THE MOUNTAIN INSTITUTE-INDIA

Water in the form of springs

(locally called or

or or ) which

originate from the underground

unconfined aquifers is a vital

resource and a key element of

human life and well being.

Springs are the ground water

discharge points and serve as the

natural and immediate source of

drinking water in the mountain

region. Discharge from springs

may be constant or variable

depending upon the rainfall

pattern, geology of the area, rock

formation, slope, etc.

Since time immemorial these

springs are conserved and

protected through traditional

ecological knowledge systems

(TEKS) of the indigenous

communities. Most of these

sacred springs are surrounded by

a patch of forest meant for

recharging them. Sacred and

customary rituals by indigenous

communities serve as a social

bond and thus they are protected

from biotic interferences.

With the changing rainfall

patterns, these springs are drying

up because their aquifers are not

getting adequately recharged.

This is forcing farmers, mostly

rural women to walk long

distances to bring water to their

households. Conflict and disputes

due to scarcity of drinking water,

or on ownership of water sources,

or pipes crisscrossing each other's

courtyards or private land

holdings has become a common

phenomenon in the villages. The

drying of springs and scarcity of

water has accelerated the conflicts

and quarrels thus causing social

disharmony and disintegration of

social bonds between families or

communities or both.

Dharo Pandhero

Muhan Kuwa

ADAPTIVE APPROACHES

FOR REVIVING THE DYING

SPRINGS IN SIKKIM

A perennial spring at Namcheybong, Pakyong

Study of springs

Geology of Sikkim

Geohydrological study Atool to identify the spring recharge areas:

The Mountain Institute India (TMI India), Rural Management

Development Department (RMDD), Government of Sikkim, and

Advanced Centre for Water Resources Development and Management

(ACWADAM), Pune, have been carrying out the geo-hydrological study

of springs in Sikkim since February 2010. The reports and database of

more than 700 springs located in drought prone areas of Sikkim are

available at

TMI India is documenting conservation and protection of springs based

on TEKS of indigenous communities and their rich cultural, customary

and religious practices and systems. The farmers and women have

devised resilient social and ecological management practices to reduce

impact of climate change.

The geology of Sikkim consists of half-schistose, gneissose and

Precambrian daling group of rocks. The rocks belonging to Gondwana

Group (Rangit Pebble Slate and Damuda formations) are overlain by the

Precambrian rocks (Daling Group) and exposed in the 'Rangit Window' in

South and West districts of Sikkim. The Precambrian daling group of

rocks is found in a big part of the state of Sikkim and hence is a significant

part of Sikkim geology. The region taken up by this rock has a relatively

smaller age than the hilly regions of the state.

The Precambrian daling group of rocks consists of mica schists, biotite

phyllites and biotite quartzites of the Gorubathan formation, and

dolomite, limestone, and variegated phyllite of the Buxa formation. The

presence of schists and phyllites makes the slopes of the region prone to

erosion and weathering. Such geology is susceptible to natural disasters

like landslides which often separate the villages and towns from the well

developed areas of Sikkim.

Geohydrology is the science of groundwater which provides a better understanding of aquifers, thus providing ways andmeans for their sustainable management. Aquifers are saturated geological formations which yields sufficient quantitiesof water to springs and wells. In simple terms, they are groundwater storage system of rocks. For carrying out the rechargearea treatment, identification of spring catchments is critical. Therefore,geohydrology is involved. It is a detailed study of rocks, streams, andsprings of a springshed. In mountainous regions, the sources of spring-water are mostly shallow unconfined aquifers and “perched aquifers”(e.g. hilltop lakes).

Geohydrological study comprises the following:

First step: to study the geology and the type of rock(s) surrounding aparticular spring or its catchment to identify the extent and locationof the spring recharge areas.

Second: to identify the alignment of rock− its dip direction and dipamount.

Third: to locate the presence of openings, such as cracks,fractures, or faults in the rocks to classify the spring and also todelineate the recharge area(s).Different structural features at/nearthe spring described above control the accumulation andmovement of groundwater. This helps in identifying the rechargeareas of the springs.

