THE MOUNTAIN INSTITUTE-INDIA
Water in the form of springs
(locally called or
or or ) which
originate from the underground
unconfined aquifers is a vital
resource and a key element of
human life and well being.
Springs are the ground water
discharge points and serve as the
natural and immediate source of
drinking water in the mountain
region. Discharge from springs
may be constant or variable
depending upon the rainfall
pattern, geology of the area, rock
formation, slope, etc.
Since time immemorial these
springs are conserved and
protected through traditional
ecological knowledge systems
(TEKS) of the indigenous
communities. Most of these
sacred springs are surrounded by
a patch of forest meant for
recharging them. Sacred and
customary rituals by indigenous
communities serve as a social
bond and thus they are protected
from biotic interferences.
With the changing rainfall
patterns, these springs are drying
up because their aquifers are not
getting adequately recharged.
This is forcing farmers, mostly
rural women to walk long
distances to bring water to their
households. Conflict and disputes
due to scarcity of drinking water,
or on ownership of water sources,
or pipes crisscrossing each other's
courtyards or private land
holdings has become a common
phenomenon in the villages. The
drying of springs and scarcity of
water has accelerated the conflicts
and quarrels thus causing social
disharmony and disintegration of
social bonds between families or
communities or both.
Dharo Pandhero
Muhan Kuwa
ADAPTIVE APPROACHES
FOR REVIVING THE DYING
SPRINGS IN SIKKIM
A perennial spring at Namcheybong, Pakyong
Study of springs
Geology of Sikkim
Geohydrological study Atool to identify the spring recharge areas:
The Mountain Institute India (TMI India), Rural Management
Development Department (RMDD), Government of Sikkim, and
Advanced Centre for Water Resources Development and Management
(ACWADAM), Pune, have been carrying out the geo-hydrological study
of springs in Sikkim since February 2010. The reports and database of
more than 700 springs located in drought prone areas of Sikkim are
available at
TMI India is documenting conservation and protection of springs based
on TEKS of indigenous communities and their rich cultural, customary
and religious practices and systems. The farmers and women have
devised resilient social and ecological management practices to reduce
impact of climate change.
The geology of Sikkim consists of half-schistose, gneissose and
Precambrian daling group of rocks. The rocks belonging to Gondwana
Group (Rangit Pebble Slate and Damuda formations) are overlain by the
Precambrian rocks (Daling Group) and exposed in the 'Rangit Window' in
South and West districts of Sikkim. The Precambrian daling group of
rocks is found in a big part of the state of Sikkim and hence is a significant
part of Sikkim geology. The region taken up by this rock has a relatively
smaller age than the hilly regions of the state.
The Precambrian daling group of rocks consists of mica schists, biotite
phyllites and biotite quartzites of the Gorubathan formation, and
dolomite, limestone, and variegated phyllite of the Buxa formation. The
presence of schists and phyllites makes the slopes of the region prone to
erosion and weathering. Such geology is susceptible to natural disasters
like landslides which often separate the villages and towns from the well
developed areas of Sikkim.
Geohydrology is the science of groundwater which provides a better understanding of aquifers, thus providing ways andmeans for their sustainable management. Aquifers are saturated geological formations which yields sufficient quantitiesof water to springs and wells. In simple terms, they are groundwater storage system of rocks. For carrying out the rechargearea treatment, identification of spring catchments is critical. Therefore,geohydrology is involved. It is a detailed study of rocks, streams, andsprings of a springshed. In mountainous regions, the sources of spring-water are mostly shallow unconfined aquifers and “perched aquifers”(e.g. hilltop lakes).
Geohydrological study comprises the following:
First step: to study the geology and the type of rock(s) surrounding aparticular spring or its catchment to identify the extent and locationof the spring recharge areas.
Second: to identify the alignment of rock− its dip direction and dipamount.
Third: to locate the presence of openings, such as cracks,fractures, or faults in the rocks to classify the spring and also todelineate the recharge area(s).Different structural features at/nearthe spring described above control the accumulation andmovement of groundwater. This helps in identifying the rechargeareas of the springs.
