives

TR easily won all thirteen Republican primaries

But still did not have enough delegates to secure the nomination

The “Old Guard” sided with Taft, and Taft secured the Republican nomination

TR launched the Progressive Party, AKA the “Bull Moose” party

The Progressives

TR led his followers out of the Republican Party

Republican Party badly split into factions The Democrats nominated Woodrow Wilson This exacerbated the split The split was also between two versions of

progressivism

The Progressives

Democrats began embracing “reform” as well Wilson was nominated in a contentious

convention fight in 1912 Wilson had been a college professor, a

college president, and governor of New Jersey Seen as a progressive

Wilson’s “New Freedom” challenged TR’s “New Nationalism”

TR’s “New Nationalism:” economic concentration was acceptable, subject to some level of government regulation and control

Wilson’s “New Freedom:” bigness itself was unjust and inefficient, and the way to deal with monopolies was not to regulate them but to destroy them

The Progressives

1912 Election: Taft, resigned to defeat, hardly campaigned

at all Roosevelt shot and wounded in an

assassination attempt, sidelined for the last weeks of the campaign

TR and Taft split the Republican vote TR failed to attract Democratic Progressives

The Progressives

Wilson won a plurality (42%) of the popular vote

But won handily on electoral votes

Democrats also won majorities in both houses of Congress

The Progressives

Wilson was a bold and forceful President Concentrated executive power, exerted

personal control over his cabinet “Colonel” Edward M. House had no title and

held no official office But House wielded authority because of his

personal association with Wilson

Wilson & House Wilson & House

The Progressives

Wilson called a special session of Congress

Pushed the Underwood-Simmons Tariff – substantial reductions in tariff

Pushed passage and ratification of the 16th Amendment, permitting federal income taxes

The Progressives

Income taxes had been levied in the past, but on a temporary basis

But Pollock v. Farmers’ Loan & Trust Company, 157 US 429 (1895) declared an income tax unconstitutional

Wilson pushed for a constitutional amendment which would permit an income tax

The 16th Amendment (1913) nullified Pollock

The Progressives

Federal income tax began with a 1% rate, on individuals and corporations earning over $4,000 a year

The top rate was 7%, on incomes over $500,000 The top rate was raised to 77% during World War I Later lowered, raised, lowered, etc. Raised to 94% in 1944 Top rate is now approx. 40%

The Progressives

Federal Reserve Act Regional banks kept a portion of their

member banks’ deposits “in reserve” New currency – “Federal Reserve Notes” Could shift resources around to meet

needs

The Progressives

In 1914, Wilson turned to monopolies Federal Trade Commission (FTC) Clayton Antitrust Act – not as strong and

effective as it might have been “Unfair trade practices” By 1914, Wilson felt that he had

accomplished much of what he set out to do – “New Freedom” was complete

The Progressives

Louis Brandeis (1856-1941) Brilliant jurist Highest academic average

ever achieved at Harvard Law (1877)

First Jew appointed to US Supreme Court

Advanced progressive thinker

The Progressives

Wilson sought to expand the role of the national government

Keating-Owen Act, 1916 Regulated child labor through the “Interstate

Commerce” clause Keating-Owen was struck down by the

Supreme Court in 1918 But the “Interstate Commerce” clause would

later be used to do many things

The Progressives

Wilson supported the idea of using the federal taxing authority as a vehicle for social change

After Keating-Owen was struck down, sought to achieve same goal through taxation (that was later struck down too)

Smith-Lever act – federal matching grants to states that agreed to support agricultural extension education

The Progressives

Revolution in Nicaragua, 1909 Encouraged by American mining interests US sided with insurgents Advanced American interests through

investment, loans, military protection for existing government

Diplomacy and Morality

US had a recent history of seizure and intervention when it seemed to be in the national interest

Wilson took a different approach Refused to recognize Mexican president

Huerta and his “government of butchers”

The Progressives

Conflict with Mexico dragged on Carranza and the coup Border incident Raid on Columbus, NM by Pancho Villa,

1916 US and Mexican troops clash

The Progressives

General Pershing was dispatched to the border area

Chased Villa around for about nine months, until US entry into World War I

The Progressives

“Don’t let it end like this. Tell them I said something.”

Alleged dying words of Pancho Villa