Fourth: to conduct geohydrological mapping to construct ageohydrogical layout of the spring along with the conceptual modelof the spring recharge area and aquifer. It is a diagrammaticrepresentation of the entire springshed to be treated with artificialrecharge measures.

http://sikkimsprings.org.

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A completely disappeared spring at Tareythang

People wait overnight to collect water at Mungram, South Sikkim

Water testing for chemical contamination

Seasonal monitoring o spring discharge

Geohydrology study

Depression springs

Springs

Springs

Occur at topographic lows or depressions. They are

formed when water table reaches the surface due to

topographic undulations.

Formed at places where relatively permeable rocks

overlie rocks of low permeability. Such springs are

usually associated with perched aquifers in mountains.

Occur due to existence of jointed or permeable fracture zones in low permeability rocks. Springs are formed where these

fractures intersect the land surface. Movement of groundwater is mainly through fractures that may tap shallow as well as

deep aquifers.

Fracture springs

� Finally, catchment area treatment in the springshed through development of artificial recharge structures for

rainwater harvesting is carried out. This will reduce surface runoff and increase percolation, thereby resulting in

enhanced recharge of the spring aquifer, eventually leading to rise in spring discharge.

Geologists and researchers have classified springs into depression, contact, fault, fracture, and karst on the basis of geo-

hydrological features, catchment type, geology and adjacent structural features. Two types of springs are mostly seen

depending upon the occurrence of water viz., , those which have water throughout the year, and,

those which dry out during the lean dry/winter season.

perennial springs

seasonal springs,

Geohydrology and classification of springs in Sikkim

Karst springs

Occurs where an impermeable rock unit comes in

contact with an unconfined aquifer due to faulting.

Occur in limestone terrains which can be interconnected

to topographic depressions caused by sink holes

depressions in the ground surface cause due to the

dissolving of limestone below.

Contact springs

Spring

Phyllite

Quartzite

Quartzite

Phylitte

Springs

Fault Springs

Gneiss

Mica/Biotite Schists

Springs

Limestone

Karst

Springs

How and why are the springs in Sikkim disappearing?

TMI- India has recorded that several perennial springs

are turning seasonal and seasonal are drying up at

alarming levels. More than 25 springs in Melli Block

and around 30 perennial springs in Rhenock Block

have completely disappeared in the last 10-15 years.

Firstly, this situation is attributed to growing climate

change impacts in the form of shrinking of rainfall

periods or low rainfall seasons or prolonged drought

periods.

Secondly, rapid land use/cover changes due to

development activities such as road construction are

the major reasons of the disappearance of springs.

Thirdly, our focused group discussion, field observation

and geohydropogical study reveal that rivulets,

streams, springs, and water seepages are rapidly

disappearing in rural areas causing acute shortage of

drinking and irrigation water. Indigenous communities

also argued that use of dynamites in road construction

and in underground tunneling by projects are other

factors that develop cracks in aquifers resulting into

water loss. Similarly, it is widely observed that

cementation work has a terrible impact on springs

which alters their occurrence and reduces their

discharge or flow.

Fourthly, deforestation, forest fires, landslides and

earthquake are other serious factors for alteration of

perennial springs to seasonal or disappearance of

seasonal springs. In such events, inadequate amount

of water percolates down into the aquifers, preventing

the spring's recharge during the monsoon season and

causing it to essentially run out of water during the dry

season. Landslides in the spring catchments (mostly

human-induced) at/near the spring discharge points

are the causes of drying up of springs in Sumbuk Kartikey, Mellidara Paiyong, Mikkhola Kitam, Rong Bull and Lamaten

Tingmo (Sikkip Block) in South Sikkim; Chakhung, Deythang and Mendogaon Barbotay in West Sikkim; and in Pendam in

East Sikkim. TMI India more than 300 critical

springs in the East, South and West Sikkim. The details are uploaded in the spring web-portal

One example is at Ankuchen village in Linkey-

Tareythang GPU where all 8 perennial springs dried

out due to road construction in the last three years.