Fourth: to conduct geohydrological mapping to construct ageohydrogical layout of the spring along with the conceptual modelof the spring recharge area and aquifer. It is a diagrammaticrepresentation of the entire springshed to be treated with artificialrecharge measures.
http://sikkimsprings.org.
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A completely disappeared spring at Tareythang
People wait overnight to collect water at Mungram, South Sikkim
Water testing for chemical contamination
Seasonal monitoring o spring discharge
Geohydrology study
Depression springs
Springs
Springs
Occur at topographic lows or depressions. They are
formed when water table reaches the surface due to
topographic undulations.
Formed at places where relatively permeable rocks
overlie rocks of low permeability. Such springs are
usually associated with perched aquifers in mountains.
Occur due to existence of jointed or permeable fracture zones in low permeability rocks. Springs are formed where these
fractures intersect the land surface. Movement of groundwater is mainly through fractures that may tap shallow as well as
deep aquifers.
Fracture springs
� Finally, catchment area treatment in the springshed through development of artificial recharge structures for
rainwater harvesting is carried out. This will reduce surface runoff and increase percolation, thereby resulting in
enhanced recharge of the spring aquifer, eventually leading to rise in spring discharge.
Geologists and researchers have classified springs into depression, contact, fault, fracture, and karst on the basis of geo-
hydrological features, catchment type, geology and adjacent structural features. Two types of springs are mostly seen
depending upon the occurrence of water viz., , those which have water throughout the year, and,
those which dry out during the lean dry/winter season.
perennial springs
seasonal springs,
Geohydrology and classification of springs in Sikkim
Karst springs
Occurs where an impermeable rock unit comes in
contact with an unconfined aquifer due to faulting.
Occur in limestone terrains which can be interconnected
to topographic depressions caused by sink holes
depressions in the ground surface cause due to the
dissolving of limestone below.
Contact springs
Spring
Phyllite
Quartzite
Quartzite
Phylitte
Springs
Fault Springs
Gneiss
Mica/Biotite Schists
Springs
Limestone
Karst
Springs
How and why are the springs in Sikkim disappearing?
TMI- India has recorded that several perennial springs
are turning seasonal and seasonal are drying up at
alarming levels. More than 25 springs in Melli Block
and around 30 perennial springs in Rhenock Block
have completely disappeared in the last 10-15 years.
Firstly, this situation is attributed to growing climate
change impacts in the form of shrinking of rainfall
periods or low rainfall seasons or prolonged drought
periods.
Secondly, rapid land use/cover changes due to
development activities such as road construction are
the major reasons of the disappearance of springs.
Thirdly, our focused group discussion, field observation
and geohydropogical study reveal that rivulets,
streams, springs, and water seepages are rapidly
disappearing in rural areas causing acute shortage of
drinking and irrigation water. Indigenous communities
also argued that use of dynamites in road construction
and in underground tunneling by projects are other
factors that develop cracks in aquifers resulting into
water loss. Similarly, it is widely observed that
cementation work has a terrible impact on springs
which alters their occurrence and reduces their
discharge or flow.
Fourthly, deforestation, forest fires, landslides and
earthquake are other serious factors for alteration of
perennial springs to seasonal or disappearance of
seasonal springs. In such events, inadequate amount
of water percolates down into the aquifers, preventing
the spring's recharge during the monsoon season and
causing it to essentially run out of water during the dry
season. Landslides in the spring catchments (mostly
human-induced) at/near the spring discharge points
are the causes of drying up of springs in Sumbuk Kartikey, Mellidara Paiyong, Mikkhola Kitam, Rong Bull and Lamaten
Tingmo (Sikkip Block) in South Sikkim; Chakhung, Deythang and Mendogaon Barbotay in West Sikkim; and in Pendam in
East Sikkim. TMI India more than 300 critical
springs in the East, South and West Sikkim. The details are uploaded in the spring web-portal
One example is at Ankuchen village in Linkey-
Tareythang GPU where all 8 perennial springs dried
out due to road construction in the last three years.
Major construction activities retard the percolation of
rainwater into the underground aquifers.
is monitoring seasonal discharge levels (monsoon and lean season) of
http://sikkimsprings.org.
Landslide due to road construction in thespring catchment at Kerabari, Linkey GPU
Tamley-chaur Lake completely dried out due to cementation work, SumbukDegradation of catchment of spring due to grazing and deforestation
Spring conservation and revival programme
Measuring impact of spring revival programme
Learning and success
The Mountain Institute-India, RMDD-Dhara Vikash Programme,
SIRD, Karfectar and ACWADAM, Pune initiated the identification
of catchments of springs through geo-hydrological approaches
for recharge area treatment. It is essentially done to identify
critical springs (high dependency and drying-up springs) and
carry out catchment development measures for water
rejuvenation. Several activities are involved in the process:
1. Identification of catchments of around 200 springs has
been done through Geo-hydrological assessment. This
includes details of spatial data of springs, land-use type,
spring catchment type and area, dependency (human and
livestock), physical parameters of water, geology of spring
(slope, rock type, soil type, dip direction/dip amount of
rock),spring type and spring discharge in litres/min (lpm).
2. Construction of artificial groundwater recharge structures
such as staggered trenches (2mx0.8mx0.6m) and
percolation tanks (10mx10mx0.6m) have been carried
out in Sumbuk area, Deythang, Ravongla, Duga,
Chujachen and Sudunglakha areas. The rainwater and
surface runoff is accumulated in these trenches/pits.
3. The average per hectare cost of construction work is
approx. 30,000/- depending upon the topography of the
area for catchment area treatment.
4. This is supplemented with catchment improvement
measures through agroforestry development for
enhanced spring-water recharge.
1. Discharge level measurement- the success of the Dhara Vikash initiative is being assessed by measuring the
increase or decrease of discharge of water from treated springs in the lean season. Accumulation of water in the
recharge structures is also monitored during rainy season.
2. Monitoring of plant saplings- proper/timely growth and survival of
the saplings planted between the trenches which is also an indicator
of the success of springshed development programme (Dhara
Vikash).
Springshed development carried out with the application of geo-
hydrological techniques and recharge structures in the five springs of
Sumbuk Kamerey showed that the lean period (March-April) discharge
increased by 4.4 to 14.4 litre/minute. The Malagiri Dhara of Sumbuk is
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Recharge area treatment by digging waterharvesting trenches in forest areas
Recharge area treatment by digging waterharvesting trenches in cultivated systems
Micro-planning at Tareythang
Agroforestry development in the spring catchments
one example where around 13 hectares of its catchment were treated by
constructing staggered contour trenches during 2010. Along the recharge
structures, plantation of important species such as mandarin orange and
broom grass and other species of farmers' interest have been carried out.
The result of the geo-hydrological techniques of spring revival has shown
that it is possible to supplement the natural recharge of the spring aquifer
by taking up artificial rainwater harvesting works in the recharge area.
The people's perceptions indicate that the discharge levels of the springs
have been increasing in some springs in Lunchok Kameray. However, the
better results would be evident after 3-4 years of regular monitoring.
Institution building for improved local water governance through the
formation of Water User Groups (WUGs) and Water and Sanitation
Committees (WSC) are examples for a social change towards increasing
participation of communities. Ward-wise WUGs and GPU wise WSCs
have been formed in Linkey-Tareythang, Sumbuk-Kartikey and Lunchok-
Kameray GPUs. These institutions are responsible for conducting
community consultations, conservation activities, dispute and conflict
resolution on ownership of water sources and sharing among households,
repair and maintenance, etc. Water resources (sources of springs) are
perceived as a public resource by communities, while majority of the
springs and their recharge areas are located in privately owned farmer's
fields. Thus, water supply and equitable sharing to other households
needs social mobilization process and customary regulations.
There are several water related issues such as lack of effective water resource management, underutilization of potential
water resources, weak sanitation, inequitable sharing of water, water transport and supply to households, etc. Capacity
building of the WUGs, WSCs, Panchayats, bare-foot engineers is regularly organized. The institution strengthening,
main-streaming and empowerment process is gradually evolving in Sikkim.