Major construction activities retard the percolation of

rainwater into the underground aquifers.

is monitoring seasonal discharge levels (monsoon and lean season) of

http://sikkimsprings.org.

Landslide due to road construction in thespring catchment at Kerabari, Linkey GPU

Tamley-chaur Lake completely dried out due to cementation work, SumbukDegradation of catchment of spring due to grazing and deforestation

Spring conservation and revival programme

Measuring impact of spring revival programme

Learning and success

The Mountain Institute-India, RMDD-Dhara Vikash Programme,

SIRD, Karfectar and ACWADAM, Pune initiated the identification

of catchments of springs through geo-hydrological approaches

for recharge area treatment. It is essentially done to identify

critical springs (high dependency and drying-up springs) and

carry out catchment development measures for water

rejuvenation. Several activities are involved in the process:

1. Identification of catchments of around 200 springs has

been done through Geo-hydrological assessment. This

includes details of spatial data of springs, land-use type,

spring catchment type and area, dependency (human and

livestock), physical parameters of water, geology of spring

(slope, rock type, soil type, dip direction/dip amount of

rock),spring type and spring discharge in litres/min (lpm).

2. Construction of artificial groundwater recharge structures

such as staggered trenches (2mx0.8mx0.6m) and

percolation tanks (10mx10mx0.6m) have been carried

out in Sumbuk area, Deythang, Ravongla, Duga,

Chujachen and Sudunglakha areas. The rainwater and

surface runoff is accumulated in these trenches/pits.

3. The average per hectare cost of construction work is

approx. 30,000/- depending upon the topography of the

area for catchment area treatment.

4. This is supplemented with catchment improvement

measures through agroforestry development for

enhanced spring-water recharge.

1. Discharge level measurement- the success of the Dhara Vikash initiative is being assessed by measuring the

increase or decrease of discharge of water from treated springs in the lean season. Accumulation of water in the

recharge structures is also monitored during rainy season.

2. Monitoring of plant saplings- proper/timely growth and survival of

the saplings planted between the trenches which is also an indicator

of the success of springshed development programme (Dhara

Vikash).

Springshed development carried out with the application of geo-

hydrological techniques and recharge structures in the five springs of

Sumbuk Kamerey showed that the lean period (March-April) discharge

increased by 4.4 to 14.4 litre/minute. The Malagiri Dhara of Sumbuk is

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Recharge area treatment by digging waterharvesting trenches in forest areas

Recharge area treatment by digging waterharvesting trenches in cultivated systems

Micro-planning at Tareythang

Agroforestry development in the spring catchments

one example where around 13 hectares of its catchment were treated by

constructing staggered contour trenches during 2010. Along the recharge

structures, plantation of important species such as mandarin orange and

broom grass and other species of farmers' interest have been carried out.

The result of the geo-hydrological techniques of spring revival has shown

that it is possible to supplement the natural recharge of the spring aquifer

by taking up artificial rainwater harvesting works in the recharge area.

The people's perceptions indicate that the discharge levels of the springs

have been increasing in some springs in Lunchok Kameray. However, the

better results would be evident after 3-4 years of regular monitoring.

Institution building for improved local water governance through the

formation of Water User Groups (WUGs) and Water and Sanitation

Committees (WSC) are examples for a social change towards increasing

participation of communities. Ward-wise WUGs and GPU wise WSCs

have been formed in Linkey-Tareythang, Sumbuk-Kartikey and Lunchok-

Kameray GPUs. These institutions are responsible for conducting

community consultations, conservation activities, dispute and conflict

resolution on ownership of water sources and sharing among households,

repair and maintenance, etc. Water resources (sources of springs) are

perceived as a public resource by communities, while majority of the

springs and their recharge areas are located in privately owned farmer's

fields. Thus, water supply and equitable sharing to other households

needs social mobilization process and customary regulations.

There are several water related issues such as lack of effective water resource management, underutilization of potential

water resources, weak sanitation, inequitable sharing of water, water transport and supply to households, etc. Capacity

building of the WUGs, WSCs, Panchayats, bare-foot engineers is regularly organized. The institution strengthening,

main-streaming and empowerment process is gradually evolving in Sikkim.

Several traditional, customary and cultural practices exist in

Sikkim which plays a crucial role in the protection and

conservation of water sources. Springs and their surrounding

sacred forests are called (abode of goddess), or

(hills-top, abode of deity), and are socially fenced with

strong belief systems. In the images of god and

goddess and stone monoliths are erected under the trees or

near the spring sources. A diversity of trees of religious and

cultural significance such as bar , peepal

, panisaj banana

, lampatey dhokrey

Devithan

Deurali

Devithans,

(Ficus drupacea) (Ficus

religiosa) (Terminalia myriocarpa), (Musa

paradisiaca) (Duabanga grandiflora),

Water governance and social change

Cultural dimension of spring conservation

Sansari puja, Bering

Malagiri Dhara, Sumbuk

(Brugmansia suaveolens), (Bischofia javanica),

Devi Puja, Sansari Puja Kalika Devi

Saatkanye Devi Nag Puja

“Nag Panchmi,”

nag Panchmi Shravana

Sukla

Anko Tsetay Anko Tsetay,

“Sansari Puja”

Chaitramash,

(Chandi Paath) Hawan

Kheer Ghee,

Jalkanye

Jalapa Singhadevi.

Devi Puja/Sansari Puja

kainjal etc. and

other water conserving species are planted.

(Goddess of rain), or

(seven goddesses) and are

performed at the springs almost every month in a year. The

main rituals of ethnic people falls on during

July-August ( =Serpent; =5th day of the

according to Lunar calendar). Bhutia community

performs ( spring and Chorten

depicting five elements of nature) in the springs.

(rituals to goddess) is organized during April-May

( 12th month of lunar calendar) that comprises

chanting of hymns and (making

offering into consecrated fire) by the priests. Some ethnic tribes

practice animal sacrifice (goat, sheep, pigeon) and offerings

(milk rice), flowers, fruits, vegetables, newly

harvested crops, etc. to the Goddesses− (water

goddess), and The indigenous

communities fear contaminating the spring-water source and

avoid pollution/defecation within the vicinity of the water

sources.

Environmental Impact Assessment should include

hydro-geological assessment for all hydropower projects and road constructions all over the Sikkim Himalaya.

Concrete and cementation activities have been proved lethal to springs, and thus should be

prohibited/discouraged at water sources.

Bio-engineering methods and check-dams for stabilizing landslides are important to protect springs.

Improper sanitation/open defecation severely affects/contaminates the spring water. Therefore, construction of

toilets with proper pits is absolutely necessary.

Traditional cultural practices towards spring conservation such as should be encouraged.

Proper disposal system of grey (soap) and black (detergent) water has to be devised.

Strengthening and empowerment of local institutions is important.

Water being a common pool natural resource requires broad national

and state perspectives on its nature, sustainability, equitability and

judicious use. Increasing resources utilization and demand, newer

technology, alteration of rainfall patterns and weak legal policy for

managing groundwater resources have led to a need in developing a

scientific and community based approach to managing the springs. In

the context of increasing water utilization pattern and demand both for

drinking and irrigation in the mountains, the complex geo-

hydrological systems and the increasing impacts of climate change,

collaborative and strategic approaches are utterly necessary in the

Sikkim Himalayan region.

TMI India acknowledges Arghyam Bangalore for funding; Dr.

Sandeep Tambe, RMDD Government of Sikkim for providing

collaborative support and expertise; ACWADAM, Pune and PSI, Dehra

Dun for training on geo-hydrology, and communities for participation.

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Environmental concerns and advocacy

Way forward and policy implications

Acknowledgements

Images of gods at spring source

Trees are symbols for spring conservation and culture

Manahang Dhara, Bering

Copyright ©TMI India

PhotocreditGhanashyam SharmaDurga P. Sharma

AuthorsGhanashyam SharmaDurga Prasad SharmaDilli Ram DahalEmail: durgapsharma2012@gmail.com

© TMI India

Published byThe Mountain Institute IndiaAbhilasha, Development AreaGangtok Sikkim-737101Tel:+91-3592-207942www.tmi-india.org