Several traditional, customary and cultural practices exist in
Sikkim which plays a crucial role in the protection and
conservation of water sources. Springs and their surrounding
sacred forests are called (abode of goddess), or
(hills-top, abode of deity), and are socially fenced with
strong belief systems. In the images of god and
goddess and stone monoliths are erected under the trees or
near the spring sources. A diversity of trees of religious and
cultural significance such as bar , peepal
, panisaj banana
, lampatey dhokrey
Devithan
Deurali
Devithans,
(Ficus drupacea) (Ficus
religiosa) (Terminalia myriocarpa), (Musa
paradisiaca) (Duabanga grandiflora),
Water governance and social change
Cultural dimension of spring conservation
Sansari puja, Bering
Malagiri Dhara, Sumbuk
(Brugmansia suaveolens), (Bischofia javanica),
Devi Puja, Sansari Puja Kalika Devi
Saatkanye Devi Nag Puja
“Nag Panchmi,”
nag Panchmi Shravana
Sukla
Anko Tsetay Anko Tsetay,
“Sansari Puja”
Chaitramash,
(Chandi Paath) Hawan
Kheer Ghee,
Jalkanye
Jalapa Singhadevi.
Devi Puja/Sansari Puja
kainjal etc. and
other water conserving species are planted.
(Goddess of rain), or
(seven goddesses) and are
performed at the springs almost every month in a year. The
main rituals of ethnic people falls on during
July-August ( =Serpent; =5th day of the
according to Lunar calendar). Bhutia community
performs ( spring and Chorten
depicting five elements of nature) in the springs.
(rituals to goddess) is organized during April-May
( 12th month of lunar calendar) that comprises
chanting of hymns and (making
offering into consecrated fire) by the priests. Some ethnic tribes
practice animal sacrifice (goat, sheep, pigeon) and offerings
(milk rice), flowers, fruits, vegetables, newly
harvested crops, etc. to the Goddesses− (water
goddess), and The indigenous
communities fear contaminating the spring-water source and
avoid pollution/defecation within the vicinity of the water
sources.
Environmental Impact Assessment should include
hydro-geological assessment for all hydropower projects and road constructions all over the Sikkim Himalaya.
Concrete and cementation activities have been proved lethal to springs, and thus should be
prohibited/discouraged at water sources.
Bio-engineering methods and check-dams for stabilizing landslides are important to protect springs.
Improper sanitation/open defecation severely affects/contaminates the spring water. Therefore, construction of
toilets with proper pits is absolutely necessary.
Traditional cultural practices towards spring conservation such as should be encouraged.
Proper disposal system of grey (soap) and black (detergent) water has to be devised.
Strengthening and empowerment of local institutions is important.
Water being a common pool natural resource requires broad national
and state perspectives on its nature, sustainability, equitability and
judicious use. Increasing resources utilization and demand, newer
technology, alteration of rainfall patterns and weak legal policy for
managing groundwater resources have led to a need in developing a
scientific and community based approach to managing the springs. In
the context of increasing water utilization pattern and demand both for
drinking and irrigation in the mountains, the complex geo-
hydrological systems and the increasing impacts of climate change,
collaborative and strategic approaches are utterly necessary in the
Sikkim Himalayan region.
TMI India acknowledges Arghyam Bangalore for funding; Dr.
Sandeep Tambe, RMDD Government of Sikkim for providing
collaborative support and expertise; ACWADAM, Pune and PSI, Dehra
Dun for training on geo-hydrology, and communities for participation.
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Environmental concerns and advocacy
Way forward and policy implications
Acknowledgements
Images of gods at spring source
Trees are symbols for spring conservation and culture
Manahang Dhara, Bering
Copyright ©TMI India
PhotocreditGhanashyam SharmaDurga P. Sharma
AuthorsGhanashyam SharmaDurga Prasad SharmaDilli Ram DahalEmail: [email protected]
© TMI India
Published byThe Mountain Institute IndiaAbhilasha, Development AreaGangtok Sikkim-737101Tel:+91-3592-207942www.tmi-india.org